Department of Chemistry, TJIT

Carbohydrades: carbohydrates are class of organic compounds, play a vital role in biology &
important source of energy.
Cellouse
 Cellulose is the most abundant organic compound on earth with a chemical formula
(C6H10O5)n.
 Cellulose is a complex carbohydrate consisting of oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen.
 It is chiral.
 It is tasteless.
 It is odour less.
 It is a polymers of β-D(+) glucose.
 C1 of one glucose unit is attached to C4 of other glucose unit through β-glycosidic linkage.
β(1→4)-glycosidic bonds
 It consists of 3000 or more units of glucose molecules.
 The basic structural component of plant cell walls
Structure of Cellulose

Cellulose based water filter

The fallowing properties make cellulose as attractive as filters

 High Porosity: Cellulose base water filter have a high porosity structure, which allows them
to remove undissolved particle effectively.
 Biodegradability: Cellulose base water filters are biodegradable
 Resistance: Cellulose based water filter have batter chemical resistivity
 Large surface area: Cellulose based water filter have a large surface area, which enhance
their filtration capability & it reduces frequency of replacing the filter.
 Mechanical strength: Cellulose filter have better mechanical strength
Advantages
 Cellulose based water filters are from renewable source
 It is nontoxic.

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 It is very safe.
 It produces clear water.
 It is cheaper one.
 Versatility: Cellulose based filter have different size and shape.

Disadvantages:

 It may undergo biodegradable during filtration period.

 Pours size cannot be uniform as in synthetic filters.
 Low resistance to high temperature
 Low filtration efficiency for heavy metals
 Low life span
 Difficult to sterilize
 Clog easily: Cellulose based water may clog easily.

Preparation of cellulose filters

 The properties such as strength, porosity & chemical resistivity depends on the source of
cellulose material.
 In the preparation of filter, cellulose were cut in to desire size and wash with water to remove
impurities.
 Cellulose is dried
 Layers of cellulose are formed by either stacking it or compacting it.
 The cellulose layers were attached to mesh to create filter medium.
 Cellulose is subjected to chemical treatment to modify it properties such as hydrophilicity
etc.
 Cellulose filters are assemble to housing
 Filter were tested to ensure that it meet the specifications ( Filtration ability & flow rate.)
.
Biopolymers: Biopolymers are polymers produced from natural sources
Biopolymers is r chemically synthesized from a biological material or biosynthesized by living
organisms.
Bioplastic: Bioplastics are a type of plastic that can be made from natural resources such as
vegetable oils and starches. Since bioplastics are plant-based products.
Advantages:
 They are biodegradable in nature
 They are from renewable source
Polylactic acid

Lactic Acid

 Lactic Acid is an organic acid

 It had a chemical formula C3H6O3.
 It is also known as milk acid.
 When milk sugar (lactose) undergoes fermentation, the product obtained is lactic acid.

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 It is found in cottage cheese, leban, sour milk, yoghurt, and Koumiss.

Poly lactic acid: It is a polymer of lactic acid. It is a bioplastic.

Synthesis: Lactic acid is produced by bacterial fermentation of sugarcane or from the
conversion of starch from corn.

Synthesis:
The direct condensation of lactic acid monomers yield polylactic acid. This process needs to be
carried out at less than 200 °C. This reaction generates one equivalent of water for every
condensation (esterification) step.

Properties:
 PLA can withstand temperatures of 110 °C.
 Introducing crosslink structures to enhance the mechanical properties of PLA polymers.
 PLA is soluble in a range of organic solvents.
 It is a thermoplastic
 It is transparent.
 It is biodegradable.
 It is nontoxic.
 It is Stable to UV radiation.

Applications:
 PLA is used in a large variety of consumer products such as disposable tableware,
 It is used for compost bags.
 It is used for sandbags, planting pots, binding tape and ropes.
 It is used for food packaging and loose-fill packaging material.
 It is used in the production of biodegradable textile.
 It is used in Agriculture mulch film
 It is used for netting for vegetation and weed prevention.
 It is used for disposable diapers.
 Use as medical implants in the form of anchors, screws, plates, pins, rods, and mesh.

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 It is used in bone engineering, a facial volume enhancer used for treating lipoatrophy of the
cheeks.
Advantages:
 Polylactic acid is a biodegradable
 It is nontoxic.
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs):
 Linear polyesters.
 They are produced by the bacteria to store carbon and energy.
 More than 150 different monomers can be combined within this family to give materials with
extremely different properties.
 PHAs are degraded upon exposure to soil, compost, or marine sediment.
Production of PHA bioplastic

PHA are produced by bacteria and micro-organisms.

It’s more appropriate to refer to it as biosynthesis than production.
A culture of a micro-organism are fed with nutrients, they multiply rapidly. Once the
population has reached a certain level, the nutrient composition is changed to force the
micro-organism to synthesize PHA.PHA is be stored by the micro- mrganisms. The PHA can
weight as much as 80 % of the organism’s dry weight. The biosynthesis of PHA is usually
caused by certain deficient conditions such as the lack of macro elements (phosphorus,
nitrogen, trace elements, oxygen) and the excess supply of carbon sources.

Note: If R group is change in molecule, the property of molecule will changes.

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Properties of PHA bioplastic

 PHA polymers are thermoplastic.
 Its melting point is 50OC.
 They are UV stable and have a low permeation of water.
 PHAs are soluble in halogenated solvents such chloroform, dichloromethane or
dichloromethane.
 It is similar mechanical strength like petroleum based polymer.
 It is biocompatibility.
 It is biodegradable, It liberated nontoxic compounds on degradation.
Applications:
 It is used for compost bags.
 It is used for sandbags, planting pots, binding tape and ropes.
 It is used for food packaging and loose-fill packaging material.
 It is used in the production of biodegradable textile.
 It is used in Agriculture mulch film
 It is used for netting for vegetation and weed prevention.
 It is used for disposable diapers.
 It is used in automobiles such air duck, head lamp covers etc.,

Nucleic Acids: Nucleic acids are chemical compounds that are found in nature. They carry
information in cells and make up genetic material. These acids are very common in all living
things, where they create, encode, and store information in every living cell of every life-
form on Earth.
Vaccine: A preparation that is used to stimulate the body's immune response against
diseases. Vaccines are usually administered through needle injections, but some can be
administered by mouth or sprayed into the nose.
DNA Vaccine: It is a third generation Vaccine.
The plasmid DNA of the pathogen is cloned & injected into animals, that develop immune
system. Or
A DNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that uses a piece of viral or bacterial DNA to stimulate
an immune response against the pathogen

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Advantages
 They can be made in a short time span.
 DNA vaccines are easy to transport and store.
 Easier than conventional vaccines.
 DNA vaccines may be very cheap.
 There is no risk to those who are making the vaccine.
 Easy to administrate.
 No side effect
 Long lasting protection.
Mechanism DNA Vaccine for Rabies :
 A DNA vaccine for rabies is a type of vaccine that uses a piece of rabies virus DNA to
stimulate an immune response against the virus.
 The plasmid DNA is circular in shape.
 Plasmid DNA independently exist in cell & not depends on replication mechanism of cell.
 Cloning the DNA Vaccine Construct: Introduce the target gene into the plasmid vector
using molecular cloning techniques.
 Amplification and Purification of the Plasmid DNA: Transform the recombinant plasmid
into bacteria and allow them to replicate. Then, isolate and purify the plasmid DNA from
the bacterial culture using methods such as alkaline lysis, followed by column purification
or other techniques.
 The vaccine works by introducing through intramuscular into the body, where it is taken up
by cells and used to produce viral proteins.
 These viral proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells, which triggers an immune
response and the production of antibodies against the rabies virus.
 In addition to producing antibodies, the immune system also generates memory B cells and
T cells.
 These cells "remember" the specific antigens from the rabies virus, enabling a quicker and
more effective immune response upon subsequent exposure.

RNA Vaccines for COVID-19:

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 RNA vaccines are a type of vaccine, to stimulate an immune response against the disease.
 The RNA of the pathogen is introducing into the host cell.
 It produces viral or bacterial proteins.
 These proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells, which triggers an immune
response and the production of antibodies against the pathogen.
Mechanism DNA Vaccine for Rabies :

 mRNA of COVID virus is isolated

 The vaccine works by introducing through intramuscular into the body, where it is taken
up by cells and used to produce viral proteins.
 These viral proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells, which triggers an
immune response and the production of antibodies against the rabies virus.
 In addition to producing antibodies, the immune system also generates memory B cells
and T cells.
 These cells "remember" the specific antigens from the rabies virus, enabling a quicker
and more effective immune response upon subsequent exposure.

To prepare an RNA vaccine, several steps need to be followed. Here's a general outline
of the process:
1. Identifying the target antigen: The specific antigen or protein that the vaccine aims to
target. This could be a surface protein found on a pathogen, such as a viral spike protein.
2. mRNA synthesis: Messenger RNA (mRNA) is synthesized in the laboratory for producing
the target antigen.
3. Formulation and encapsulation: The mRNA is then formulated to protect it from
degradation and facilitate its entry into cells.
4. Quality control and testing: The formulated RNA vaccine undergoes rigorous quality
control tests to ensure its stability, purity, and potency.
5. Distribution and storage: The vaccine is packaged and distributed to vaccination centers.
6. Administration: The RNA vaccine is administered to individuals through injection, usually
into the muscle or subcutaneous tissue. The mRNA enters the host cells, and the cells use it
as a blueprint to produce the target antigen.
7. Immune response and protection: Once the target antigen is produced within the cells, it is
displayed on the cell surface, triggering an immune response. The immune system recognizes
the antigen as foreign and mounts an immune response, including the production of
antibodies and activation of T cells. This immune response helps protect against future
infections by the target pathogen.

Proteins: Proteins are the polymers formed from amino acids, They are the essential parts of
the living system.
Amino acids are the building block of proteins.
There are twenty amino acids in nature are the integral part of proteins.
Amino acids are classified as
Essential amino acids: Essential amino acids are the amino acids which have to be taken in
through diet as they “CAN NOT” be produced by the body. There are 9 essential amino acids.
Nonessential amino: Non-essential acids need not be taken in through diet as they can be
produced by the body. There are 11 non-essential amino acids.

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Role of Proteins:
Proteins serve as
 Structural support.
 Biochemical catalysts.
 Hormones.
 Enzymes.
 Building blocks
 Initiators of cellular death.
Meat analogs of protein
Meat analogs resembling the texture of meat ( pork, beef, or chicken) are created from plant
proteins.
Examples:
 Tofu: Made from soybeans, tofu is a versatile meat analog that can be used in a variety of
dishes, including stir-fries, salads, and smoothies.
 Tempeh: Another soy-based product, tempeh is made from fermented soybeans and has a
nutty flavor and firm texture. It can be sliced and used in sandwiches or salads, or crumbled
and used as a meat substitute in tacos or spaghetti sauces.
 Seitan: Also known as wheat meat or wheat protein, seitan is made from wheat gluten and
has a chewy, meat-like texture. It can be used as a substitute for beef or pork in a variety of
dishes.
 Veggie burgers: Made from a variety of plant-based ingredients, including soy protein,
grains, and vegetables, veggie burgers are a popular meat analog that can be grilled or baked
and served on a bun.
 Meatless meatballs: Made from plant-based ingredients such as soy protein, grains, and
vegetables, meatless meatballs are a tasty and protein-rich alternative to traditional
meatballs.
 Plant-based sausages: Made from soy protein, pea protein, or other plant-based ingredients,
plant-based sausages are a convenient and protein-rich alternative to traditional sausages
Plant Based Proteins
 Plant-based proteins are proteins derived from plant sources, such as legumes, grains, nuts,
and seeds. They are becoming increasingly popular as a alternative to animal-based
 Sustainable: Plant-based protein sources are more environmentally sustainable than
animalbased sources, as they require fewer resources to produce and generate fewer
greenhouse gas emissions.
 Nutrient-rich: Many plant-based protein sources are also rich in other essential nutrients,
such as fiber, vitamins, and minerals.
 Versatile: Plant-based proteins can be used in a variety of ways, including as a protein
supplement, in smoothies, or as an ingredient in various recipes.
 Hypoallergenic: Plant-based proteins are often better tolerated than animal-based proteins,
making them a good option for people with food allergies or sensitivities.
 Cost-effective: Plant-based protein sources are often more affordable than animal-based
sources, making them a more accessible option for many people.
 Examples of plant-based proteins include soy protein, pea protein, lentil protein, chickpea
protein, and hemp protein.
Whey Proteins:
 When milk is processed to form cheese or yogurt, the remaining liquid is called whey.

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 It is commonly used as a protein supplement. Whey protein might improve the nutrient
content of the diet and also have effects on the immune system.
 People commonly use whey protein for improving athletic performance and increasing
strength.can help you increase strength, gain muscle, and lose significant amounts of body
fat.
 High doses can cause some side effects such as increased bowel movements, acne, nausea,
thirst, bloating, reduced appetite, tiredness, and headache.
Proteins deficiency:
 It leads to mental health.
 It leads to organ failure
 It leads to wasting and shrinkage of muscle tissues.
 It leads to weakness of immune system.
Excess of Proteins:
 Amyloidosis is a condition in which too much of a particular protein (amyloid) collects in the
organs.
 Amyloidosis can affect the heart, kidneys, liver, spleen, nervous system, stomach or
intestines.
Plant proteins
 Plant protein is a protein that is sourced exclusively from plants. (plant-sourced protein are
nuts, seeds, tofu, tempeh, seitan, certain grains, and even peas).
 There is a sub-group of plant proteins that people have recently been identifying by the name
of "pulses," as well. Pulses are large groups of plants that provide beans (such as black, pinto,
and kidney beans), chickpeas, lentils, and split peas.
 Plant proteins are highly nutritious. They provide an excellent source of fiber, vitamins, and
minerals.
Lipids:
 Lipids are fatty compounds They play essential roles in various biological processes. They
are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
 Lipids function to form membranes inside cells and to store energy.
 Lipids serve as a source of energy.
 Lipids provide insulation and protection for organs.
 Lipids act as signaling molecules.
Biodiesel: It is obtained by the from the transesterification of vegetable oil/fat and used as a
fuel in internal combustion engine.
 Synthesis It is produced by the transesterification of triglycerides / oils using methanol in
acidic or basic media.

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 Separation: After the tranesterification, the mixture is allowed to settle. The glycerol and
biodiesel phases separate due to their different densities.
 Washing and purification: The biodiesel is washed with water to remove any residual
impurities or catalyst traces.
 Post-treatment: The purified biodiesel can be further processed to meet specific
requirements.
Advantages
 It is clean-burning.
 It is a renewable source.
 It decreases the emission of carbon monoxide.
 It save foreign currency.
 It is easy to store.
 It is biodegradable.

Disadvantages
 Variation in Quality of Biodiesel.
 Not Suitable in Low Temperatures.
 Food Shortage.
 Clogging in Engine.
 Regional Suitability.
 Modified engine is required.
Detergents: Detergent is a surfactant or a mixture of surfactants with cleansing properties
when in dilute solutions
Mechanism:
The working principle of lipids as cleaning agents or detergents is based on their abilityto
dissolve grease and oils The lipids consists of two end —a polar hydrophilic head group and
a nonpolar hydrophobic tail. The hydrophobic regions of the lipid molecule surround grease
& oils and dissolve them, while the hydrophilic regions interact with water, allowing the
mixture to be rinsed away.

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Uses
 It is used in detergents
 It is used in soap
 It is used in laundry
Advantages
 It is biodegradable.
 It is from renewable source.
 It is more effective.
 It is Coast effective.
Glycerin is used as a humectant in soap products. (It maintains skin moister and protect it
from dryness).
Sensors: A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the
physical environment. The input can be light, heat, motion, moisture, pressure or any number
of other environmental phenomena.

Biosensors: A biosensor is an analytical device, used for the detection of a chemical

substance, that combines a biological component with a physicochemical detector.

Glucose oxidase in biosensors:

 Glucose oxidase (GOx) is an enzyme
 It is widely used in biosensors for glucose detection.
 It is very specific in the oxidation of glucose.
 Glucose oxidase is immobilized on a surface along of electrode.
 The electrode are made up of graphite.
 Electrode can detect the O2 or H2O2.
 It oxidizes the glucose into gluconic acid & produces protons & electrons.
 Glucose oxidase is reduced.
 Glucose oxiddase undergo oxidation using oxygen, electron & proton, Produces Hydrogen
peroxide.
 Glucouse oxidase regain its original state and ready for next reaction.
 The generated hydrogen peroxide or reduction in O2 or electron produced can be detected
and quantified, providing a measure of the glucose concentration in the sample.

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Application
 It is very specific.
 Quick result.
 Quantitative results.
 It is used to detect the glucose level.

Ex: Enzymes Used in Biosensors

 Lactate oxidase: Used in the determination of lactate levels in biological fluids, such as blood
and urine. The enzyme lactate oxidase oxidizes lactate to pyruvate, which is detected by
sensors.
 Cholinesterase: Used in the detection of organo phosphorus pesticides and nerve agents. The
enzyme cholineserase hydrolyzes acetylcholine & detected by sensors.
 Alkaline phosphatase : Used in the detection of inorganic phosphates in wastewater,
fertilizers etc. The enzyme Alkaline phosphate catalyzes the hydrolysis of phosphates &
detected by sensors.
 Urease: Used in the detection of urea levels in biological fluids (such as urine). Urease
catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea to produce ammonium and carbon dioxide & detected by
sensors.
 These are just a few examples of the many enzymes that can be used in biosensors to detect
and quantify a wide range of target analytes.

Enzyme: It is biological polymers that catalyze biochemical reactions in living organisms.

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Bleaching agents:
 Bleach is a chemical product that is used industrially or domestically to remove colour
(whitening) from fabric or fiber or to clean or to remove stains
 It is used for bleaching dirty clothes in the laundry and as a bleaching agent for cotton and
linen in the textile industry.
 The bleaching of paper is done using biological agents such as enzymes.
Biobleaching:
 Biobleaching is one of the promising alternatives for reducing/eliminating chlorine-based
chemicals in pulp-bleaching process.
 Lignolytic enzymes in bio-bleaching: Lignolytic enzymes refer to a group of enzymes
produced by certain fungi and bacteria that can degrade lignin
 Lignin: complex organic polymer ( Polyphenolic) deposited in the cell walls of many plants,
making them rigid and woody.
 Ligninolytic peroxidases are microbial enzymes involved in depolymerisation of lignin, a
plant cell wall polymer found in terrestrial plants.
 Occur: The major ligninolytic enzymes are laccase, lignin peroxidase, manganese
peroxidase, and versatile peroxidase.
Advantages
 They are specific in nature.
 They produce non toxic products.
 They are ecofriendly.
Uses
 These enzymes are used in the bio-bleaching process of pulp and paper industries.
 Ligninolytic enzymes play a key role in degradation and detoxification of lignocellulosic
waste in environment.

Enzymes in Textile processing

 Enzymes in textile industry is one of the most rapidly growing field in industrial
enzymology.
 The enzymes used in the textile field are amylases, catalase and laccase.
 Enzymes are using to remove the starch, degrading excess hydrogen peroxide, bleaching
textiles and degrading lignin.

Benefits of Using Enzymes in Textile Processing Industry

 Enzymes quicken the process by accelerating the rate of reaction.
 It reduces the process time.
 Enzymes can be recycled as catalysts as they accelerate the reaction without any change in
their chemical structure.
 Enzymes can be used at room temperature and milder conditions (PH).
 Enzymes are an eco-friendly and are bio-degradable, non-polluting, and safe to use.
 Enzymes are highly specific, Enzyme interfering with the other’s process and messing up
the textiles is less

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 There is no loss in the strength of cotton.

 It saves huge amount of water.
 Enzymatic process does not produce toxic waste.

Example:
Cotton and other textiles are bleached to remove the color and making the textiles white.
Usually, hydrogen peroxide is used as a bleaching agent which leads to fabric damage and high
use of water during the process. Pectinases, amyloglucosidases, and glucose oxidases for
bleaching leads to less fiber damage and less water usage. These are compatible with the
bleaching process due to their operating temperature range and active P H.
Amylases are used to remove starch-based size for improved and uniform wet processing.
Amylase is a hydrolytic enzyme which catalyses the breakdown of dietary starch to short chain
sugars, dextrin and maltose.

Enzymes in detergent formulation

Proteases, lipases, amylases are the major class of detergent enzymes, each provides specific
benefits for application in laundry and automatic dishwashing. Proteases are the first to be used
extensively in laundry detergents, which not only raise the level of cleaning, but also provide
environmental benefits.

Benefits of Using Enzymes in Textile Processing Industry

 Enzymes quicken the process by accelerating the rate of reaction.
 It reduces the process time.
 Enzymes can be recycled as catalysts as they accelerate the reaction without any change in
their chemical structure.
 Enzymes can be used at room temperature and milder conditions (PH).
 Enzymes are an eco-friendly and are bio-degradable, non-polluting, and safe to use.
 Enzymes are highly specific.
 There is no loss in the strength of cotton.
 It saves huge amount of water.
 Enzymatic process does not produce toxic waste.

 DNA Fingerprint Test: DNA fingerprinting, also called DNA typing, DNA profiling,
genetic fingerprinting, genotyping, or identity testing,
 DNA fingerprinting is a technique used in forensic science to identify an individual based on
their unique DNA profile
 DNA fingerprinting is used in a variety of situations, such as criminal investigations, other
forensic purposes and paternity testing.
Procedure
 It is almost impossible for a person to commit a crime without leaving behind a trace of his
or her DNA. (Hair, stains of blood, skin and even conventional fingerprints contain traces of
DNA). The sensitivity and evidential power of DNA Fingerprinting have impacted the way
crime scenes are being investigated.
 The samples in and around the crime area are collected and the DNA profiling with the
suspected person are matched.

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Applications:
 In wild life crime.
 In sexual offence.
 In Identification of Individuals from skeletal remains.
 In Disaster victim identification.
 In kinship analysis.
 In identification of missing persons.
 In Immigration cases.
 Bio-geographical ancestry analysis.

Questions:

 Define carbohydrates.
 Write the structure cellulose. Discuss the importance , advantages & disadvantage cellulose
base filters.
 Define bioplastics. Disuses the synthesis, properties& applications of Polylactic acid (PLA),
 Define bioplastics. Disuses the synthesis properties & applications of Polyhydroxyalkanoates
(PHA).
 Discuss the role of DNA Fingerprint in Forensic / crime detection.
 Define proteins. Discuss whey, meat analog & plant based proteins as a food.
 Define Nucleic acids. Discuss the mechanism DNA vaccine for Rabies.
 Discuss the advantages & mechanism DNA vaccine for Rabies.
 Define Vaccine. Discuss the advantages & mechanism RNA vaccine for COVID-19.
 Define biosensors. Discuss the role of glucose oxidase as biosensors.
 Define bio bleaching. Discuss the Lignolytic enzyme as bio bleaching.
 What are lipids? Discuss the synthesis of Biodiesel from lipids.
 What is biodiesel? Discuss the advantages & disadvantages of biodiesel.
 Discuss the advantages of lipid based detergets & soaps.
 Discuss the benefits and uses of plant-based proteins as alternatives to animal-based
proteins.

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