UNIT-II

1. Define speed droop in a governor system.

Speed droop in a governor system refers to the decrease in steady-state speed of a prime mover
as its load increases. It is typically expressed as a percentage of the rated speed and is essential for
stable parallel operation of multiple generators.
Mathematically, speed droop is given by

2. What is the purpose of a speed governing mechanism in a generator?

The purpose of a speed governing mechanism in a generator is to regulate the speed of the
prime mover (such as a turbine or engine) to maintain a stable system frequency. Since the frequency of
an AC generator is directly proportional to its rotational speed, the governor ensures that the generator
operates at a constant frequency, even as the load varies.
Key Functions of a Speed Governing Mechanism:
1. Maintains System Frequency: Ensures that the generator runs at the required speed to match
the system frequency (e.g., 50 Hz or 60 Hz).
2. Adjusts Power Output: Controls the fuel or steam input to the prime mover based on load
variations.
3. Prevents Over-speeding or Under-speeding: Protects the generator from excessive speed
fluctuations that could cause instability or mechanical damage.
4. Enables Load Sharing: In systems with multiple generators, droop control in the governor
allows proper load sharing among generators.

3. What happens if the speed regulation characteristics of two generators differ significantly?
If the speed regulation characteristics of two generators differ significantly, they will share the load
unevenly, with the generator having lower droop taking more load. This imbalance can lead to
frequency instability, causing fluctuations in system operation. In severe cases, power oscillations
(hunting) may occur, affecting system stability. To ensure proper load sharing and stable frequency,
generators should have compatible droop settings and be properly tuned.

4. How does load division occur between two generators connected in parallel?
Load division between two generators connected in parallel is determined by their governor
droop characteristics and real power (P) sharing for active load, as well as voltage regulation
settings for reactive power (Q) sharing. Generators with lower droop take more load, while
those with higher droop take less, ensuring stable operation. Similarly, reactive power sharing
depends on the voltage regulation settings of the Automatic Voltage Regulators (AVRs).
Proper tuning of droop and voltage settings ensures proportional load sharing and prevents
system instability.
5. What is load frequency control (LFC) in power systems?
Load Frequency Control (LFC) in power systems is a mechanism used to maintain system
frequency by adjusting the real power output of generators in response to load variations. It regulates
frequency deviations by controlling the governor settings of generators to match generation with
demand. Mathematically, the frequency deviation (Δf) is expressed as:

where ΔP is the change in load power, D is the system damping factor, and ∑Ki represents the integral
control action. LFC ensures stable frequency operation and maintains power balance in interconnected
systems.

6. How does a proportional-integral (PI) controller improve LFC performance?

A Proportional-Integral (PI) controller improves Load Frequency Control (LFC) performance
by reducing steady-state frequency deviations and enhancing system stability. The proportional (P) term
reacts to frequency deviations instantly, providing a quick corrective response, while the integral (I)
term eliminates long-term frequency errors by continuously adjusting the control input. The control
action can be expressed as:

where Kp is the proportional gain and Ki is the integral gain. By combining both actions, a PI controller
ensures better dynamic response and maintains frequency stability in power systems.

7. Define system inertia and its significance in dynamic analysis.

System inertia refers to the ability of a power system to resist sudden changes in frequency due
to disturbances, such as load variations or generator outages. It is primarily determined by the rotating
masses of synchronous generators and is represented by the inertia constant (H), expressed in seconds:

High inertia helps maintain frequency stability by slowing down frequency deviations, giving
control systems more time to respond. In dynamic analysis, system inertia plays a crucial role in
determining the rate of frequency change (df/dt) after a disturbance, affecting grid resilience and
stability.
8. Explain the dynamic response of a single-area system during a load disturbance.
During a load disturbance in a single-area system, the frequency initially deviates due to the
power imbalance, with the rate of frequency change given by:
Where, ΔP is the load change and H is the system inertia. The governor’s primary response adjusts the
generation based on droop control, partially restoring frequency. The secondary response from Load
Frequency Control (LFC) further corrects the frequency deviation, ensuring the system stabilizes and
returns to its nominal value.
9. Define the term “frequency bias coefficient” in a two-area system.
The frequency bias coefficient in a two-area system represents the sensitivity of each area’s
generation to frequency deviations, used in Load Frequency Control (LFC) to regulate the balance
between generation and load. It is denoted as Bi for area i, and it quantifies how much additional
generation (in MW) is required to counteract a 1 Hz deviation in system frequency. The frequency bias
coefficient is given by,

where ΔPi is the change in generation required, and Δf is the frequency deviation. It ensures proper load
sharing and frequency stability between interconnected areas.

10. How does the area control error (ACE) change in a two-area system?
In a two-area system, the Area Control Error (ACE) is a measure of the imbalance between the
generation and load in each area, considering both frequency deviation and the inter-area tie-line power
flow. The ACE for area iii is given by:

where: Δfi is the frequency deviation in area i, Ri is the frequency response characteristic (sensitivity)
of area i, ΔPtie is the deviation in the power exchanged through the tie-line between the two areas.
11. What is the role of a tie-line in an interconnected power system?
In an interconnected power system, a tie-line serves as a communication and power transfer link
between two or more areas or systems. Its primary role is to allow the exchange of electrical power,
helping balance the generation and load across different areas. Tie-lines enable the system to share
excess power from areas with surplus generation to areas facing a power deficit, promoting frequency
stability and reliable operation. Additionally, tie-lines play a critical role in load sharing during
disturbances and help reduce the risk of blackouts by providing inter-area support.
12. How does tie-line modeling contribute to system stability?
Tie-line modeling contributes to system stability by accurately representing the power exchange
between interconnected areas, which is crucial for load frequency control (LFC) and frequency
regulation in an interconnected power system. It models the flow of power between regions, allowing
the system to balance generation and load by adjusting generation in response to frequency deviations
and load changes. The tie-line's impact on system stability is captured by considering tie-line power
deviations in the Area Control Error (ACE), enabling corrective actions like adjusting generation in one
area to help stabilize the entire system. Proper modeling ensures efficient power sharing, minimizing
frequency fluctuations and enhancing overall grid reliability.

13. Draw and label the block diagram of a two-area power system.

14. For a two-area system with a frequency bias factor of 0.1 p.u., calculate the required tie-line
power flow for a load change of 0.5 p.u. in Area 1.
The tie-line power flow change (ΔPtie) in a two-area power system can be calculated using the frequency
bias factor and the load change in Area 1.

15. In a two-area system, the frequency deviation is 0.2 Hz and the tie-line power deviation is 0.1
p.u. Determine the corresponding area control error (ACE).
The Area Control Error (ACE) for a two-area power system is given by the formula:
ACE=ΔPtie+ BΔf
where:
ΔPtie= Tie-line power deviation (p.u.)
B = Frequency bias factor (p.u./Hz)
Δf = Frequency deviation (Hz)
Since the frequency bias factor (B) is not provided, we assume it as 1.0 p.u./Hz unless otherwise
specified.
Given Data:
Δf =0.2 Hz
ΔPtie =0.1 p.u.
Assuming B = 1.0 p.u./Hz
Calculation:
ACE=0.1+(1.0×0.2)
ACE=0.1+0.2=0.3 p.u.

16. How is steady-state frequency error minimized in a two-area system?

In a two-area system, the steady-state frequency error is minimized using Automatic Generation
Control (AGC), which incorporates integral control action to restore frequency to its nominal value. The
tie-line bias control ensures that each area regulates its generation based on the Area Control Error
(ACE), given by:
ACE=ΔPtie+B.Δf
where B is the frequency bias factor. While governor control provides an initial response, AGC with
economic load dispatch is essential for long-term frequency stability and optimal power sharing.

17. For a tie-line bias coefficient of 0.5 p.u. and a frequency deviation of 0.1 Hz, calculate the tie-
line power deviation.
The tie-line power deviation (ΔPtie) can be calculated using the Area Control Error (ACE) equation:
ACE =ΔPtie+B.Δf
Assuming that the ACE is zero in steady-state, we set:
ΔPtie=−B⋅ Δf
Given Data:
Tie-line bias coefficient (B) = 0.5 p.u./Hz
Frequency deviation (Δf) = 0.1 Hz
Calculation:
ΔPtie = − (0.5×0.1)
ΔPtie = − 0.05 p.u.

18. Analyze the impact of increasing the bias factor on system stability in tie-line control.
Increasing the bias factor (B) in tie-line control improves system stability by enhancing the response of
Automatic Generation Control (AGC) to frequency deviations. A higher bias factor results in a stronger
correction of both frequency and tie-line power deviations, leading to faster restoration of system
equilibrium. This helps in reducing oscillations and prevents large frequency deviations, thereby
improving the damping of disturbances. However, excessively high bias values may lead to over
correction and instability, so an optimal balance must be maintained.

19. What is the state variable representation in power system modeling?

In power system modeling, the state variable representation is a mathematical framework that describes
the dynamic behavior of the system using a set of state equations. It is generally expressed as:
𝑥̇ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢

y = Cx + Du
where:
x = State vector (e.g., generator rotor angles, frequencies)
x˙ = Time derivative of state variables
u = Input vector (e.g., load changes, control inputs)
y = Output vector (e.g., voltages, frequencies)
A,B,C,D = System matrices
This representation is widely used in stability analysis, load frequency control (LFC), and transient
stability studies. It provides a structured way to analyze system dynamics and design controllers for
maintaining system stability.

20. What are state variables, and why are they important in modeling power systems?
State variables in power systems are the minimum set of variables that fully describe the
system’s state at any given time. These typically include bus voltages (magnitude and phase angle) in
load flow studies and generator rotor angles and speeds in stability studies.
Importance of State Variables in Power System Modeling:
i) They are used in real-time monitoring, control strategies, and optimization of power system
operations.
ii) They reduces computational complexity by focusing only on critical parameters rather than the entire
system.

21. Explain the working principles of a hydraulic turbine speed governor. [Refer Haadi Saadat
Book P.No. 532]
22. Derive the differential equation governing the frequency deviation in a single-area power
system under load changes. [Refer Elgerd Book .No. 312]
The governor has two inputs. They are
23. Discuss the role of proportional-integral (PI) controllers in achieving steady-state frequency
regulation. [Refer Nagarath & Kothari Book P.No. 303]
24. A 1000 MW control area-1 is interconnected with a 5000 MW control area-2. The
1000 MW area has the system parameters given as, R=2 Hz/p.u MW, B=0.01 pu MW/Hz,
and increase in load, ΔPD1=0.01 pu MW. Area-2 has the same parameters R and B but in
terms of the 5000 MW base. Find the static frequency drop. (Refer Nagrath & Kothari
Book P.No 349)
25. Develop the state-space representation of a synchronous generator connected to an infinite bus.
A synchronous generator connected to an infinite bus is a common model used in power system
stability studies. The infinite bus represents a strong power system with constant voltage magnitude and
frequency.The state-space representation is derived using the swing equation (rotor dynamics) and the
electrical dynamics of the generator.
i) Defining state-space variables:
The synchronous generator's dynamics can be described using the following state variables:
Rotor angle deviation δ(relative to the infinite bus) x1 = δ
Rotor speed deviation ω (relative to synchronous speed) x2 = ω
Transient EMF in the q-axis Eq′ x3 = Eq′
Thus, the state vector is:

ii) Dynamic Equations

1. Rotor Angle Dynamics (Swing Equation)
The rate of change of rotor angle is given by:
dδ/dt= ω0 . ω
Where, δ is the rotor angle deviation; ω0 is the synchronous speed.
Thus,

2. Rotor Speed Dynamics (Swing Equation)

The swing equation describes the generator’s dynamic response:
Here, H = inertia constant (MJ/MVA); ω0 = synchronous speed (rad/s); Pm = mechanical input power
(p.u); Pe = electrical output power (p.u); ω = rotor speed deviation (per unit); D = damping coefficient
(per unit power per unit speed).

3. Transient EMF Dynamics

iii) State Space representation

The system can be written in matrix form as:

26. Consider a two-area interconnected power system with Area 1 having a generation of 800 MW
and Area 2 with 600 MW. If the tie line power is 200 MW, calculate the new tie line power and
area frequencies after a sudden load increase of 100 MW in Area 1. Assume nominal system
frequencies.
27. A governor with a droop setting of 5% is used in a thermal plant. If the nominal frequency is
50 Hz and the nominal generation is 500 MW, calculate the change in power generation when the
frequency drops to 49.5 Hz.
28. Perform a stability analysis for a two-area LFC system using state-space methods.

29. Derive the steady-state error in frequency response for a single-area LFC system subjected to
a step load change. How can an integral controller eliminate this error? [IInd part same as Q.No
23] [Refer Nagarath & Kothari P. No 301]
30. Two generators rated 200 MW and 400 MW are operating in parallel. The droop
characteristics of their governors are 4% and 5% respectively from no load to full load.
Assuming that the generators are operating at 50 Hz at no load, how would a load of 600
MW be shared between them? What will be the system frequency at this load? Assume
free governor operation. (Refer Nagrath & Kothari Book P.No. 301 or 327)

31. Describe the significance of frequency bias in tie line control.

Significance of Frequency Bias
i) Prevents Unnecessary Tie-Line Corrections
Without frequency bias, any frequency deviation would result in incorrect AGC corrections,
leading to unwanted power transfers between areas.
ii) Ensures Load Sharing Among Areas
A properly tuned B ensures that different areas share the frequency regulation burden
proportionally to their size and response capability.
iii) Maintains Frequency Stability
The bias factor helps distribute generation adjustments optimally so that frequency deviations
are corrected without causing oscillations.
iv) Economic and Reliable Operation
A well-designed frequency bias ensures efficient and economic dispatch of generation resources.
In an interconnected power system, multiple control areas exchange power through tie-lines. To
maintain system frequency and scheduled power exchange, Load Frequency Control (LFC) is used. A
key component of LFC is frequency bias, which determines how much power generation should adjust
in response to frequency deviations.
i) Area control error
The Area Control Error is the main signal used for Automatic Generation Control (AGC) and is
defined as:
ACE = ΔPtie + BΔf
Where, ΔPtie = tie-line power deviation from the scheduled value (MW); B = frequency bias factor
(MW/Hz); Δf = system frequency deviation (Hz). The ACE signal is used to adjust generator outputs to
balance the load.
ii) Role of Frequency Bias in Tie-Line Control
The primary response to frequency deviations is provided by the governor droop characteristic:
ΔPg = Δf / R
Where, ΔPg = change in generator output (MW); R = governor droop (Hz/MW).
This primary response stabilizes frequency temporarily but does not restore it to the nominal value.
The AGC system uses the ACE signal to adjust generator outputs to restore frequency:
ΔPg = −KAGC⋅ ACE
where KAGC is the AGC gain. By incorporating frequency bias B, AGC ensures that each area
contributes to frequency restoration based on its size and capability.
iii) Tie-Line Power Flow Regulation
The deviation in tie-line power can be expressed as:
ΔPtie=Pactual−Pscheduled
Where, Pactual is the real-time tie-line power flow, Pscheduled is the planned power exchange.
The tie-line control ensures that each area meets its scheduled power exchange while also supporting
system frequency stability.
The frequency bias setting is usually chosen as:
B = ∑1/Ri
 Where, Ri is the droop setting of each generator in the area. This ensures that each area
contributes to frequency regulation in proportion to its total generation capacity.

32. A step load increase of 0.3 p.u. occurs in Area 1. If the system gain is 2 and damping is
0.05, calculate the initial frequency drop in Area 1.
The initial frequency drop in Area 1 can be calculated using the following formula:

where, ΔP=0.3 p.u. (Step load increase in Area 1),

Β = System gain + Damping factor (D)
=2+D
=2 + 0.05
=2.05
D = Damping factor = 0.05

33. Two areas are interconnected by a tie-line. Area 1 has a frequency bias factor of 0.4 p.u., and
Area 2 has a bias factor of 0.3 p.u. If the tie-line power deviation is 0.2 p.u., calculate the ACE for
both areas.
The Area Control Error (ACE) for each area is calculated using the formula:
ACE=ΔPtie+B.Δf
Where, ΔPtie = Tie-line power deviation (0.2 p.u.)
B1 = Frequency bias factor for Area 1 (0.4 p.u.)
B2 = Frequency bias factor for Area 2 (0.3 p.u.)
Δf = Change in system frequency (Assuming both areas experience the same frequency deviation)
Step 1: Determination of Frequency Deviation
34. Explain how frequency regulation is achieved when two generators operate in parallel.
When two generators operate in parallel, frequency regulation is achieved through governor control,
droop characteristics, and load sharing mechanisms. Below is a detailed explanation with relevant
expressions.
1. Governor Action and Speed Regulation
Each generator is equipped with a governor, which regulates the prime mover's input power to maintain
frequency stability. The governor follows the speed regulation characteristic, which defines the
relationship between power output and frequency.
The governor characteristic is given by:
P = Pmax− R⋅ (f−fnominal)
Where, P = power output of the generator; Pmax = maximum power output; R = speed regulation
constant or droop; f = operating frequency; fnominal = nominal system frequency. When load increases,
the frequency decreases, and the governor increases fuel/steam input to restore frequency.
2. Droop Control for Load Sharing
In parallel operation, droop control is used to ensure proportional load sharing. The droop characteristic
is defined as:
Each generator follows its own droop characteristic, ensuring that generators share the load
proportionally
3. Load Sharing Between Two Generators
Let’s consider two generators operating in parallel with different droop settings. Their power-frequency
equations are:

4. Automatic Generation Control (AGC) and Frequency Adjustment

In large interconnected systems, Automatic Generation Control (AGC) helps maintain
frequency by adjusting generator power outputs in real-time. The frequency deviation signal is used to
correct power output:
ΔP = −B⋅ Δf
where:
B = frequency bias factor; ΔP = power correction; Δf = frequency deviation
AGC ensures that load changes are distributed optimally among generators while keeping frequency
deviations within acceptable limits.
5. Response to Load Changes
Load Increase: Frequency drops → Governors increase power → Frequency stabilizes
Load Decrease: Frequency rises → Governors decrease power → Frequency stabilizes
 35. Identify the key parameters influencing the dynamic response of a two-area LFC
system. How do these parameters affect system stability?
A two-area Load Frequency Control (LFC) system consists of two interconnected power system areas
where frequency and tie-line power deviations must be controlled. The dynamic response of such a
system is influenced by several key parameters:
1. Inertia Constant (H)
Represents the stored kinetic energy in the rotating masses of generators. A higher H leads to a
slower frequency response but enhances stability by reducing rapid frequency deviations.A lower H
causes larger frequency fluctuations, making the system more sensitive to disturbances.
Effect on Stability:
High H improves stability by reducing the rate of frequency deviation (df/dt). Low H makes the system
more vulnerable to transient disturbances.
2. Governor Speed Regulation (R) and Droop Characteristic
Determines how the governor adjusts power in response to frequency deviations. Higher R (larger droop)
results in slower power correction and reduced sensitivity. Lower R (smaller droop) leads to faster
power correction, improving dynamic response but making the system more oscillatory.
Effect on Stability:
Proper tuning of R is crucial to balance speed and damping.
Too small R → Fast correction but oscillatory behavior.
Too large R → Slow correction, reduced dynamic response.
3. Frequency bias factor (B)
Defines the relationship between frequency deviation and area control error (ACE).
Used in Automatic Generation Control (AGC) to adjust power output dynamically.
A higher B improves frequency stability by reducing frequency deviations.
Effect on Stability:
Low B may cause larger frequency swings.
Optimal B ensures proper frequency correction and minimizes oscillations.
4. Damping Factor (D)
Represents the inherent damping of the system due to generator damping and load characteristics.
Higher damping (D) reduces oscillations and stabilizes the system.
Effect on Stability:
Low D results in sustained oscillations or instability.
High D helps in damping frequency oscillations faster.
5. Tie-Line Power Flow Coefficients
The synchronizing coefficient (Tij) defines the strength of the interconnection between two areas.
Higher interconnection strength improves the ability of areas to support each other in frequency regulation.
Effect on Stability:
Weak tie-line coupling → Larger frequency deviations and instability.
 Strong tie-line coupling → Improved dynamic response and stability.
6. Integral and Proportional Gains in AGC (PI Controller Parameters: Kp,Ki)
Proportional gain (Kp): Determines the immediate response to frequency deviation.
Integral gain (Ki): Ensures steady-state error correction and restores frequency to nominal.
Effect on Stability:
Too high Kp → Fast response but oscillations.
Too low Kp → Slow response.
Proper Ki ensures long-term frequency restoration without introducing instability.
7. Load Damping Coefficient (DL)
Represents how much load changes with frequency.
A higher damping coefficient helps stabilize frequency by reducing deviations due to load changes.
Effect on Stability:
Higher DL improves frequency stability.
Low DL makes the system sensitive to load fluctuations.
8. Communication Delay in AGC
Any delay in signal transmission between control centers and generators affects the dynamic
response. Excessive delay can cause instability due to phase lag.
Effect on Stability:
Small delays are manageable.
Large delays can cause oscillatory or unstable behavior.

The stability of a two-area LFC system depends on proper tuning of the above parameters. Higher
inertia, optimal droop, adequate damping, proper integral gain settings, and strong tie-line coupling improve
stability. Improper tuning can lead to oscillations, frequency deviations, or even instability.
−𝟎. 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟏
36. Solve: A two-area system has the state matrix 𝐀 = [ ]. Determine the stability of
𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟑
the system by calculating the eigenvalues.
37. Explain the significance of a governor's speed regulation characteristic. [refer
Nagarath & Kothari Book P.No 292]
38. What is the impact of unequal governor droop on load sharing?
 In an interconnected power system, the load is shared among multiple generators based
on their governor droop settings. The droop characteristic defines how much a generator's
power output changes in response to frequency variations. If the droop settings are unequal, the
generators will not share the load proportionally. A generator with a lower droop setting will
take a larger portion of the load increase, while a generator with a higher droop setting will
contribute less. This can lead to overloading of certain generators and under utilization of
others, causing efficiency issues and potential frequency instability. If the mismatch is
significant, some generators may exceed their capacity, leading to tripping and further
instability in the system. To maintain proper load sharing and system stability, it is essential to
coordinate droop settings among all generators in the system.

39. What is the function of an integrator in the LFC system?

[Same as Q. No 23]

40. Differentiate between static and dynamic analysis of LFC. [Refer Elegerd book P.No.
318]
41. A single-area system has the following parameters: system frequency = 50 Hz, area
load = 800 MW, governor gain = 1, and load damping coefficient = 1.5. Compute the
steady-state frequency deviation when the load increases by 100 MW.
42. In a two-area system, Area 1 and Area 2 have base loads of 1000 MW and 800 MW,
respectively. The tie-line capacity is 200 MW. If a load of 50 MW increases in Area 1,
calculate the power flow on the tie-line and the frequency deviations in both areas.

43. Develop the state-space representation for a single-area LFC system with
proportional and integral control.

Load Frequency Control (LFC) is a critical aspect of power system operation, ensuring stable
system frequency despite variations in load demand. In a single-area power system, LFC
regulates frequency by adjusting the mechanical power input to the turbine through the
governor. The use of Proportional-Integral (PI) control improves system response by
eliminating steady-state error and enhancing dynamic performance.

A single-area power system consists of the following components:

Turbine-Governor System

Generator and Load Dynamics

PI Controller for Frequency Regulation

The system dynamics are typically represented using the following differential equations.

Swing Equation (Generator & Load Dynamics)

The relationship between the change in electrical power output and the change in system
frequency is:
The state-space representation of a single-area LFC system with PI control consists of four
state variables: frequency deviation, mechanical power change, governor control action, and
the integral of frequency deviation. This model allows for better control design, stability
analysis, and performance optimization of the system. The PI controller eliminates steady-state
error while ensuring dynamic stability, making it a preferred choice for LFC in modern power
systems.

44. Develop the mathematical model for a tie line connecting two areas. [Refer Nagrath
& Kothari Book P.No 307 & Elegerd Book P.No. 330]
45. Explain the impact of governor dead band and time constants on the performance of
speed governing systems. [Refer Nagarath & Kothari Book P.No. 321]