PACKAGING

In today's society, packaging is pervasive and essential. It surrounds, enhances and protects the
goods we buy, from processing and manufacturing through handling and storage to the final
consumer. Without packaging, materials handling would be a messy, inefficient and costly
exercise and modern consumer marketing would be virtually impossible.

Packaging lies at the very heart of the modern industry. Efficient packaging is a necessity for
almost every type of product. It is an essential link between the product makers and their
customers. Properly designed packaging is the main way of ensuring safe delivery to the final
user in good condition at an economical cost.

Despite the importance and key role which packaging plays, it is often regarded as a
necessary evil or an unnecessary cost. Furthermore, in the view of many consumers
packaging is, at best, somewhat superfluous, and, at worst, a serious waste of resources and
an environmental menace.

In a world where the quality of products is high, in many instances almost the only difference
between competitive brands lies in the packaging, and only packaging influences the selling
operations.

Packaging has been defined in a number of ways. A populist reference source defines
packaging as an industrial and marketing technique for containing, protecting, identifying and
facilitating the sale and distribution of agricultural, industrial and consumer products.

Packaging has been defined in several ways:

o A coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, distribution, storage, retailing

and end-use
o A means of ensuring safe delivery to the ultimate consumer in sound condition at
minimum overall cost
o A techno-economic function aimed at minimizing costs of delivery while maximizing
sales (and hence profits)

FUNCIONS OF PACKAGE
At its most fundamental, packaging contains, protects and preserves, and informs. At its most
sophisticated, it provides two more functions-those of selling and convenience. Four primary
and interconnected functions of packaging have been identified:

 containment,
 protection,
 convenience and
 communication

Containment

This function of packaging is so obvious as to be overlooked by many, but it is the most basic
function of packaging. Food products must be contained before they can be moved from one

Page 1 of 10
place to another. The containment function of packaging makes a huge contribution to
protecting the environment from the myriad of products that are moved from one place to
another on numerous occasions each day.

Protection

This is often regarded as the primary function of the package: to protect its contents from the
outside environmental effects of water, water vapor, gases, odors, microorganisms, dust,
shocks, vibrations, compressive forces, etc and to protect the environment from the product.
This is especially important for those products such as toxic chemicals which may seriously
damage the environment.

For the majority of food products, the protection afforded by the package is an essential part
of the preservation process. For example, aseptically packaged milk in paperboard laminate
cartons remains aseptic only for as long as the package provides protection; vacuum-
packaged meat will not achieve its desired shelf life if the package permits O2 to enter. In
general, once the integrity of the package is breached, the product is no longer preserved.

Convenience

Modern industrialized societies have seen tremendous changes in lifestyle, and the packaging
industry has had to respond to those changes, which have created a demand for greater
convenience in household products: foods that are pre-prepared and can be cooked or
reheated in a very short time, preferably without removing them from the package; reclosable
openings on drink bottles to permit consumption on the go; and so on. Thus, packaging plays
an important role in allowing products to be used conveniently.

Communication

There is an old saying that “a package must protect what it sells and sell what it protects”;
that is, the package functions as a “silent salesman.” The communication function serves as
the link between consumer and food processor. It contains mandatory information such as
weight, source, ingredients, and now, nutritional value and cautions for use required by law.
The modern methods of consumer marketing by the package through distinctive branding and
labeling enable supermarkets to function on a self-service basis. Consumers make purchasing
decisions using the numerous clues provided by the graphics and the distinctive shapes of the
packaging.

Other communication functions of the package include a Universal Product Code (UPC) that
can be read accurately and rapidly using modern scanning equipment at retail checkouts,
nutritional and ingredient information (including E-numbers for additives), and country of
origin.

TYPES OF CONTAINERS

Food packaging can be divided into primary, secondary, and tertiary types.

A primary container is one that comes in direct contact with the food, for example, a can or a
jar. Obviously, primary containers must be nontoxic and compatible with the food and cause
no color, flavor, or other foreign chemical reactions.

Page 2 of 10
A secondary container is an outer box, case, or wrapper that holds or unitizes several cans,
jars, or pouches together but does not contact the food directly. Secondary containers are a
necessary part of food packaging. It would not be possible to distribute products in glass jars,
for example, without the corrugated secondary carton to protect against breakage. Secondary
containers must protect the primary containers from damage during shipment and storage.
They must also prevent dirt and contaminants from soiling the primary containers and must
unitize groups of primary containers.

Tertiary containers group several secondary cartons together into pallet loads or shipping
units. The objective is to aid in the automated handling of larger amounts of products.
Typically, a forklift truck or similar equipment is used to move and transport these tertiary
loads.

PROPERTIES OF EFFECTIVE FOOD PACKAGING MATERIALS

Products must be protected against introduction of microorganisms as well as dirt. Gas and
odor protection works two ways. Off-odors should be sealed out, but desirable odors such as
the aroma of coffee or the essence of vanilla should be sealed in. Physical protection prevents
breakage of the package and subsequent product contamination. Resistance to product
damage from impact or other physical stress (such as protection of crackers from breaking) is
often a function of the secondary package. A transparent package is desirable because it
allows consumers to see what they are purchasing. Whereas most foods are light sensitive, at
least to some degree.

Some of the more important general requirements of food packaging materials are-

(1) be nontoxic,
(2) protect against contamination from microorganisms,
(3) act as a barrier to moisture loss or gain and oxygen ingress,
(4) protect against ingress of odors or environmental toxicants,
(5) filter out harmful UV light,
(6) provide resistance to physical damage,
(7) be transparent,
(8) be easy to open,
(9) be disposed of easily,
(10) meet size, shape, and weight requirements,
(11) have appearance, printability features,
(12) be low cost,
(13) be compatible with the food, and
(14) have special features such as unitizing groups of product together.

DETERIORATIVE FACTORS IN FOODSTUFF

 Intrinsic Parameters
 Water Activity
 Oxidation-Reduction Potential
 Extrinsic Parameters
 Temperature
 Relative Humidity
 Gas Atmosphere
Page 3 of 10
  Light
 Enzymic Reactions
 Chemical Reactions
 Lipid Oxidation
 Nonenzymic Browning
 Color Changes
 Flavor Changes
 Nutritional Changes
 Physical Changes
 Microbiological Changes

Knowledge of the kinds of deteriorative reactions that influence food quality is the first
step in developing food packaging that will minimize undesirable changes in quality and
maximize the development and maintenance of desirable properties. Deteriorative
reactions in foods are influenced by two factors: the nature of the food and its
surroundings. These factors are referred to as intrinsic and extrinsic parameters.

INTRINSIC PARAMETERS

Intrinsic parameters are an inherent part of the food and include water activity (aw), pH
and oxidation-reduction potential (Eh), O2 content, and product formulation, including the
presence of any preservatives or antioxidants.

Water Activity

The parameter aw is defined as the ratio of the water vapor pressure of a food to the vapor
pressure of pure water at the same temperature. The aw of most fresh foods is above 0.99.
Every microorganism has a limiting aw value below which it will not grow, form spores,
or produce toxic metabolites.

Oxidation-Reduction Potential

The oxidation-reduction potential (also referred to as the redox potential and abbreviated
Eh or ORP) is a physicochemical parameter that determines the oxidizing or reducing
properties of the medium, and it depends on the composition of the food, pH,
temperature, and, to a large extent, the concentration of dissolved O2 (DO). Eh plays an
important role in the cellular physiology of microorganisms, such as growth capacity,
enzyme expression, and thermal resistance.

EXTRINSIC PARAMETERS

Extrinsic factors that control the rates of deteriorative reactions include temperature, RH,
gas atmosphere, and light; packaging can, to varying degrees, influence the impact of
these factors on the rates of deteriorative reactions, depending on the specific packaging
material.

Temperature

Temperature is a key factor in determining the rates of deteriorative reactions, and in

certain situations the packaging material can affect the temperature of the food. This is
particularly so with packaging materials that have insulating properties, and these types of
packages are typically used for chilled and frozen foods.
Page 4 of 10
Relative Humidity

The RH of the ambient environment is important and can influence the aw of the food
unless the package provides an excellent barrier to water vapor. Many flexible plastic
packaging materials provide good moisture barriers, but none is completely impermeable,
thus limiting the shelf life of low aw foods.

Gas Atmosphere

The presence and concentration of gases in the environment surrounding the food have a
considerable influence on the growth of microorganisms, and the atmosphere inside the
package is often modified. The simplest way of modifying the atmosphere is vacuum
packaging, that is, removal of air (and thus O2) from a package prior to sealing; it can
have a beneficial effect by preventing the growth of aerobic microorganisms.

Light

Many deteriorative changes in the nutritional quality of foods are initiated or accelerated
by light. Modification of plastic materials can be achieved by incorporation of dyes or
application of coatings that absorb light at specific wavelengths.

ENZYMIC REACTIONS

From a food packaging point of view, knowledge of enzyme action is essential to a fuller
understanding of the implications of different forms of packaging. The importance of
enzymes to the food processor is often determined by the conditions prevailing within and
outside the food. Control of these conditions is necessary to control enzymic activity
during food processing and storage. The major factors useful in controlling enzyme
activity are temperature, aw, pH, chemicals that can inhibit enzyme action, alteration of
substrates, alteration of products, and preprocessing control.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Many of the chemical reactions that occur in foods can lead to deterioration in food
quality (both nutritional and sensory) or the impairment of food safety. The rates of these
chemical reactions are dependent on a variety of factors amenable to control by
packaging, including light, O2 concentration, temperature, and aw. Therefore, the package
can, in certain circumstances, play a major role in controlling these factors, and thus
indirectly the rate of the deteriorative chemical reactions.

Lipid Oxidation

Autoxidation is the reaction of molecular O2 by a free radical mechanism with

hydrocarbons and other compounds. The reaction of free radicals with O2 is extremely
rapid. The crucial role that autoxidation plays in the development of undesirable favors
and aromas in foods is well documented, and autoxidation is a major cause of food
deterioration.

Nonenzymic Browning

Nonenzymic browning (NEB) is one of the major deteriorative chemical reactions that
occur during storage of dried and concentrated foods.

Page 5 of 10
 Color Changes

Acceptability of color in a given food is influenced by many factors, including cultural,

geographical, and sociological aspects of the population. However, regardless of these
many factors, certain food groups are acceptable only if they fall within a certain color
range.

Flavor Changes

In fruits and vegetables, enzymically generated compounds derived from long-chain fatty
acids play an extremely important role in the formation of characteristic flavors. In
addition, these types of reactions can lead to important off-flavors. Enzyme-induced
oxidative breakdown of unsaturated fatty acids occurs extensively in plant tissues, and
this yields characteristic aromas associated with some ripening fruits and disrupted
tissues.

Nutritional Changes

The four major factors that influence nutrient degradation and can be controlled to
varying extents by packaging are light, O2 concentration, temperature, and aw. However,
because of the diverse nature of the various nutrients as well as the chemical
heterogeneity within each class of compounds and the complex interactions of these
variables, generalizations about nutrient degradation in foods are unhelpful.

PHYSICAL CHANGES

The physical properties of foods can be defined as those properties that lend themselves
to description and quantification by physical rather than chemical means and include
geometrical, thermal, optical, mechanical, rheological, electrical, and hydrodynamic
properties. Many of these physical properties are important and must be considered in the
design and operation of a successful packaging system.

MICROBIOLOGICAL CHANGES

Microorganisms can make both desirable and undesirable changes to the quality of foods,
depending on whether they are introduced as an essential part of the food preservation
process (e.g., as inoculum in food fermentations) or arise adventitiously and subsequently
grow to produce food spoilage. In the latter case, they reach readily observable
proportions only when they are present in the food in large numbers. As the initial
population or microbial load is usually small, observable levels are reached only after
extensive multiplication of the microorganisms in the food.

SHELF LIFE OF PACKAGED FOODSTUFF

The quality of most foods and beverages decreases with storage or holding time. Exceptions
include distilled spirits (particularly whiskeys and brandies) that develop desirable flavor
components during storage.

For the majority of foods and beverages in which quality decreases with time, it follows that
there will be a finite length of time before the product becomes unacceptable. This time from
production to unacceptability is referred to as shelf life. The Institute of Food Science and
Technology (IFST) in the United Kingdom has defined shelf life as “the period of time
during which the food product will remain safe; be certain to retain desired sensory,

Page 6 of 10
chemical, physical, microbiological and functional characteristics; and comply with any label
declaration of nutritional data when stored under the recommended conditions”.

Manufacturers generally attempt to provide the longest practicable shelf life. Supermarkets
will generally not accept the product into their distribution centers unless at least 75% of the
shelf life remains. Inadequate shelf life will often lead to consumer dissatisfaction and
complaints.

PACKAGING TO EXTEND SHELF-LIFE

Physical protection—Packaging can protect products from mechanical shock, vibration,

temperature changes and a whole slew of other things that can occur between manufacture
and purchase.

Barrier protection—Especially when perishable items are concerned, packaging protects the
product from dust, insects, germs, mold and other elements that could ruin the quality of a
product or spoil a consumer’s appetite. Metal cans and glass containers can be regarded as
essentially impermeable to the passage of gases, odors, and water vapor, but paper-based
packaging materials can be regarded as permeable. Plastics-based packaging materials
provide varying degrees of protection, depending largely on the nature of the polymers used
in their manufacture.

By decreasing intrinsic factors i.e. pH, water activity, enzymes, and concentration of reactive
compounds, packaging materials/ package extend shelf life. Many of these factors can be
controlled through the selection of raw materials and ingredients, as well as the choice of
processing parameters.

Extrinsic factors include temperature, RH, light, total and partial pressures of different gases,
and mechanical stresses, including consumer handling. Many of these factors can affect the
rates of deteriorative reactions that occur during the shelf life of a product. The properties of
the package can have a significant effect on many of the extrinsic factors and thus indirectly
on the rates of the deteriorative reactions. Thus, packaging extends product shelf life by
reducing external hazards of the products.

PRINCIPLE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF PROTECTIVE PACKAGING

UK code for the packaging of consumer goods

The prime function of packaging is to enable consumers to receive products (particularly

foods) in good condition at the lowest reasonable price. Any manufacturer, distributor or
retailer concerned with the design or use of packaging has a responsibility to ensure that there
is a regular review of packaging having regard to the economics of the total manufacturing/
distribution chain and to consideration of reuse (recycle) and disposal. Marketing and
commercial considerations should be reconciled as far as possible with economy in the use of
materials and energy, and the environment.

1. Packaging must comply with all legal requirements

2. In containing a product the package must be designed to use materials as
economically as practicable, while at the same time having regard to protection,
preservation and the presentation of the product

Page 7 of 10
 3. Packaging must adequately protect the contents under the normal foreseeable
conditions of distribution and retailing and in the home
4. The package must be constructed of materials that have no adverse effect on the
contents
5. The package must not contain any unnecessary void volume nor mislead as to the
amount, character or nature of the product it contains
6. The package should be convenient for the consumer to handle and use. Opening (and
reclosure where required) should either be obvious or indicated, convenient and
appropriate for the particular product and its use
7. All relevant information about the product should be presented concisely and clearly
on the package
8. The package should be designed with due regard to its possible effect on the
environment, its ultimate disposal, and to possible reuse and/or recycling where
possible.

Designing successful packaging

In order to design successful packaging four sets of facts must be considered-
• Product assessment
• The hazards of distribution
• Marketing requirements
• Packaging materials selection and machinery considerations.
Product assessment
All we need here are the answers to the question: How can the products be damaged or
deteriorate? Some of these are obvious from a visual examination; some can be ascertained
by simple measurements, whilst other information must be supplied by the designer and
producer.
The more important facts required are:
(a) The nature of the product- the materials from which it is made and the manner in
which these can deteriorate.
(b) Its size and shape.
(c) Its weight and density.
(d) Its weaknesses-which parts will break, bend, move about, and become loose,
scratched or abraded easily.
(e) Its strengths-which parts will withstand loads or pressures and which might be
suitable for locating the product in the pack.
(f) The effect of moisture and temperature changes on the product, and whether it will
absorb moisture or corrode.
(g) Compatibility-whether the product is likely to be affected by any of the possible
packaging materials, which items can be packed together, with protection if
necessary, and which items must not be packed together under any circumstances.

The hazards of distribution

Here we need the answer to the question of what happens to the package on its journey to the
consumer. It is necessary to know the method of transport, the probable storage conditions,
and the duration of both journey and storage.
Important points to establish are:
(a) The type of transport-road, rail, sea or air.
(b) The degree of control over the transport-is it private or public transport?
(c) The form of transport- freight container, postal, passenger, train etc.
(d) The nature and intensity of the mechanical and climatic hazards in transport, storage,
retailing and use.
Page 8 of 10
 (e) Whether handling aids are available for loading and off-loading at all points between
maker and user.

Marketing requirements
Here we need answers to such questions as: What is the product for? What is a convenient
quantity? Where is it to be sold? Why does it need packaging? In addition, specific
considerations may require to be taken into account, and the more important ones are as
follows.
 The package and the image: The package projects the image, not only of the product
which it contains, but often also of the company which sells the brand. It is essential
that the image that the package projects is completely integrated with the advertising
for the food product itself.
 Packaging and the self-service store: The designer must ensure that a pack at the
point of sale has the type of appeal which will make customers pick it up and put it
into their shopping baskets.
 The package and advertising: Colour predominates in advertising on TV, cinemas,
posters and many of the press media, so the package must be made of materials that
take and hold colours. The package design must take the limitations of the advertising
medium into account. A full colour representation of an appetizing dish which is
effective on the shelves of the supermarket may not integrate well with a black and
white picture in a newspaper.
 The package and the price of the product: We have to understand that the cost of
packaging bears only a general relationship to the cost of the end product. A
manufacturer will charge what he believes- through the use of market research-that
the customer is prepared to pay for his goods.

Packaging materials selection and machinery considerations

Among the factors playing an important part in selecting a packaging system for a specific
product are:
• Production methods
• Display requirements
• Economic considerations
• Properties of the packaging materials.
All these must be taken into account irrespective of the market involved. In considering
production methods it must be decided whether the packaging materials can be handled on
existing machinery. The degree of skill required by the packaging line operators may also be
an important factor. For example, if an existing package is redesigned, will the present
operators be able to handle it with or without retraining, or will new personnel be needed?
Although display requirements are largely the responsibility of marketing and advertising,
certain technical factors must be taken care of before final selection, e.g. the relation of the
packaging material to the printing process must be examined.
In general, in selecting a primary package for a particular food four basic questions must be
answered:
(1) What must the package achieve?
(2) What types of package are available that can do this?
(3) What are the pros and cons of each of the potential packages in the context of the
achievement required?
(4) What costs will result for each possibility in relation to the other elements of the
distribution system?

Page 9 of 10
Tips for effective package design
1. Design the package with your market in mind- Theme, colors, font and font size, word
choice, pictures—everything about your packaging should be geared directly towards
your target market. When your potential customer sees your product, they should
immediately identify with it.

2. Sell the benefits, not the features- Consumers don’t buy a product for its features; they
buy a product for what it can do for them. Point out how your product will save time,
enhance their quality of life, deliver superior safety, increase their productivity, or answer
some other need in their life.

3. Consider every square inch to sell your product- Think outside (or inside) the box—
literally and figuratively. See every surface as an opportunity to communicate with your
consumer.

4. Include unpacking instructions- Don’t make your customers guess. Include unpacking
instructions on the packaging itself so someone knows exactly how to handle your
product and avoid injuring themselves or their purchase in the process.

5. Use pictures instead of words (when appropriate) - Using universal symbols or easy-
to-interpret images will make your product more accessible to a wider market. The easier
you make it for people to understand what your packaging is saying, the more likely they
are to buy it.

6. Put your product to the test- Concepts, mock-ups and focus groups are a necessary part
of product design. Testing the package design and how consumers react to it and interact
with it before mass development can save time and money in the long run, ensuring your
package achieves its goals and sends the intended message.

Metal Packaging

Advantages

• The mechanical strength of metal packaging guarantees its lasting durability

• Total barrier properties against light, gases and liquids, ensure product quality and brand
performance
• Food packed in steel metal has equivalent vitamin content to freshly prepared, without
needing preserving agents
• From food to chemical products, metal for packaging offers unrivalled efficiency, safety
and performance
• Steel/ metal offers unique shaping, embossing and printing opportunities
Disadvantages
• Heavy
• Relatively higher cost (compared with eg. plastic) due to more density
• Higher cost of transportation of empty containers

Page 10 of 10