SUNDER DEEP COLLEGE OF MANAGEMENT & TECHNOLOGY,

GHAZIABAD
(Affiliated with CCSU, MEERUT)
Topic Covered_____________________________________________________
Lecture No. __________ Date & Time of Delivering______________________

Unit-5

Adhoc networks, Localization

Ad hoc networks, specifically Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs), are wireless
networks where devices communicate directly without a fixed
infrastructure. Localization in mobile computing involves determining the location
of a device or node within a network. In the context of ad hoc networks,
localization is crucial for various applications, especially those relying on location-
aware services.

Ad hoc Networks and MANETs:

 Definition:

Ad hoc networks, like MANETs, are self-organizing, infrastructure-less networks

where nodes communicate directly using wireless communication.

 Characteristics:

MANETs are dynamic, with nodes moving freely, resulting in constantly changing
network topologies.

 Applications:

MANETs are used in various scenarios, including military operations, disaster

relief, and emergency response, where infrastructure may be unavailable or
unreliable.

MAC issues
In mobile computing, MAC (Media Access Control) protocol issues arise primarily
due to the mobility of devices and the shared nature of the wireless
communication channel. These issues include challenges related to node mobility,
error-prone channels, synchronization, bandwidth efficiency, and quality of service
(QoS). Specific problems include hidden and exposed terminal problems, and the
need for efficient distributed coordination.

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 SUNDER DEEP COLLEGE OF MANAGEMENT & TECHNOLOGY,
GHAZIABAD
(Affiliated with CCSU, MEERUT)
Topic Covered_____________________________________________________
Lecture No. __________ Date & Time of Delivering______________________

Key MAC Issues in Mobile Computing:

 Node Mobility:

Mobile devices constantly change their location, which requires the MAC protocol
to track these changes to ensure efficient and reliable communication.

 Error-Prone Shared Channels:

Wireless communication is inherently prone to errors and collisions due to

interference and the shared nature of the channel.

 Synchronization:

Maintaining synchronization between different devices is crucial for efficient

communication, especially in mobile environments where time changes
frequently.

 Hidden and Exposed Terminal Problems:

In a wireless network, a node may be hidden from other nodes that are trying to
communicate, and vice versa, leading to collisions. Similarly, an exposed terminal
may be able to "hear" a transmission but not be able to send its own because
another node is busy with a different transmission.

 Bandwidth Efficiency:

Maximizing bandwidth utilization is crucial in mobile computing, where resources

are often limited.

 Quality of Service (QoS):

Ensuring the desired level of service for different types of applications, such as
voice and video, is important in mobile computing.

 Security:

Mobile environments are vulnerable to attacks, and secure communication is

essential.

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 SUNDER DEEP COLLEGE OF MANAGEMENT & TECHNOLOGY,
GHAZIABAD
(Affiliated with CCSU, MEERUT)
Topic Covered_____________________________________________________
Lecture No. __________ Date & Time of Delivering______________________

 Distributed Coordination:

In mobile networks, MAC protocols need to coordinate the access of multiple

nodes to the shared channel without relying on a centralized controller.

MANET Routing Protocols

In Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET), nodes do not know the topology of their
network, instead they have to discover it by their own as the topology in the ad-
hoc network is dynamic topology. The basic rules is that a new node whenever
enters into an ad-hoc network, must announce its arrival and presence and should
also listen to similar announcement broadcasts made by other mobile nodes.

1. Pro-active routing protocols: These are also known as table-driven routing

protocols. Each mobile node maintains a separate routing table which contains
the information of the routes to all the possible destination mobile nodes.

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 SUNDER DEEP COLLEGE OF MANAGEMENT & TECHNOLOGY,
GHAZIABAD
(Affiliated with CCSU, MEERUT)
Topic Covered_____________________________________________________
Lecture No. __________ Date & Time of Delivering______________________

Since the topology in the mobile ad-hoc network is dynamic, these routing tables
are updated periodically as and when the network topology changes. It has a
limitation that it doesn't work well for the large networks as the entries in the
routing table becomes too large since they need to maintain the route information
to all possible nodes.

2. Reactive routing protocols: These are also known as on-demand routing

protocol. In this type of routing, the route is discovered only when it is
required/needed. The process of route discovery occurs by flooding the route
request packets throughout the mobile network. It consists of two major phases
namely, route discovery and route maintenance.

3. Hybrid Routing protocol: It basically combines the advantages of both,

reactive and pro-active routing protocols. These protocols are adaptive in nature
and adapts according to the zone and position of the source and destination
mobile nodes. One of the most popular hybrid routing protocol is Zone Routing
Protocol (ZRP).

Characteristics of MANET Routing Protocol:

To avoid the problems with routing in MANET, routing protocols should have
following characteristics:

 It should be widely distributed.

 It must be localized.

 Because of nodes mobility, it should be adjustable to frequent change in

topology.

 It must be free of impermeable routes.

Global State Routing (GSR):

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 SUNDER DEEP COLLEGE OF MANAGEMENT & TECHNOLOGY,
GHAZIABAD
(Affiliated with CCSU, MEERUT)
Topic Covered_____________________________________________________
Lecture No. __________ Date & Time of Delivering______________________

It is a pro-active/table driven routing protocol.

• Global State Routing is the extension of link state routing protocol which is
the protocol of wired networks.
• It is based on Dijkstra’s routing algorithm.
• Link state routing protocol was not suited for mobile ad-hoc networks
because, in it, each node floods the link state routing information directly
into the whole network i.e. Global flooding which may lead to the congestion
of control packets in the network. Hence as a solution, Global State Routing
Protocol (GSR) came into existence.
• Global State Routing is based on the concepts of link-state routing.
• In Link State Routing(LSR), one of the node floods out a single routing table
information to its neighbors and those neighbors floods out that table to
further nodes.
• This process continue to take place until the routing table is received by all
the nodes throughout the network.
• But in case of Global State Routing, the routing table of a particular node
is broadcast-ed to its immediate neighbours only.
• Then initial tables of those neighbouring nodes are updated.
• These updated tables are further broadcast one by one and this process
continue to take place until all the nodes broadcasts their tables to each
node in the network.

Distance Vector Routing (DVR) Protocol

Distance Vector Routing (DVR) Protocol is a method used by routers to find the
best path for data to travel across a network. Each router keeps a table that shows
the shortest distance to every other router, based on the number of hops (or
steps) needed to reach them. Routers share this information with their neighbours,

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 SUNDER DEEP COLLEGE OF MANAGEMENT & TECHNOLOGY,
GHAZIABAD
(Affiliated with CCSU, MEERUT)
Topic Covered_____________________________________________________
Lecture No. __________ Date & Time of Delivering______________________

allowing them to update their tables and find the most efficient routes. This
protocol helps ensure that data moves quickly and smoothly through the network.

How Distance Vector Algorithm works?

 A router transmits its distance vector to each of its neighbours in a routing

packet.

 Each router receives and saves the most recently received distance vector
from each of its neighbours.

 A router recalculates its distance vector when:

o It receives a distance vector from a neighbour containing different
information than before.
o It discovers that a link to a neighbour has gone down.

Dynamic source routing (DSR)

Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) is a reactive routing protocol used in mobile ad

hoc networks (MANETs). It's designed to establish routes on demand, meaning a
route is only created when needed for data transmission. DSR differs from other
reactive protocols like AODV by explicitly including the complete path to the
destination in the data packet itself. This allows nodes to forward packets directly
based on the route information, rather than relying on local routing tables.

Here's a more detailed breakdown of DSR:

Key Features:

 Reactive Routing: Routes are established only when needed for data
transmission.
 Source Routing: The source node determines the entire path and includes
it in the data packet header.
 Route Discovery: DSR uses route request and reply messages to find
available paths.
 Route Maintenance: DSR includes mechanisms to repair routes that
become broken due to network topology changes.

Adhoc on demand distance vector routing (AODV)

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 SUNDER DEEP COLLEGE OF MANAGEMENT & TECHNOLOGY,
GHAZIABAD
(Affiliated with CCSU, MEERUT)
Topic Covered_____________________________________________________
Lecture No. __________ Date & Time of Delivering______________________

Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing is a reactive routing protocol

used in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), enabling dynamic, self-starting,
multihop communication between mobile nodes. It's known for its efficiency in
establishing routes only when needed, reducing overhead and adapting quickly
to changing network conditions. AODV leverages destination sequence numbers
to ensure loop-free routing and quick convergence when network topology
changes, making it suitable for dynamic environments.

Here's a more detailed explanation:

Key Features and Functionality:

 On-Demand Routing:

AODV establishes routes only when a node needs to communicate with a specific
destination, minimizing the need to maintain routes that aren't in use.

 Route Discovery:

When a node wants to send data to a destination, it initiates a route request

(RREQ) to find a path.

 Route Maintenance:

AODV dynamically updates routes as needed, reacting to link failures and

topology changes.

 Loop-Free Routing:

Destination sequence numbers (DestSeqNum) are used to prevent routing loops,

ensuring reliable and efficient communication.

 Efficiency:

AODV reduces network overhead compared to protocols that require periodic

routing advertisements.

 Adaptability:

Temporary ordered routing algorithm (TORA)

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 SUNDER DEEP COLLEGE OF MANAGEMENT & TECHNOLOGY,
GHAZIABAD
(Affiliated with CCSU, MEERUT)
Topic Covered_____________________________________________________
Lecture No. __________ Date & Time of Delivering______________________

It adapts quickly to dynamic link conditions and network topology changes,

making it suitable for mobile environments where nodes move and link
connectivity can change rapidly.

The Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) is a distributed, on-demand

routing protocol used in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs). It's designed to be
adaptive and efficient in dynamic environments, offering multiple loop-free paths
for data transmission. TORA utilizes a link reversal approach, allowing for route
creation, maintenance, and erasure based on a set of rules.

Key Features and Characteristics of TORA:

 On-demand routing:

Routes are discovered only when needed, reducing overhead in low-traffic

scenarios.

 Multiple paths:

TORA can establish multiple routes between source and destination, improving
reliability and resilience.

 Distributed:

TORA operates without a central controller, making it scalable and robust in

dynamic networks.

 Link reversal:

It relies on a link reversal approach to create and maintain routes, allowing for
efficient route discovery and updates.

 Adaptability:

TORA can adapt to changes in network topology, including node mobility and link
failures, ensuring continuous communication.

 Loop-free:

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 SUNDER DEEP COLLEGE OF MANAGEMENT & TECHNOLOGY,
GHAZIABAD
(Affiliated with CCSU, MEERUT)
Topic Covered_____________________________________________________
Lecture No. __________ Date & Time of Delivering______________________

The algorithm ensures that no loops are formed in the routes, preventing
unnecessary message propagation.

 Localization of control messages:

TORA focuses control messages to a localized portion of the network, reducing

overhead in larger networks.

QoS in Adhoc Networks (Quality of Service)

Quality of Service (QoS) in Adhoc Networks refers to the ability of the network to
provide better service to selected network traffic over various technologies. In
Adhoc networks, ensuring QoS is challenging due to dynamic topology, limited
bandwidth, and lack of centralized control.

Key Points:

1. Definition of QoS:
QoS refers to the overall performance of the network, particularly in terms
of transmission quality and service availability. It ensures reliable data
delivery with minimal delay, jitter, and packet loss.
2. Challenges in Adhoc Networks:
o Dynamic Topology: Nodes frequently move, which causes route
breakages.
o Limited Bandwidth: Wireless links have constrained capacity
compared to wired links.
o Power Constraints: Nodes often run on batteries, limiting
performance.
o No Central Coordination: Lack of fixed infrastructure complicates
resource management.
3. QoS Parameters:

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 SUNDER DEEP COLLEGE OF MANAGEMENT & TECHNOLOGY,
GHAZIABAD
(Affiliated with CCSU, MEERUT)
Topic Covered_____________________________________________________
Lecture No. __________ Date & Time of Delivering______________________

o Bandwidth: Ensuring a minimum rate of data transfer.

o Delay: Time taken for a packet to reach its destination.
o Jitter: Variation in packet arrival time.
o Packet Loss: Number of lost packets during transmission.
4. QoS Mechanisms:
o Resource Reservation: Reserving bandwidth and other resources in
advance.
o Traffic Prioritization: Prioritizing real-time traffic like voice/video.
o QoS-aware Routing Protocols: Protocols like AODV and DSR can
be modified to consider QoS parameters while selecting paths.
5. QoS Routing Protocols:
o INSIGNIA: Supports soft reservation of resources.
o AQOR (Adhoc QoS On-demand Routing): Uses bandwidth and
delay as metrics.
o CEDAR: Establishes stable core nodes to manage QoS paths.
6. Applications of QoS in Adhoc Networks:
o Military communications
o Disaster recovery
o Emergency services
o Real-time video and voice transmission

Applications of Mobile Computing

Mobile computing has transformed the way people access information and
services. It allows data, voice, and video to be transmitted via wireless devices
without needing a fixed physical connection.

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 SUNDER DEEP COLLEGE OF MANAGEMENT & TECHNOLOGY,
GHAZIABAD
(Affiliated with CCSU, MEERUT)
Topic Covered_____________________________________________________
Lecture No. __________ Date & Time of Delivering______________________

1. Mobile Banking & Financial Services

 Users can check account balances, transfer funds, pay bills, and perform
other financial transactions using banking apps.
 Secure authentication and encryption are used for safe access.

2. E-commerce & Online Shopping

 Mobile apps like Amazon, Flipkart, and Myntra allow users to shop anytime,
anywhere.
 Features include order tracking, secure payments, and personalized
recommendations.

3. Transportation & Ride Sharing

 Apps like Uber and Ola help users book rides instantly.
 Real-time location tracking, fare estimation, and driver ratings are enabled
via mobile computing.

4. Healthcare Services

 Doctors and patients use mobile devices for telemedicine, appointment

booking, remote monitoring, and accessing health records.
 Ambulance and emergency services use GPS for faster response.

5. Education & e-Learning

 Platforms like BYJU’S, Coursera, and Khan Academy allow students to learn
on the go.
 Features include live classes, recorded lectures, quizzes, and progress
tracking.

6. Field Service & Remote Work

 Sales agents, service technicians, and delivery personnel use mobile

devices to update reports, track orders, and communicate with offices.
 Enables real-time data collection and task updates.

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 SUNDER DEEP COLLEGE OF MANAGEMENT & TECHNOLOGY,
GHAZIABAD
(Affiliated with CCSU, MEERUT)
Topic Covered_____________________________________________________
Lecture No. __________ Date & Time of Delivering______________________

7. Internet Browsing & Communication

 Apps for emails, video calls (Zoom, Google Meet), messaging (WhatsApp,
Telegram) use mobile networks to function.
 Seamless access to internet resources.

8. Gaming and Entertainment

 Games like PUBG, Free Fire, and apps like Netflix, YouTube allow mobile
users to enjoy HD content and interactive experiences.
 Uses streaming and cloud technologies.

9. GPS & Navigation

 Google Maps, Waze, etc., help in real-time navigation and traffic updates.
 Useful for delivery, transport, and tourism services.

10. Business & Enterprise Applications

 Mobile computing allows employees to access emails, CRM systems, and

business tools remotely.
 Increases flexibility and productivity.

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