DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF SOLAR AGRO SPRAYER SYSTEM

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

IRFANTAUFIQ S 8115U22ME015
KILASHVISWANATHAN B 8115U22ME021
KOWSSHIGAN KS 8115U22ME028
SATHYANAND R 8115U22ME048

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
In

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

K. RAMAKRISHNAN COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
SAMAYAPURAM, TRICHY – 621 112

ANNAUNIVERSITY
CHENNAI - 600 025

JUNE 2025
DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF SOLAR AGRO SPRAYER SYSTEM

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

IRFANTAUFIQ S 8115U22ME015
KILASHVISWANATHAN B 8115U22ME021
KOWSSHIGAN KS 8115U22ME028
SATHYANAND R 8115U22ME048

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
In

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

K. RAMAKRISHNAN COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
SAMAYAPURAM, TRICHY – 621 112

ANNAUNIVERSITY
CHENNAI - 600 025

JUNE 2025

i
 K. RAMAKRISHNAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(AUTONOMOUS)
UNDER
ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation entitled “DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF SOLAR
AGRO SPRAYAER SYSTEM” is a Bonafide work carried out by Mr. IRFANTAUFIQ S Reg.
No 8115U22ME015, Mr.KILASHVISWANATHAN B Reg. No 8115U22ME021, Mr.
KOWSSHIGAN KS Reg No 8115U22ME028, Mr.SATHYANAND R
Reg No 8115U22ME048, under my direct supervision

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr. H. RAMAKRISHNAN, M.E., Ph. D Dr. K. CHELLAMUTHU, B.E.,M.E.,Ph.D

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT, SUPERVISOR,
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,

Mechanical engineering Department, Mechanical Engineering Department,

K. Ramakrishnan College of Engineering, K. Ramakrishnan College of Engineering

Tiruchirappalli - 621 112. Tiruchirappalli- 621 112.

SIGNATURE OF INTERNAL SIGNATURE OF EXTERNAL

EXAMINER EXAMINER

NAME: NAME:

DATE: DATE:

ii
 K. RAMAKRISHNAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
UNDER
ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI

DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATES

I declare that to the best of my knowledge the work reported here has
been composed solely by myself and that it has not been in whole or in part in any
previous application for a degree.

Submitted for the project Viva- Voce held at K. Ramakrishnan College of

Engineering on

SIGNATURE OF THE CANDIDATE

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We thank the Almighty God without his blessings it would not have been possible
for us to complete our project. At this pleasing moment of having successfully
completed our project, we wish to convey our sincere thanks and gratitude our
management of our college and our beloved chairman Dr. K. RAMAKRISHNAN,
B.E, who provided all the facilities to us.

We would like to express our sincere thanks to our executive director Dr.S.
KUPPUSAMY, M.B.A., PhD., for forwarding me to do my project and offering
adequate motivation in completing our project.We are also grateful to our principal Dr.
D. SRINIVASAN, M.E., PhD., for his constructive suggestions and encouragement
during our project. We wish to express our profound thanks to Dr. H.
RAMAKRISHNAN, M.E., PhD, Head of the Mechanical Engineering Department,
for providing all necessary facilities for doing this project We wholeheartedly and
sincerely acknowledge our deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to my beloved
guide Dr.K. CHELLAMUTHU, B.E.,M.E.,Ph.D. Asst. Professor, Mechanical
Engineering Department, for his expert guidance and encouragement throughout the
duration of the project. We extend our gratitude to all the faculty members of the
Mechanical Engineering Department, K. RAMAKRISHNAN COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING for their kind help and valuable support to complete the project
successfully. We would like to thank my parents and friends who have always been a
constant source of support in my project.

iv
 K. RAMAKRISHNAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
( Approved by AICTE & Affiliated to Anna University) Tiruchirappalli - 621 112
Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ Grade – ISO 9001:2015 Certified Institution)

VISION OF THE INSTITUTION

“To achieve a prominent position among the top technical institutions”

MISSION OF THE INSTITUTION

 To bestow standard technical education par excellence through state-of-the-

art infrastructure, competent faculty and high ethical standards.

 To nurture research and entrepreneurial skills among the students in cutting

edge technologies.

 To provide education that can be used as a tool to transform the students.

v
 K. RAMAKRISHNAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by AICTE & Affiliated to Anna University) Tiruchirappalli - 621 112
Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ Grade – ISO 9001:2015 Certified Institution)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

VISION OF THE DEPARTMENT

 To provide eminent Mechanical Engineers to society and industries

through quality technical education and research.

MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT

 To impart quality professional education through state-of-the-

art infrastructure and resources.

 To motivate students and faculty to undertake research and development

activities in the thrust areas of mechanical engineering.

 To carry out collaborative projects with industries and academics

with fullest potential.

vi
 K. RAMAKRISHNAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by AICTE & Affiliated to Anna University) Tiruchirappalli - 621 112
Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ Grade – ISO 9001:2015 Certified Institution)

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES :( PEOs)

PEO 1: Have Successful careers in industries or opt for higher studies and research.

PEO 2: Analyze, synthesize and design mechanical and allied products addressing

PEO 3: Exhibit technical expertise, communication skills, teamwork with

professionalism with ethical values.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

PSO1: Identify, formulate and solve engineering problems in three core streams of
Mechanical Engineering, i.e., design engineering, thermal and fluids engineering and
manufacturing engineering

PSO2: Design, develop, test and implement energy efficient systems for required
engineering applications.

vii
 K. RAMAKRISHNAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by AICTE & Affiliated to Anna University) Tiruchirappalli - 621 112 Accredited by
NAAC with ‘A’ Grade – ISO 9001:2015 Certified Institution)

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (PO’s)

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

engineering fundamentals, and engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering

problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs
with appropriate consideration for public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations

4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of
data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.

5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources,
and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.

viii
 K. RAMAKRISHNAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by AICTE & Affiliated to Anna University) Tiruchirappalli - 621 112 Accredited by
NAAC with ‘A’ Grade – ISO 9001:2015 Certified Institution)

6. Engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by contextual knowledge to assess

societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to professional engineering practice.

7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of professional

engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development

8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commitment to professional ethics and

responsibilities and norms of engineering practice.

9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member

or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings

10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with

the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, making effective
presentations, and give and receiving clear instructions.

11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of

the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments.

ix
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change

x
 ABSTRACT

This project presents the design and development of a solar tracking system
integrated with an RTC-controlled water pump, aimed at improving the efficiency
of solar energy utilization and automating irrigation in agricultural fields. The
system uses Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs) to detect the direction of sunlight
and a DC geared motor controlled by an Arduino Uno to adjust the position of the
solar panel accordingly. This single-axis tracking mechanism ensures that the
panel remains aligned with the sun throughout the day, thereby increasing the
amount of solar energy captured compared to fixed panels. In addition, a Real-
Time Clock (RTC) module is used to schedule the operation of a water pump
through a relay module at predefined times, such as early morning and evening.
This automates the irrigation process and eliminates the need for manual
intervention, making it especially suitable for remote and off- grid agricultural
applications. A rechargeable battery stores the solar energy, allowing the system
to operate even during cloudy weather or nighttime. The system also includes an
LCD display for real-time monitoring of time, solar panel position, and pump
status. Overall, this project offers a cost-effective, energy-efficient, and eco-
friendly solution to support sustainable farming practices. This system provides a
cost-effective, energy-efficient, and eco-friendly solution that promotes the use of
renewable energy and reduces dependency on conventional electricity. By
combining smart tracking and automated irrigation, the project demonstrates the
potential of embedded systems and clean energy in transforming agricultural
practices. It is especially useful for rural and small-scale farmers, helping to reduce
labor, optimize water usage, and improve crop productivity. The project is
modular in nature and can be further enhanced by adding soil moisture sensors,
dual-axis tracking, or IoT-based remote monitoring, paving the way for advanced
smart farming technologies.

xi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

SI. NO TITLE PAGE NO.

1 Abstract x

2 List of contents xii

3 List of tables xiv

4 List of figures xv

5 List of symbols xvi

xii
 LIST OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Objective 2
1.3 Environmental Benefits 3
1.4 Energy security 4
2 Literature Survey 6
2.1 Solar Cell 6
2.2 Appilication Of Solar Cell 6
2.3 Three Generations Of Solar Cells 7

2.4 Selection Of Solar Cell 9

2.5 Motor 10
3 Description Of Equipment 12
3.1 Solar Power 12
3.2 Battery 13
3.3 Motor 15

3.4 Analog To Digital Convertor 20

3.5 Amplifier 21
3.6 LDR 21
3.7 Cadmium Sulphide Cells 23
3.8 Control Unit 24
4 Design Of Equipment And Drawing 26
4.1 Component 26
4.2 Drawing 28
xiii
5 Working Principle 34
6 Application 36
7 Merits 38
8 Cost Estimation 39
9 Conclusion 41
9.1 Conclusion 41
9.2 Future scope 42
Reference 44
Photography 45

xiv
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO DESCRIPTION PAGE NO

3.1 Battery Circuit Diagram 13

3.2 DC Motor 19
3.3 LDR Sensor 23
3.4 Cadmium Sulphide Cells 23
4.1 Motor 28
4.2 Motor 29
4.3 Lead Acid Cell 30
4.4 31
Battery
4.5 31
Solar Powered Agriculture
Water Pumping System With
Auto Tracking
4.6 32
Battery
4.7 33
Solar Panel

xv
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.

1 COMPONENT 26
2 MATERIAL COST 39

xvi
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

 D=Diameter of motor shaft(m)

 T= torque (N)

 L=length of panel (mm)

 W= Width of panel (mm)

xvi
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Solar energy is the light and radiant heat from the Sun that influences Earth's
climate and weather and sustains life. Solar power is sometimes used as a synonym for
solar energy or more specifically to refer to electricity generated from solar radiation. Since
ancient times, solar energy has been harnessed for human use through a range of
technologies. Solar radiation along with secondary solar resources such as wind and wave
power, hydroelectricity and biomass account for the available flow of renewable energy on
Earth.

Solar energy technologies can provide electrical generation by heat engine or

photovoltaic means, space heating and cooling in active and passive solar buildings;
potable water via distillation and disinfection, day lighting, hot water, thermal energy for
cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial purposes. Sunlight can be
converted into electricity using photovoltaic (PV), concentrating solar power (CSP), and
various experimental technologies. PV has mainly been used to power small and medium-
sized applications, from the calculator powered by a single solar cell to off-grid homes
powered by a photovoltaic array. The term "photovoltaic" comes from the Greek (phos)
meaning "light", and "voltaic", meaning electrical, from the name of the Italian physicist
Volta, after whom a unit of electrical potential, the volt, is named.

A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is a device that converts light into direct
current using the photoelectric effect. The first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts
in the 1880s. Although the prototype selenium cells converted less than 1% of incident
light into electricity, both Ernst Werner von Siemens and James Clerk Maxwell recognized
the importance of this discovery.

1
 This project presents the design and fabrication of a single-axis solar tracking
system integrated with an automated irrigation system using an Arduino Uno. The system
utilizes LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) sensors to track sunlight and align the solar panel
accordingly. An RTC module is used to operate a water pump via a relay module at pre-
defined times. The entire setup is powered by solar energy, making it highly suitable for
rural and remote agricultural applications. The goal is to enhance energy efficiency, reduce
water wastage, sustainable farming using low-cost, easily available components.

The increasing demand for renewable energy and sustainable agricultural practices has
led to the development of innovative technologies that optimize natural resources. Solar
energy, being one of the most abundant and clean energy sources, is widely used in various
applications, including irrigation systems. However, the efficiency of solar panels is
significantly affected by their orientation relative to the sun. A fixed solar panel receives
limited sunlight throughout the day, reducing its power output. To overcome this limitation,
solar tracking systems are employed to adjust the panel’s position based on the sun’s
movement, ensuring maximum energy capture.

1.2 OBJECTIVE:

Renewable energy is energy generated from natural resources such as sunlight

wind, rain, tides and geothermal heat which are renewable (naturally replenished). In 2006,
about 18% of global final energy consumption came from renewable, with 13% coming
from traditional biomass, such as wood-burning. Hydroelectricity was the next largest
renewable source, providing 3%, followed by solar hot water/heating, which contributed
1.3%. Modern technologies, such as geothermal energy, wind power, solar power, and
ocean energy together provided some 0.8% of final energy consumption.

Climate change concerns coupled with high oil prices, peak oil and increasing
government support are driving increasing renewable energy legislation, incentives and
commercialization. European Union leaders reached an agreement in principle in March
2007 that 20 percent of their nations' energy should be produced from renewable fuels by

2
2020, as part of its drive to cut emissions of carbon dioxide, blamed in part for global
warming. Investment capital flowing into renewable energy climbed from $80 billion in
2005 to a record $100 billion in 2006.

1.3 ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS

Natural energy sources, such as solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal, offer a wide
range of benefits that make them essential for building a sustainable future. One of the
primary advantages is that they are economically viable, especially over time. While
the initial investment in renewable energy systems may be moderate, the long- term
cost savings are substantial due to low operational and fuel costs. Natural energy is also
readily available and renewable, harnessed from sources that are naturally
replenished—like sunlight, wind, and flowing water—ensuring a continuous and
sustainable supply. Unlike fossil fuels, these sources are clean and pollution-free,
producing no harmful byproducts such as carbon dioxide or sulfur emissions, which
helps in reducing air and water pollution and improving public health.

Another important benefit is that these systems require inimal maintenance due to
their simple and robust designs, particularly in solar and wind technologies. This results
in lower maintenance costs and increased reliability over time. Natural energy also
plays a crucial role in mitigating climate change, as it does not contribute to the buildup
of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, thereby preventing global warming.
Furthermore, it enhances energy security by reducing dependence on imported fuels
and promotes energy access in remote areas where conventional grid electricity is
unavailable. Overall, natural energy supports eco-friendly development, creates green
jobs, and aligns with global goals for a cleaner, healthier planet.

Natural energy sources, such as solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal, offer a wide
range of benefits that make them essential for building a sustainable future. One of the
primary advantages is that they are economically viable, especially over time. While
the initial investment in renewable energy systems may be moderate, the long- term
cost savings are substantial due to low operational and fuel costs. Natural energy

3
 is also readily available and renewable, harnessed from sources that are naturally
replenished—like sunlight, wind, and flowing water—ensuring a continuous and
sustainable supply. Unlike fossil fuels, these sources are clean and pollution-free,
producing no harmful byproducts such as carbon dioxide or sulfur emissions, which
helps in reducing air and water pollution and improving public health.

Another important benefit is that these systems require minimal maintenance due
to their simple and robust designs, particularly in solar and wind technologies. This
results in lower maintenance costs and increased reliability over time. Natural energy
also plays a crucial role in mitigating climate change, as it does not contribute to the
buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, thereby preventing global warming.
Furthermore, it enhances energy security by reducing dependence on imported fuels
and promotes energy access in remote areas where conventional grid electricity is
unavailable. Overall, natural energy supports eco-friendly development, creates green
jobs, and aligns with global goals for a cleaner, healthier planet.

1.4 ENERGY SECURITY:

Energy security refers to the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an

affordable price. It is a critical aspect of national development, economic stability, and
social well-being. Ensuring a stable and secure energy supply is essential for powering
industries, transportation, agriculture, and households. In today’s rapidly growing global
economy, the demand for energy is increasing, which makes energy security a top priority
for governments and policymakers.

Traditionally, most countries have relied heavily on fossil fuels such as coal, oil,
and natural gas to meet their energy needs. However, these sources are finite, subject to
geopolitical tensions, and prone to price fluctuations. Dependence on imported fuels can
expose nations to energy crises caused by political instability, trade disputes, or supply
chain disruptions. To overcome these risks, there is a growing shift toward renewable
energy sources like solar, wind, and hydropower, which are locally available and
sustainable.

4
 Renewable energy enhances energy security by reducing dependency on foreign oil
and fossil fuels. Solar energy, in particular, provides a reliable and decentralized energy
solution, especially in rural and off-grid areas. With the increasing adoption of technologies
like solar panels, energy storage systems, and smart grids, communities and countries can
achieve greater self-reliance and resilience. Furthermore, investing in renewable energy
not only improves energy access but also supports environmental protection and economic
growth. It creates jobs, reduces carbon emissions, and promotes innovation in the energy
sector. In the context of climate change and resource depletion, building a robust and
diverse energy portfolio is vital.

Energy security is not just about meeting energy demands but about doing so in a
sustainable, affordable, and environmentally responsible manner. Renewable energy,
especially solar power, plays a key role in achieving long-term energy security and
supporting sustainable development goals. To further strengthen energy security, it is
important to focus on decentralized energy systems and local energy production.
Decentralized systems, such as rooftop solar panels and community-based microgrids,
reduce the burden on centralized power plants and minimize transmission losses. These
systems ensure that even in the event of natural disasters, grid failures, or fuel shortages,
local communities can maintain access to essential electricity services. In rural and remote
areas where extending the power grid is difficult and costly, renewable energy systems
provide a practical and sustainable alternative. Additionally, integrating energy storage
technologies such as batteries allows for better energy management by storing excess
power generated during the day for use at night or during cloudy weather. Policies that
support innovation, investment in green technologies, and public awareness further
enhance national energy security. By diversifying the energy mix and encouraging local
production, countries can reduce their vulnerability to global energy market fluctuations
and ensure a more resilient, reliable, and self-sufficient energy future.

5
 CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 SOLAR CELL:

solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a wide area electronic device that converts solar energy
into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic is the field of technology and
research related to the application of solar cells as solar energy. Sometimes the term solar
cell is reserved for devices intended specifically to capture energy from sunlight, while the
term photovoltaic cell is used when the source is unspecified. Assemblies of cells are used
to make solar modules, or photovoltaic arrays.

2.2 APPILICATION OF SOLAR CELL:

Solar cells, also known as photovoltaic (PV) cells, have a wide range of applications
due to their ability to convert sunlight directly into electricity. One of the most common
applications is in residential and commercial power generation, where rooftop solar panels
are used to provide electricity for homes, offices, and industries, helping reduce
dependency on the grid and lower electricity bills. In rural and remote areas, solar cells are
used to power homes, schools, and health centers where conventional electricity is
unavailable. They are also widely used in solar-powered water pumping systems, making
them highly beneficial for agricultural irrigation, especially in off-grid regions. Solar street
lighting and traffic signals are other common applications that enhance energy efficiency
in urban infrastructure. Solar cells are integral to portable electronics like solar chargers
and solar-powered lanterns, which are useful in emergency and disaster relief situations. In
the field of transportation, solar-powered vehicles and boats are emerging technologies that
showcase the potential of solar energy in reducing fossil fuel dependence. Moreover, solar
cells are essential in space applications, where they provide power to satellites, space
stations, and probes. Their clean, renewable, and

6
maintenance-free nature makes solar cells an ideal solution for promoting sustainable
energy across diverse sectors.

2.3 THREE GENERATIONS OF SOLAR CELLS:

Solar Cells are classified into three generations which indicates the order of which
each became prominent. At present there is concurrent research into all three generations
while the first generation technologies are most highly represented in commercial
production, accounting for 89.6% of 2007 production. These are the most widely used and
commercially available solar cells, made from crystalline silicon—either monocrystalline
or polycrystalline. They offer high efficiency (15–22%) and long lifespan, making them
ideal for residential, commercial, and industrial applications. However, they are relatively
expensive to manufacture due to high material and energy.

These cells use thin layers of semiconductor materials such as cadmium telluride
(CdTe), copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS), or amorphous silicon (a-Si). Thin-film
solar cells are lighter, flexible, and cheaper to produce than first-generation cells, but they
generally have lower efficiency (around 10–15%). They are suitable for large-scale solar
farms, portable devices, and building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV). This generation
includes advanced technologies like perovskite solar cells, organic photovoltaics, quantum
dot solar cells, and multi-junction cells. These are designed to overcome the efficiency and
cost limitations of earlier generations. Some of them promise very high efficiencies (up to
40% or more in lab settings) and low-cost production, though many are still in the research
or early commercialization stages. Third-generation solar cells aim to combine low cost,
high efficiency, and environmental sustainability

7
FIRST GENERATION

CRYSTALLINE SILICON AND VACUUM DEPOSITION

First generation cells consist of large-area, high quality and single junction devices.
First Generation technologies involve high energy and labour inputs which prevent any
significant progress in reducing production costs. Single junction silicon devices are
approaching the theoretical limiting efficiency of 33% and achieve cost parity with fossil
fuel energy generation after a payback period of 5-7 years.

SECOND GENERATION

THIN-FILM CELL

Second generation materials have been developed to address energy requirements

and production costs of solar cells. Alternative manufacturing techniques such as vapour
deposition and electroplating are advantageous as they reduce high temperature processing
significantly. It is commonly accepted that as manufacturing techniques evolve production
costs will be dominated by constituent material requirements, whether this be a silicon
substrate, or glass cover. Such processes can bring costs down to a little under but because
of the defects inherent in the lower quality processing methods, have much reduced
efficiencies compared to First Generation.

The most successful second generation materials have been cadmium telluride
(CdTe), copper indium gallium solenoid, amorphous silicon and micromorphous silicon.
These materials are applied in a thin film to a supporting substrate such as glass or ceramics
reducing material mass and therefore costs. These technologies do hold promise of higher
conversion efficiencies, particularly CIGS-CIS, DSC and CdTe offers significantly cheaper
production costs. In CdTe production represented 4.7% of total market share, thin-film
silicon 5.2% and CIGS 0.5%.

8
THIRD GENERATION SOLAR CELL

Third generation technologies aim to enhance poor electrical performance of

second generation (thin-film technologies) while maintaining very low production costs.
Current research is targeting conversion efficiencies of 30-60% while retaining low cost
materials and manufacturing techniques. They can exceed the theoretical solar conversion
efficiency for a single energy threshold material; witch was calculated in 1961 by Shockley
and Queisser as 31% under 1 sun illumination and 40.8% under maximal concentration of
sunlight (46,200 suns, which makes the latter limit more difficult to approach than the
former).

there are a few approaches to achieving these high efficiencies:

 Multijunction photovoltaic cell (multiple energy threshold devices).

 Modifying incident spectrum (concentration).
 Use of excess thermal generation (caused by UV light) to enhance voltages or
carrier collection.
 Use of infrared spectrum to produce electricity at night.

2.4 SELECTION OF SOLAR CELL:

Despite the numerous attempts at making better solar cells by using new and exotic
materials, the reality is that the photovoltaic market is still dominated by silicon wafer-
based solar cells (first-generation solar cells). This means that most solar cell manufacturers
are equipped to produce these types of solar cells. Therefore, a large body of research is
currently being done all over the world to create silicon wafer-based solar cells that can
achieve higher conversion efficiency without an exorbitant increase in production cost.

9
2.5 MOTOR

An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy. The reverse
process which of using mechanical energy to produce electrical energy is accomplished by
a generator or dynamo. Traction motors used on locomotives and some electric and hybrid
automobiles often performs both tasks if the vehicle is equipped with dynamic brakes.
Electric motors are found in household appliances such as fans, refrigerators, washing
machines, pool pumps, floor vacuums, and fan-forced ovens. They are also found in many
other devices such as computer equipment, in its disk drives, printers, and fans; and in some
sound and video playing and recording equipment as DVD/CD players and recorders, tape
players and recorders, and record players. Electric motors are found in several kinds of
toys such some kinds of vehicles and robotic toys.

The principle of conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by

electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821
and consisted of a free-hanging wire dipping into a pool of mercury. A permanent magnet
was placed in the middle of the pool of mercury. When a current was passed through the
wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a circular
magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in school physics classes,
but brine (salt water) is sometimes used in place of the toxic mercury. This is the simplest
form of a class of electric motors called homopolar motors. A later refinement is the
Barlow's Wheel. These were demonstration devices, unsuited to practical applications due
to limited power.

The first real electric motor, using electromagnets for both stationary and rotating
parts, was demonstrated by Ányos Jedlik in 1828 Hungary. He built an electric-motor
propelled vehicle in 1828. The first English commutator-type direct-current electric motor
capable of a practical application was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in
1832. Following Sturgeon's work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made
with the intention of commercial use was built by the American Thomas

10
Davenport and patented in 1837. Although several of these motors were built and used to
operate equipment such as a printing press, due to the high cost of primary battery power,
the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several
inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same
cost issues with primary battery power. No electricity distribution had been developed at
the time. Like Sturgeon's motor, there was no practical commercial market for these
motors. The modern DC motor was invented by accident in 1873, when Zénobe Gramme
connected the dynamo he had invented to a second similar unit, driving it as a motor. The
Gramme machine was the first electric motor that was successful in the industry.In 1888
Nikola Tesla invented the first practicable AC motor and with it the polyphase power
transmission system. Tesla continued his work on the AC motor in the years to follow at
the Westinghouse Company.

In the solar tracking system, a DC geared motor plays a crucial role in adjusting the
position of the solar panel to align with the direction of maximum sunlight. This motor is
controlled by the Arduino based on input from LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) sensors.
A geared motor is preferred over a regular DC motor because it offers higher torque and
better precision at lower speeds, which is essential for slowly and accurately rotating the
solar panel. The gear mechanism reduces the motor speed while increasing its torque
output, making it ideal for handling the weight of the panel without sudden or jerky
movements. This ensures smooth and controlled tracking throughout the day.

The motor is typically connected to a motor driver module, which acts as an

interface between the low-power control signals from the Arduino and the higher power
required by the motor. When the LDR sensors detect uneven light intensity on either side
of the panel, the Arduino sends signals to rotate the motor in the appropriate direction until
both sensors receive nearly equal light. This movement maximizes solar exposure and
improves energy generation.

11
 CHAPTER-3

DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT

3.1 SOLAR POWER:

Solar energy is the light and radiant heat from the Sun that influences Earth's
climate and weather and sustains life. Solar power is sometimes used as a synonym for
solar energy or more specifically to refer to electricity generated from solar radiation. Since
ancient times solar energy has been harnessed for human use through a range of
technologies. Solar radiation along with secondary solar resources such as wind and wave
power, hydroelectricity and biomass account for most of the available flow of renewable
energy on Earth. Solar energy technologies can provide electrical generation by heat engine
or photovoltaic means, space heating and cooling in active and passive solar buildings;
potable water via distillation and disinfection, day lighting, hot water, thermal energy for
cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial purposes.

Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semi conducting
materials, such as silicon. Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their
atoms, allowing them to flow through the material to produce electricity. Due to the special
composition of solar cells, the electrons are only allowed to move in a single direction. The
complementary positive charges that are also created (like bubbles) are called holes and
flow in the direction opposite of the electrons in a silicon solar panel. An array of solar
panels converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current (DC) electricity

12
3.2 BATTERY:

Fig.3.1 BATTERY CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

In our project we are using secondary type battery. It is rechargeable Type. A

battery is one or more electrochemical cells, which store chemical energy and make it
available as electric current. There are two types of batteries, primary (disposable) and
secondary (rechargeable), both of which convert chemical energy to electrical energy.
Primary batteries can only be used once because they use up their chemicals in an
irreversible reaction. Secondary batteries can be recharged because the chemical reactions
they use are reversible; they are recharged by running a charging current through the
battery, but in the opposite direction of the discharge current. Secondary, also called
rechargeable batteries can be charged and discharged many times before wearing out. After
wearing out some batteries can be recycled.

13
 Batteries have gained popularity as they became portable and useful for many
purposes. The use of batteries has created many environmental concerns, such as toxic
metal pollution. A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical
energy it consists of one or more voltaic cells. Each voltaic cell consists of two half cells
connected in series by a conductive electrolyte. One half-cell is the positive electrode, and
the other is the negative electrode. The electrodes do not touch each other but are
electrically connected by the electrolyte, which can be either solid or liquid. A battery can
be simply modeled as a perfect voltage source which has its own resistance, the resulting
voltage across the load depends on the ratio of the battery's internal resistance to the
resistance of the load.

When the battery is fresh, its internal resistance is low, so the voltage across the
load is almost equal to that of the battery's internal voltage source. As the battery runs down
and its internal resistance increases, the voltage drop across its internal resistance increases,
so the voltage at its terminals decreases, and the battery's ability to deliver power to the
load decreases. Battery is use for storing the energy produced from the solar power. The
battery used is a lead-acid type and has a capacity of 12v; 2.5A.the most inexpensive
secondary cell is the lead acid cell and is widely used for commercial purposes. A lead acid
cell when ready for use contains two plates immersed in a dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4) of
specific gravity about 1.28.the positive plate (anode) is of
Lead –peroxide (PbO2) which has chocolate brown colour and the negative plate (cathode)
is lead (Pb) which is of grey colour.

When the cell supplies current to a load (discharging), the chemical action that takes place
forms lead sulphate (PbSO4) on both the plates with water being formed in the electrolyte.
After a certain amount of energy has been withdrawn from the cell,both plates are
Transformed into the same material and the specific gravity of the electrolyte (H2so4) is
lowerd. the cell is then said to be discharged. there are several methods to ascertain whether
the cell is discharged or not. To charge the cell, direct current is passed through the cell in
the reverse direction to that in which the cell provided current. This reverses the chemical
process and again forms a lead peroxide (PbO2) positive plate and a

14
pure lead (Pb) negative plate. At the same time,(H 2so4) is formed at the expense of water,
restoring the electrolyte (H2so4 ) to its original condition. The chemical changes that Occur
during discharging and recharging of a lead-acid cell.
3.3. MOTOR:

D.C MOTOR:

The d.c generators and d.c motors have the same general construction.

MOTOR PRINCIPLE:

An electric motor is a machine which converts a electrical energy to mechanical energy.

All D.C machines have five principal components
(i) Field system (II) armature core (iii) armature winding (iv) Commutator (v) brushes.

FIELD SYSTEM:

The function of the field system is to produce Uniform field within which the
armature rotates.it consists of a number of salient poles(of course, even number) bolted to
the inside of circular frame (generally called yoke).the yoke is usually made of solid cast
steel whereas the pole piece are composed of stacked laminations. Field coils are mounted
on the poles and carry the d.c exciting current. The field coils are connected in such a way
that adjacent poles have opposite polarity.The m.m.f. developed by the coils produces a
magnetic flux that passes through the pole pieces, the air gap, the armature and the frame.
Practical d.c machines have air gaps ranging from 0.5mm to 1.5mm.since armature and
field systems are composed of materials that have permeability, most of the m.m.f.of field
coils is required to set up flux in the air gap. By reducing the length of air gap, we can
reduce the size of field coils (number of turns).

ARMATURE CORE

The armature core is keyed to the machine shaft and rotates between the field poles. It
consists of slotted soft-iron laminations (about 0.4 to 0.6mm thick) that are stacked to form
a cylindrical core. The laminations are individually coated with a thin insulating

15
film so that they do not come in electrical contact with each other. The purpose of
laminating the core is to reduce the eddy current loss. The laminations are slotted to
accommodate and provide mechanical security to the armature winding and to give shorter
air gap for the flux to cross between the pole face and the armature “teeth”.

ARMATURE WINDING

The slots of the armature core hold conductors that are connected in a suitable manner
this are known as armature winding. This is the winding in which “working” e.m.f. is
induced. the The armature conductors are connected inseries-parallel: the conductors being
connected in series so as to increase the voltage and in parallel paths so as to increase the
current. the armature winding of a d.c. machine is a closed –circuit winding
:the conductors being connected in a symmetrical manner forming a closed loop or series
of closed loops.

COMMUTATOR
A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating voltage
generated in the armature winding into direct voltage across the brushes.the commutator is
made of copper segments insulated from each other by mica sheets and mounted on the
shaft of the machine. The armature conductors are soldered to the commutator segments in
a suitable manner to give rise to the armature winding.depending upon the manner in which
the armature conductors are connected to the commutator segments, there are tow types of
armature winding in a.d.c. machine viz(a) lap winding (b) wave winding.Great care is taken
in building the commutator because any eccentricity will cause the brushes to bounce,
producing unacceptable sparking .the sparks may burn the brushes and overheat and
carbonize the commutator.

BRUSHES:

The purpose of brushes is to ensure electrical connections between the rotating

commutator and stationary external load circuit. The brushes are made of carbon and rest
on the commutator,the brush pressure is adjusted by means of adjustable springs. if the

16
brush pressure is Very large, the friction produces heating of the commutator and the
bruches.on the other hand, if it is too weak, the imperfect contact with the commutator may
produce sparking.

STATOR:

The stator is the stationary part of an electric generator or electric motor. The non-
stationary part on an electric motor is the rotor.Depending on the configuration of a
spinning electromotive device the stator may act as the field magnet, interacting with the
armature to create motion, or it may act as the armature, receiving its influence from
moving field coils on the rotor.

The first DC generators (known as dynamos) and DC motors put the field coils on
the stator, and the power generation or motive reaction coils are on the rotor. This was
necessary because a continuously moving power switch known as the commutator is
needed to keep the field correctly aligned across the spinning rotor. The commutator must
become larger and more robust as the current increases.The stator of these devices may be
either a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. Where the stator is an electromagnet, the
coil which energizes it is known as the field coil or field winding.

ROTOR
The rotor is the non-stationary part of a rotary electric motor or alternator, which
rotates because the wires and magnetic field of the motor are arranged so that a torque is
developed about the rotor's axis. In some designs, the rotor can act to serve as the motor's
armature, across which the input voltage is supplied.

ELECTROMAGNETIC COIL:

An electromagnetic coil is formed when a conductor solid copper wire is wound

around a core or form to create an inductor or electromagnet. One loop of wire is usually
referred to as a turn, and a coil consists of one or more turns. For use in an electronic circuit,
electrical connection terminals called taps are often connected to a coil. Coils are

17
often coated with varnish and/or wrapped with insulating tape to provide additional
insulation and secure them in place. A completed coil assembly with taps etc. is often called
a winding. A transformer is an electromagnetic device that has a primary winding and a
secondary winding that transfer’s energy from one electrical circuit to another by magnetic
coupling without moving parts. The term tickler coil usually refers to a third coil placed in
relation to a primary coil and secondary coil. A coil tap is a wiring feature found on some
electrical transformers, inductors and coil pickups, all of which are sets of wire coils. The
coil tap are points in a wire coil where a conductive patch has been exposed. As self
induction is larger for larger coil diameter the current in a thick wire tries to flow on the
inside. The ideal use of copper is achieved by foils. Sometimes this means that a spiral is a
better alternative. Multilayer coils have the problem of interlayer capacitance, so when
multiple layers are needed the shape needs to be radically changed to a short coil with many
layers so that the voltage between consecutive layers is smaller.

D.C.MOTOR PRINCIPLE:

A machine that converts direct current power into mechanical power is known as
D.C Motor. Its generation is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor
is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force. The direction
if this force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule.

WORKING OF A DC MOTOR:

Consider a part of a multipolar dc motor as shown in fig 1. when the terminals of the motor
are connected to an external source of dc supply;
(i) The field magnets are excited developing alternate N and S poles.
(ii) The armature conductors carry currents. All conductors under N-pole carry
currents in one direction while all the conductors under S-pole carry currents in
the opposite direction.
Suppose the conductors under N-pole carry currents into the plane of paper and those
under S-pole carry current out of the plane of paper as shown in fig. Since each armature
conductor is carrying current and is placed in the magnetic field, mechanical force acts on

18
it. Applying Fleming’s left hand rule, it is clear that force on each conductor is tending to
rotate the armature in anticlockwise direction. All these forces add together to produce a
driving torque which sets the armature rotating. When the conductor moves from one side
of the brush to the other, current in the conductor is received and at the same time it comes
under the influence of next pole which is of opposite polarity. Consequently the direction
of force on the conductor remains same.

Fig.3.2 DC MOTOR

SERIES MOTORS:

It is a variable speed motor i.e. speed is low at high torque and vice-versa. However, at
light or no load, the motor tends to attain dangerously high speed, and the motor has a

19
high starting torque. It is, therefore, used where large starting torque is required E, g in
elevators and electric traction.
Where the load is subjected to heavy fluctuations and the speed is automatically required
to reduce at high torques and vice versa. In a series motor, the torque is directly proportional
to the square of the armature current, which means a small increase in current leads to a
large increase in torque. This characteristic makes the motor extremely powerful at startup.
However, the speed of a series motor varies widely with load; it increases drastically under
light load and can become dangerously high with no load, which is why it should never be
run without a load.

Although series motors are not typically used in solar tracking systems due to their high
torque and variable speed characteristics, they are commonly used in systems requiring
mechanical power under heavy loads. Their simplicity, compact size, and high torque
output make them suitable for rugged industrial environments.

3.4 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERTER:

Analog to digital converter is an electronic integrated circuit. Which converts

continues signals to discrete digital numbers. The reverse operation is performed by a
digital to analog converter. ADC is an electronic device that converts an input analog
voltage (or current) to a digital number. Most converters sample with 6 to 24 bits of
resolution, and produce less than 1 mega sample per second. It is rare to get more than 24
bits of resolution because of thermal noise generated by passive components such as
resistors. The accuracy and resolution of the ADC directly affect the sensitivity of the solar
tracking system. A higher resolution ADC allows more precise detection of small changes
in light, which leads to more accurate panel alignment. In addition, ADCs support multiple
analog input channels, which enables the Arduino to monitor several sensors
simultaneously, such as LDRs, temperature sensors, or even soil moisture sensors if added
in future upgrades.

The ADC operates very efficiently and consumes low power, which is ideal for
solar-powered embedded systems. Furthermore, the fast conversion speed ensures real-

20
time monitoring and control, which is essential for responsive systems like solar tracking.
Overall, the ADC plays a critical role in bridging the physical environment with digital
control in this project.

3.5 AMPLIFIER:

Amplifier is any device that will convert one signal often with a small Amount of
energy into another signal often with a larger amount of energy. In popular use, the term
today usually refers to an electronic amplifier, often as in audio applications. The
relationship of the input to the output of an amplifier usually expressed as a function of the
input frequency is called the transfer function of the amplifier, and the magnitude of the
transfer function is termed the gain. A closely related device that emphasizes conversion
of signals of one type to another is a sensor. Amplifier is any device that changes. Increases,
the amplitude of a signal. The "signal" is usually voltage or current. The relationship of the
input to the output of an amplifier usually expressed as a function of the input frequency is
called the transfer function of the amplifier, and the magnitude of the transfer function is
termed the gain. A related device that emphasizes conversion of signals of one type to
another.

3.6 LDR:

LDR means light dependent resistor. It is a component that changes with the light
Intensity that falls upon it. They have a resistance that falls with an increase in the light
Intensity falling upon the device. There are many applications for Light Dependent
Resistors. The most obvious application for an LDR is to automatically turn on a light at
certain light level. An example of this could be a street light.

A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR), also known as a photoresistor, is a type of

resistor whose resistance varies with the intensity of light falling on its surface. When
exposed to light, the resistance of the LDR decreases, allowing more current to pass
through. In darkness or low light, its resistance increases significantly, restricting the flow
of current. This unique property makes LDRs highly suitable for light-sensing

21
applications such as solar tracking, automatic street lights, light meters, and smart lighting
systems.In the solar tracking system, two LDRs are strategically placed on either side of
the solar panel to detect the direction of sunlight. When the light intensity on both sensors
is unequal, the Arduino interprets the signal and activates the motor to rotate the panel
toward the brighter side. Once both LDRs receive equal light, the panel is correctly aligned
with the sun. This real-time feedback mechanism ensures maximum solar exposure
throughout the day, thereby improving the overall efficiency of the solar power system.

LDRs are inexpensive, compact, and easy to use, making them ideal for small- scale
and educational projects. They are non-polarized components, which means they can be
connected in any direction in the circuit. Despite their simplicity, LDRs are highly effective
in detecting changes in ambient light, enabling intelligent automation in various systems.
Their role in the solar tracking project is crucial, as they serve as the primary sensors for
dynamic alignment of the solar panel.

LDR SENSOR

A photoresistor is an electronic component whose resistance decreases with

increasing incident light intensity. It can also be referred to as a light-dependent resistor
(LDR), or photoconductor. A photoresistor is made of a high-resistance semiconductor. If
light falling on the device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the
semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The
resulting free electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.

A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. In intrinsic devices, the

only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have enough
energy to excite the electron across the entire bandgap. Extrinsic devices have impurities
added, which have a ground state energy closer to the conduction band — since the

22
electrons don't have as far to jump, lower energy photons (i.e. longer wavelengths and
lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device.

Fig.3.3 LDR SENSOR

3.7 CADMIUM SULPHIDE CELLS:

Cadmium sulphide or cadmium sulphide (CdS) cells rely on the material's ability
to vary its resistance according to the amount of light striking the cell. The more light that
strikes the cell, the lower the resistance. Although not accurate, even a simple CdS cell can
have a wide range of resistance from less than 100 Ω in bright light to in excess of 10 MΩ
in darkness. The cells are also capable of reacting to a broad range of frequencies,

Fig.3.4 CADMIUM SULPHIDE CELLS

including infrared (IR), visible light, and ultraviolet (UV). They are often found on street
lights as automatic on/off switches. They were once even used in heat-seeking missiles to
sense for targets.

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3.8 CONTROL UNIT

Microcontrollers are destined to play an increasingly important role in

revolutionizing various industries and influencing our day to day life more strongly than
one can imagine. Since its emergence in the early 1980's the microcontroller has been
recognized as a general purpose building block for intelligent digital systems. It is finding
using diverse area, starting from simple children's toys to highly complex spacecraft.
Because of its versatility and many advantages, the application domain has spread in all
conceivable directions, making it ubiquitous. As a consequence, it has generate a great deal
of interest and enthusiasm among students, teachers and practicing engineers, creating an
acute education need for imparting the knowledge of microcontroller based system design
and development. It identifies the vital features responsible for their tremendous impact,
the acute educational need created by them and provides a glimpse of the major application
area.

MICROCONTROLLER:

A microcontroller is a complete microprocessor system built on a single IC.

Microcontrollers were developed to meet a need for microprocessors to be put into low
cost products. Building a complete microprocessor system on a single chip substantially
reduces the cost of building simple products, which use the microprocessor's power to
implement their function, because the microprocessor is a natural way to implement many
products. This means the idea of using a microprocessor for low cost products comes up
often. But the typical 8-bit microprocessor based system, such as one using a Z80 and 8085
is expensive. Both 8085 and Z80 system need some additional circuits to make a
microprocessor system. Each part carries costs of money. Even though a product design
may requires only very simple system, the parts needed to make this system as a low cost
product.

24
 To solve this problem microprocessor system is implemented with a single chip
microcontroller. This could be called microcomputer, as all the major parts are in the IC.
Most frequently they are called microcontroller because they are used they are used to
perform control functions. The microcontroller contains full implementation of a standard
MICROPROCESSOR, ROM, RAM, I/0, CLOCK, TIMERS, and also SERIAL PORTS.
Microcontroller also called "system on a chip" or "single chip microprocessor system" or
"computer on a chip".

A microcontroller is a Computer-On-A-Chip, or, if you prefer, a single-chip

computer. Micro suggests that the device is small, and controller tells you that the device'
might be used to control objects, processes, or events. Another term to describe a
microcontroller is embedded controller, because the microcontroller and its support circuits
are often built into, or embedded in, the devices they control. Today microcontrollers are
very commonly used in wide variety of intelligent products. For example most personal
computers keyboards and implemented with a microcontroller. It replaces Scanning,
Debounce, Matrix Decoding, and Serial transmission circuits. Many low cost products,
such as Toys, Electric Drills, Microwave Ovens, VCR and a host of other consumer and
industrial products are based on microcontrollers. Microcontroller is a general purpose
device, which integrates a number of the components of a microprocessor system on to
single chip. It has inbuilt CPU, memory and peripherals to make it as a mini computer. A
microcontroller combines on to the same micr0. Micro controller is a stand alone unit,
which can perform functions on its own without any requirement for additional hardware
like i/o ports and external memory. The heart of the microcontroller is the CPU core. In the
past, this has traditionally been based on a 8-bit.

25
 CHAPTER-4

DESIGN OF EQUIPMENT AND DRAWING

4.1 COMPONENTS

SI.NO COMPONENTS NAME

1 Arduino Uno

2 LDR Sensor

3 Real Time Clock

4 Relay

5 Single Axis Solar Tracking Model

6 Solar Panel

7 Battery

8 DC Motor

A solar panel is a device that converts sunlight into electrical energy using the
photovoltaic effect. It consists of multiple solar cells made from semiconductor materials,
typically silicon, which generate direct current (DC) electricity when exposed to sunlight.
In this project, the solar panel serves as the primary power source, supplying energy to run
the entire system, including the Arduino, sensors, motor, and water pump. It also charges
the battery, ensuring continuous operation even during cloudy weather or

26
nighttime. Solar panels are reliable, eco-friendly, and require minimal maintenance,
making them ideal for off-grid and renewable energy applications. The battery in this
system stores electrical energy generated by the solar panel. It ensures uninterrupted power
supply to the components, especially when sunlight is unavailable. A rechargeable battery,
typically a 12V lead-acid or lithium-ion battery, is used to maintain energy availability
during nighttime or cloudy conditions. The battery provides stable voltage to the Arduino,
sensors, motor, and relay module. It acts as a backup power source, increasing the system’s
reliability and enabling consistent performance in remote areas where grid electricity is not
accessible.

The motor control unit is an essential component that interfaces between the Arduino
and the DC geared motor. It typically includes an H-bridge motor driver (such as L298N
or L293D) that allows the Arduino to control the direction and speed of the motor using
low-power digital signals. When the Arduino receives input from the LDR sensors
indicating a light imbalance, it sends control signals to the motor control unit, which in turn
activates the motor to rotate the solar panel in the correct direction. The motor control unit
ensures smooth, accurate, and safe operation of the motor, preventing damage due to
overvoltage or incorrect wiring.

ensuring continuous operation even during cloudy weather or nighttime. Solar panels
are reliable, eco-friendly, and require minimal maintenance, making them ideal for off-
grid and renewable energy applications. The battery in this system stores electrical energy
generated by the solar pane. Each component in the system plays a critical role in achieving
full automation. The Arduino Uno acts as the brain of the project, processing sensor data
and controlling outputs. All components are chosen for their affordability, low power
consumption, and ease of integration, making the system cost-effective and scalable.

27
4.2 DRAWING

Fig.4.1 MOTOR

28
Fig.4.2 MOTOR

29
Fig.4.3 LEAD ACID CELL

30
 Fig.4.4 BATTERY

Fig.4.5 SOLAR POWERED AGRICULTURE WATER PUMPING SYSTEM

WITH AUTO TRACKING

31
Fig.4.6 BATTERY

32
Fig.4.7 SOLAR PANEL

33
 CHAPTER -5

WORKING PRINCIPLE

The working principle of the solar tracking system with RTC-controlled water pump
revolves around the integration of light sensors, a microcontroller (Arduino Uno), a motor
control mechanism, and a timing system to efficiently utilize solar energy for both electricity
generation and automated irrigation. The primary function of the system is to track the sun’s
position throughout the day. This is achieved using two Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs)
placed on opposite sides of the solar panel. LDRs are sensitive to light; their resistance changes
based on the amount of light they receive. When sunlight falls unevenly on the two LDRs, there
will be a difference in resistance, which is read by the Arduino through its analog input pins. The
Arduino compares the readings from both LDRs to determine the direction of maximum sunlight.

If the left LDR receives more light than the right one, the Arduino sends a signal to
the motor control unit to rotate the panel to the left. Conversely, if the right LDR is more
illuminated, the panel rotates to the right. A DC geared motor connected via an H-Bridge motor
driver (such as L298N) is used for this controlled movement. The panel continues to adjust its
position until both LDRs receive approximately equal light intensity, indicating that the panel is
aligned with the sun. This single-axis tracking mechanism ensures that the solar panel is always
facing the direction of maximum sunlight, thereby increasing energy generation efficiency by
up to 25% compared to fixed panels.To automate irrigation, a Real- Time Clock (RTC) module
(like DS1307 or DS3231) is integrated into the system. The RTC continuously keeps track of the
current time, even when the system is powered off, thanks to its onboard battery. The Arduino
constantly reads the time data from the RTC module via I2C communication. At predefined times
(e.g., 6:00 AM and 6:00 PM), the Arduino checks the RTC values and activates a relay module
that controls the water pump. When the scheduled time is reached, the Arduino sends a signal to
turn ON the relay, allowing current to flow from the battery to the pump.

34
 The pump operates for a fixed duration (e.g., 5–10 minutes) to water plants. After the
set time elapses, the Arduino turns OFF the relay, stopping the pump automatically. This
eliminates the need for manual irrigation, making it especially useful in remote or off-grid
agricultural areas. A 16x2 LCD display is used to show system status, including real-time clock
readings, motor movement direction, and pump operation messages. This gives the user
immediate feedback about the system’s activities. The entire system is powered by the solar
panel, which charges a rechargeable battery. The battery stores energy to run the system even
during periods without sunlight.`This working principle combines solar tracking and automatic
irrigation in a smart, energy-efficient, and cost-effective solution. It promotes the use of
renewable energy while reducing human effort, making it ideal for small-scale farming and
remote locations.

The use of a DC geared motor is crucial in this system as it provides high torque at low speed,
allowing smooth and controlled movement of the solar panel without overshooting. The motor
is connected to the solar panel frame and rotates it along a single axis (typically east-west),
enabling it to follow the sun’s movement throughout the day. This precise alignment helps in
increasing solar panel output by up to 25% compared to static panels.To ensure accurate and safe
motor operation, the motor driver module (such as L298N) serves as an interface between the
Arduino and the motor, handling the higher current required for rotation. The driver allows the
motor to rotate in both directions, depending on which LDR detects more light.

The RTC module, typically backed by a coin cell battery, retains accurate time data
even when the main system power is off. This ensures the reliability of time-based functions,
especially in agricultural scenarios where consistent irrigation timing is essential for healthy crop
growth.This system not only automates solar alignment and irrigation but also demonstrates how
embedded systems and renewable energy can work together to support sustainable farming,
reduce manual labor, and conserve water and energy resources.

35
 CHAPTER-6

APPLICATION

The solar tracking system integrated with an RTC-controlled water pump has a
wide range of practical applications, especially in the fields of agriculture, renewable
energy, rural development, environmental sustainability, and education. Its core function—
maximizing solar energy collection and automating irrigation—makes it a valuable
solution for improving energy efficiency and promoting smart farming practices. One of
the most significant applications is in rural and remote agricultural areas where access to
grid electricity is limited or non-existent. Traditional irrigation systems in such regions
often rely on manual effort or costly fuel-powered pumps. By using this solar- powered
system, farmers can automatically irrigate their crops at scheduled times, reducing labor
costs and ensuring consistent watering. The integration of a Real-Time Clock (RTC)
module allows precise control of irrigation timing, which is essential for water conservation
and crop health.

This system is also ideal for use in solar-powered drip and sprinkler irrigation setups, where
maintaining regular and measured water delivery is crucial. The solar tracking mechanism
ensures the solar panel generates maximum power throughout the day, enabling the pump
to operate efficiently even under low-light conditions. This makes it highly suitable for
water-scarce regions where efficient water management is vital. Another application is in
greenhouses and controlled-environment agriculture, where automated systems are used to
regulate temperature, humidity, and soil moisture. This system can serve as part of a larger
smart agriculture setup, working in coordination with sensors and control units to manage
the environment optimally. By watering plants at scheduled times using clean solar energy,
the system helps maintain ideal growth conditions with minimal human intervention. Since
the system operates on renewable energy, it aligns with smart city and sustainability goals
by reducing reliance on conventional electricity and promoting green infrastructure.

36
From an educational perspective, this project serves as an excellent learning platform in
engineering colleges, polytechnics, and schools. It demonstrates real-world applications of
embedded systems, renewable energy, and automation technologies.

In urban environments, the system can be used in public parks, gardens, and institutional
campuses for landscape irrigation. The eco-friendly and quiet operation of the system
makes it suitable for populated areas, and its use promotes awareness of green technologies.
Since the system operates on renewable energy, it aligns with smart city and sustainability
goals by reducing reliance on conventional electricity and promoting green infrastructure.
From an educational perspective, this project serves as an excellent learning platform in
engineering colleges, polytechnics, and schools. It demonstrates real- world applications of
embedded systems, renewable energy, and automation technologies. Students can gain
hands-on experience in programming microcontrollers, interfacing sensors and actuators,
and understanding energy management. It can also be showcased in science fairs,
exhibitions, and innovation competitions.

Additionally, the system can be scaled up or modified for specialized applications such as
disaster relief areas, temporary farming settlements, or wildlife sanctuaries, where
traditional infrastructure may be unavailable. Its low cost, portability, and ease of
installation make it an attractive option for government and NGO-led development
initiatives. In conclusion, this system is not only a technologically sound solution but also
a socially impactful one, addressing the challenges of energy access, water management,
and sustainability. Its wide applicability across different sectors highlights its potential as
a valuable contribution to smart and eco-friendly innovations.

37
 CHAPTER-7

MERITS

The solar tracking system with RTC-controlled water pump offers several
important merits that enhance both its technical performance and practical usability,
particularly in agriculture and renewable energy applications. One of the most significant
advantages is its ability to increase solar energy efficiency. By using LDR sensors and a
geared motor to align the solar panel with the direction of maximum sunlight, the system
ensures that more solar energy is captured throughout the day. This can lead to a 20–25%
increase in energy output compared to a fixed panel.Another major merit is automation.
With the integration of a Real-Time Clock (RTC) module, the system can automatically
control the water pump at scheduled times, such as early morning and evening. This
eliminates the need for manual intervention, ensuring timely and consistent irrigation. It is
particularly beneficial for farmers in remote or rural areas where labor resources may be
limited.

The system is also eco-friendly and cost-effective. It operates entirely on solar

power, reducing dependence on electricity or fossil fuels and helping to cut energy costs.
Additionally, it uses low-cost components like Arduino, LDRs, relays, and DC motors,
making it accessible and affordable for small-scale farmers.Other key merits include low
maintenance, due to the simple and durable mechanical design, and scalability, which
allows the system to be expanded or integrated with additional features like soil moisture
sensors, dual-axis tracking, or IoT connectivity. The project also promotes sustainable
farming and supports environmental conservation by using renewable energy and
optimizing water use. In summary, the system combines automation, efficiency, and
environmental responsibility, making it a practical and impactful solution for modern
agriculture and renewable energy application.

38
 CHAPTER -8
COST ESTIMATION

1. MATERIAL COST

SL.NO COMPONENTS/MATERIAL NO. OF. COST

QUANTITY
1 DC Geared Motor 1 1700

2 Arduino Uno, LCD 1 500

3 Tracking Model 1 1000

4 LDR Sensor 2 200

5 Real Time Clock 1 300

TOTAL 3700

2. LABOUR COST

 Lathe

 Drilling

 Welding

 Grinding

39
  power hacksaw

 gas cutting cost

3. OVERGHEAD CHARGES:

The overhead charges are arrived by “manufacturing cost”

Manufacturing Cost =Material Cost +Labour Cost

= 3700+1200

= 4900 Rs.

Overhead Charges =20%of the manufacturing cost

= 950 Rs.

4. TOTAL COST:

Total cost = Material Cost +Labour Cost +Overhead Charges

= 3700+1200+950

= 5850 Rs.

Total cost for this project = 5850 Rs.

40
 CHAPTER-9

CONCLUSION
9.1 CONCLUSION

The design and implementation of the solar tracking system with RTC-controlled
water pump demonstrate a practical and efficient solution that combines renewable energy
utilization with smart automation. The project successfully addresses two major challenges
in the field of sustainable agriculture: optimizing solar energy collection and automating
irrigation processes. By integrating low-cost components like Arduino Uno, LDR sensors,
a DC geared motor, RTC module, and a relay-controlled water pump, the system
effectively increases energy efficiency while reducing the need for manual intervention.

The single-axis solar tracking mechanism ensures that the solar panel remains
aligned with the sun throughout the day, significantly enhancing the amount of solar energy
captured. This leads to an estimated 20–25% improvement in power output compared to a
fixed-panel setup. The use of LDR sensors and a geared motor allows for precise and
smooth adjustments based on real-time sunlight direction, ensuring optimal panel
orientation. In parallel, the integration of a Real-Time Clock (RTC) module adds
automation to the irrigation process. The Arduino reads time data from the RTC and
activates the water pump through a relay at pre-set intervals, such as early morning and
evening. This ensures timely watering of crops without requiring any human input, which
is particularly beneficial for remote farms and off-grid agricultural applications. The water
pump operates for a fixed duration to prevent over-irrigation and minimize water wastage,
promoting efficient water resource management.

The entire system is powered by solar energy, which not only reduces electricity
costs but also supports environmentally friendly farming practices. The inclusion of a
rechargeable battery ensures that the system can operate even during cloudy days or at

41
night, providing reliability and continuity.Overall, the project demonstrates the effective
use of microcontroller-based automation in the agricultural sector, showcasing a cost-
effective, scalable, and eco-friendly approach to energy and water management. This
prototype lays the groundwork for future advancements, such as integrating soil moisture
sensors, dual-axis tracking, or IoT-based monitoring systems. By promoting renewable
energy and smart automation, project contributes to the broader goal of achieving
sustainable and smart agriculture. . The project successfully addresses two major
challenges in the field of sustainable agriculture: optimizing solar energy collection and
automating irrigation processes. By integrating low-cost components like Arduino Uno,
LDR sensors, a DC geared motor, RTC module, and a relay-controlled water pump, the
system effectively increases energy efficiency while reducing the need for manual
intervention.

9.2 FUTURE SCOPE

The solar tracking system with RTC-controlled water pump has great potential for
future development and real-world implementation. As the demand for sustainable and
smart farming solutions continues to grow, this project can be enhanced and expanded in
multiple directions to increase its efficiency, reliability, and applicability.
One of the most promising upgrades is the integration of a soil moisture sensor. This would
allow the system to irrigate only when the soil is dry, further optimizing water usage and
preventing over-irrigation. By combining time-based and sensor-based irrigation, the
system can achieve intelligent control based on both environmental conditions and
predefined schedules. Another potential enhancement is upgrading the system to a dual-
axis solar tracking mechanism.

While the current single-axis tracker increases solar efficiency significantly, a dual-axis
system can track the sun in both horizontal and vertical directions, capturing even more
sunlight and improving energy output throughout the day and across seasons. The system
can also be integrated with IoT (Internet of Things) technology for remote monitoring and
control. By connecting the Arduino to a cloud platform via Wi-Fi or GSM, users can
monitor solar panel performance, pump status, and sensor readings from a smartphone or

42
computer. By combining time-based and sensor-based irrigation, the system can achieve
intelligent control based on both environmental conditions and predefined schedules.
Another potential enhancement is upgrading the system to a dual-axis solar tracking
mechanism.This would be highly beneficial for large farms, research stations, and
government monitoring systems, enabling data logging, alerts, and maintenance
notifications. In terms of power management, future versions can include MPPT
(Maximum Power Point Tracking) charge controllers to improve the efficiency of solar
power conversion and battery charging. Energy storage can also be enhanced with more
efficient and long-lasting Li-ion or LiFePO₄ batteries. Mechanically, the tracking system
can be improved with weatherproof materials, solar panel tilting mechanisms, and sturdier
mounts to ensure durability in harsh outdoor environments. These mechanical upgrades
will make the system more robust and suitable for long-term deployment in rural and
agricultural areas.

Lastly, this system has strong potential in the fields of education, entrepreneurship,
and rural development projects. It can be scaled and commercialized as a low-cost
automation solution for farmers, or used as a foundation for student innovation challenges,
start-ups, and government-funded green technology initiatives. By connecting the Arduino
to a cloud platform via Wi-Fi or GSM, users can monitor solar panel performance, pump
status, and sensor readings from a smartphone or computer. This would be highly beneficial
for large farms, research stations, and government monitoring systems, enabling data
logging, alerts, and maintenance notifications. In terms of power management, future
versions can include MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking) charge controllers to
improve the efficiency of solar power conversion and battery charging. In conclusion, the
project has a wide scope for advancement with modern technologies, offering endless
possibilities for sustainable energy and smart agriculture.

43
 REFERENCES

1. Patel, H., & Patel, R. (2016). Dual Axis Solar Tracker System Using Arduino.

International Journal of Advanced Research in Electrical, Electronics and Instrumentation

Engineering (IJAREEIE), 5(3), 120-125.

2. Rani, B., Sharma, K., & Gupta, A. (2017). Solar Tracking System Using

Microcontroller. International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research (IJSER),

8(4), 102-107.

3. Khan, S., & Pathan, A. (2018). RTC Controlled Irrigation System. International

Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT), 56(5), 241-245.

4. Kumar, P., & Singh, A. (2019). Design and Implementation of Solar Powered Water

Pump System. International Journal of Engineering Research and Technology (IJERT),

8(6), 354-358.

5. Sharma, M., & Verma, K. (2020). Smart Solar Irrigation System Using Arduino.
International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology
(IJRASET), 8(7), 612-616.

44
PHOTOGRAPHY

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 PROTOTYPE MODEL

Fig no 9.1 TOP VIEW Fig no 9.2 FRONT VIEW

Fig no 9.3 SIDE VIEW

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2D VIEW OF SOLAR AGRO SPRAYER SYSTEM

Fig no 9.4 TOP VIEW

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 Fig no 9.5 SIDE VIEW

Fig no 9.5 SIDE VIEW

48
Fig no 9.6 FRONT VIEW

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Fig no 9.7 ISOMETRIC VIEW

50