AGRIC NOTE FOR SS2

Systems of Raising Livestock:There are three systems of raising livestock

 Extensive or free range system
 Semi-intensive system
 Intensive system
Extensive or free range system: In this system, animals are left to search for food for themselves. It is
the oldest and traditional method of rearing animal practiced generally in Nigeria
Semi-intensive system: In semi-intensive system animals are raised partly indoor and partly outdoor.
Some housing and feeding are basically provided for the animal but they freely look for food and water
most part of the day. Supplementary feeding is usually provided in form of concentrates,minerals,
vitamins, salt licks within the shelter are provided for them.
Intensive system: This is the system whereby animals are restricted or confined within a pen or a cage
and all feeding, watering, medication, vaccination and other management are provided
Requirement for Cattle Management: They belong to the group of known as Bovidae. These are
ruminants which are reared for meat, milk hide and skin, blood, bone and for work.

Breeds of Cattle
a. Beef Cattle: This type of breed are reared purposely for meat. Examples include
i. N’ dama,
ii. Red Bororo,
iii. SokotoGudali,
iv. Keteku/Borgu
v. Kuri/ lake chad cattle
vi. Rahaji,
vii. Brown Swiss,
viii. Biu.
b. Dairy Cattle: this type are reared purposely for milk . Examples include
i. White Fulani
ii. Jersey
iii. Red poll
iv. Kerry
v. Friesian
vi. Dexter
vii. South devon
viii. Dairy short horn
ix. Aushere
x. Guemsey
c. Dua-purpose Cattle: They are reared for both meat and milk production. E.g
i. Muturu
ii. Biu
iii. Azawal
iv. Shuwa

Systems of Cattle Management:

Intensive system: In this system, cattle herds are kept in confinement most of the time. The system
provides conditions for management standards; ease control of parasites, there is protection from
extreme weather conditions, predators and thieves. It requires high capital investment in terms of
building and feeding.Zero grazing is practiced here; the system also saves labor and provides conditions
for management standards and easy control of parasites.
The types of housing under this system are:

Conventional Barn: Herds of cattle are confined in a place and secured by the neck with stanchions or
neck chains.

Loose house: Herds of cattle are loose in an open pasture having shelter where they stay when the
weather is hot or cold.
Advantages:
i. Cost of production is reduced
ii. Protection against adverse weather conditions, disasters and thieves
iii. Good return on investment
iv. Proper feeding and proper health care
Disadvantages:
i. Pests and diseases can become rampant on the range
ii. Vices like fighting and cannibalism are encouraged on the range
iii. Growth may not be uniform
Semi-intensive system: In this system a form of housing unit is provided as shelter but the cattle herds
are allowed to graze on the range and retire to the house later. It is commonly practiced by the
government or academic research institutions as experimental or demonstration farms.

Extensive System: This system is basically the same for cattle, goats and sheep. The animals are left to
fend for themselves. There is no special housing provided.
It has the following features:
 No medication for the animals
 It is a cheap form of system
 No supplementary feed for the animals
 Animals are exposed to weather hazards
 Animals can be stolen or killed by wild animals
Economic Importance Of Cattle:

I. Provision milk and meat for man

II. Used as drought animals for work
III. The provide hide and skin
IV. They provide blood meal and bone meal used as feed for animal
V. The dung are used as manure
VI. Provision of employment for people especially the Fulanis
VII. It is a source of revenue to the country

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN CATTLE PRODUCTION

The various management practiced involved in cattle production are listed and explained briefly
below.
a. Housing: Housing is very necessary where cattle are managed under intensive and semi-
intensive system. The floor of the house (pens) should be made of concrete floor to avoid
 slipping. The roofing should be very high to allow for adequate ventilation .The house be kept
clean regularly.
b. Feeding: Cattle feed mainly on roughages (grass and legumes) .Common grass given to cattle
are elephant grass,guinea grass, giant star grass while legumes include centrosema and
calapogonium . Zero grazing (soilage) is practiced. This involves cutting grass and giving them
to the cattle in their pens. Rotational grazing can also be practiced. Hay, silage and straw can
be fed on by cattle especially during the dry season. Colostrum should be fed to the newly
born calves in order to give them a good start in life

c. Mating : Mating methods include

Hand mating
Pasture mating
Artificial mating
d. Servicing: This is the mating of a bull with a cow on heat . Signs of cow on heat are
 Restlessness
 Mucus discharge from vulva
 Attempting to mount other cattle in the herd
 Reddened vulva
 Reduction in milk production
 Tendency to urinate frequently
e. Dehorning: This is the removal of the horns. The advantages are
 Less space is required for feeding
 Animals eat more frequently
 They are more attractive and therefore yield more money
 They are easy to transport in vehicles
Methods used for dehorning are
I. Cross-breeding: Using polled breed like Aberdenangus produces offspring
with no hornes.
II. Use of chemicals: The use caustic soda to rub the forehead of male calves
under seven days old helps to prevent the growth of the horns
III. Use of hot iron: The hot iron is used to cut off the horns. It is quite painful
IV. Use of dehorning machines: They are special machines used to remove the
horns of older animals.
f. Castration: This is the removal of the testes of bulls. It is done when the animals is less than
one year of age. Castration helps to control indiscriminate mating in farm animals. It also
helps to quicken the fattening up of the animals.

Methods used for castration include

1. Bloodless or closed castration

2. Bloodless or closed castration
3. Open castration /incision
g. Identification of animals: The common methods used for identifying animals are
I. Branding
II. Tattooing
III. Tagging
 IV. Ear notching
h. Vaccination
i. Hygiene
j. Finishing

POULTRY
Definition: Poultry refers to all birds that are domesticated by man. These include domestic fowl, duck,
geese, turkey, guinea fowl, and pigeons.

Importance of Poultry:
1. Provision of meat and eggs as food for man
2. Feathers are used for pillows and mattresses
3. Eggs are used for producing vaccines
4. Poultry manure (guano) is used to fertilize the soil.
5. Poultry industry provides employment for many people
6. It is a means of income to poultry farmers
7. Birds are high and economical converters of feeds.
8. Birds are used for scientific experiments because they mature within a relatively short
period.

BREEDS OF DOMESTIC FOWL

Breeds purpose
White leghorn egg production
Brown leghorn egg production
Shika brown egg production
Plymouth rock dual purpose
Rhode Island Red dual purpose
Harco dual purpose
Light Sussex meat production
White Cornish meat production

Names of different types of poultry

Types of Scientific name Male Female Young ones

poultry
Chicken Gallus gallus Cock Hen Chick
Turkey MeeleagrisGallopavo Stag/tom Hen Poult
Guinea fowl Numidameleagris Guinea fowl Guinea fowl Keet
Duck Anasplatyrbuchos Drake Duck Duckling
Geese Anser species Gander Goose Gosling

SYSTEMS OF POULTRY PRODUCTION: The systems are :

 Intensive system
 Semi-intensive
  Extensive system

INTENSIVE SYSTEM: In this system, birds are reared in within a confined environment. Adequate
housing, feeding and good hygiene are made available.
The system is further divided into :
Deep litter system
Battery cage
DEEP LITTER SYSTEM: Bird (both male and female) are reared together in a suitable room .The floor of
the room is concreted and covered with wood shavings which absorbed the water associated with
faeces.the floor should be cemented and pen well ventilated. Water and feeds are given provided the
wood shavings are changed regularly as the need arise.

Advantages

1. It facilitates the management of very large stock

2. It increases the rate of growth and production
3. It maximizes the use of labour
4. it reduces the loss of birds to snakes and thieves
5. birds are protected from harsh weather conditions
6. the rate of growth and production is increased
7. it requires less capital than the battery cage system
Disadvantages
1. cost of constructing the the deep litter type of house is high
2. Birds tend to waste the feeds.
3. Vices like cannibalism, pecking, fighting , egg sucking, feathers fluffing may be very rampant
4. The spread of diseases and pests is very rapid
5. Eggs are often stained by faeces on the litters.
6. It is very difficult to cull unproductive birds since all of them mix together

BATTERY CAGE SYSTEM: In this system birds are housed in individual cages each accommodating
2, 3, or 4 birds per cubicle depending on the type.

Advantages
1. The battery system of housing has proved to be the best in regard to egg production
2. It has efficiency of food conversion
3. Reduction in mortality rate.
4. The birds are well secured
Disadvantages
1. The spread of diseases may be very fast
2. There is high cost of constructing building and equipment
3. Fertile eggs cannot be produced and as such there may be reduction in chicks production
4. Lack of freedom for birds which makes the birds to be bored and fatigue
5. More eggs are cracked , especially very thin shelled eggs
EXTENSIVE SYSTEM: this is one of the oldest form of poultry management, where birds are allowed to
fend for themselves with little or no assistance and attention from the owners . This system is sub-
divided into two forms :
 The fold system
 The free- range system.

Fold system: it is made with light materials which enable it to be moved from one place to another.
About 50 to 100 birds are kept within a fold unit

Advantages
a. It is ideal for chick rearing
b. It is mobile
c. The house is cheap to build
d. It can be practiced on small land area
e. It can be turned in into the soil as fertilizer.

Disadvantages
a. It is not good for commercial production of birds
b. Fertile eggs may not be produced
c. Eggs are often dirty
d. The spread of diseases is high
e. It requires much labour in moving the house

HOUSING OF POULTRY
 Birds are kept in pens which are made of concrete floor and well roofed
 An hatchery and feed mill unit are constructed in the house
 The pen should be on flat land , not exposed to erosion and wind
 A foot dip containing disinfectants should be constructed
 Electricity must be provided regularly
 Floor space per bird should be about 3 square meters.
FEEDING IN POULTRY
 Birds have simple stomach without teeth
 They are given mash which depends on their age and purpose
 They are fed constantly, that is, they eat every time
 There must be regular supply of clean water
 The mash should be rich in proteins , carbohydrate, vitamins and minerals

TYPES OF FEED GIVEN TO BIRDS

1. Chick mash
2. Grower marsh
3. Layer marsh
4. Broiler starter
5. Broiler finisher.

HYGIENE IN POULTRY

I. Remove sick or dead animals from the pens for quarantine.

 II. Visitors should not be allowed into poultry house. If permitted , their feet must be dipped into
water containing disinfectants
III. The entire building should be disinfected regularly
IV. Water bath containing chemicals should be provided at the entrance of the building
V. Drinkers should be washed thoroughly
OTHER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES:
Candling: This is the practice of determining the fertility of the eggs. Each egg is held against a
source of light to determine whether the egg is fertile or not. Candling is done between the 9 th and
the 14th day as the eggs are layed. Candler or Candling machine can be used.
Incubation: This is the provision of heat to fertilize eggs to enable the embryo develop into chicks.
Incubation can be natural or artificial.
Sexing: It is the practice of separating male chicks from the females. It is usually done at day old
Brooding : It involves all the care and attention given to the chicks. It should start at day old . It last
to 4 – 6 weeks . Brooding is done in the brooding house.

 PIG MANAGEMENT: Pigs are non-ruminant animals. The two main species of pig are Susscrofa
and Susvittatu. These are very prolific animals because they mature quickly between 8 – 9
months . They have short gestation period of 114 days. They are very good and efficient
converters of feed into meats.
Breeds of Pigs:
1. Landrace
2. Duroc jersey
3. Large white
4. Large black
5. Hampshire
6. Welsh
7. Chester white
8. Berkshire
9. Poland china
10. Essex saddle back
11. Wessex saddle back
12. West African Dwarf
13. Tamworth
14. Saddle back

SYSTEMS OF REARING PIGS: The systems are basically Extensive, Semi-intensive and Intensive systems.
Extensive System: Like other farm animals the animals are allowed to fend for themselves.
Advantage
 They do not attract any attention in terms of housing, feeding, health care.
 It has little or no capital investment
 The cost of production is low
Disadvantage
 This system affects the growth rate of the animals.
 Diseases incidence of worm infestation are very high
 The animal are exposed to adverse weather condition
 They are expose to theft
Semi-intensive System: In this system pigs are reared partly indoor and partly outdoor. The female pig
with or without the male pigs are allowed to run outside.

Advantage
 In this system labour requirement is low
 less feed is required as the pigs graze for food.
 The can easily exercise themselves to prevent fat built-up in the body.
 The system needs less capital investment

Disadvantage
 Incidence of diseases and parasite infestations are slightly high
 They are expose to theft
 Slow growth rate

Intensive System: In this system pigs are completely raised in houses with concrete floors

Advantage
 This allowed for easy daily cleaning.
 Feeds , water, medications are provided daily in adequate quantity
 Good sanitation is maintained.
 There is maximum security for the pig
 The growth rate is high

Disadvantage
 Feeds conversion is high, hence growth rate is also high.
 The system is capital intensive.
HOUSING: The pen are divided into unit depending on the functions they serve .For example:
a. Farrowing Pen: For delivering of the litters
b. Litter Pen: Where newly delivered are kept and given adequate care
c. Mating pen: Where mating between a male and a female pigs is done.
d. Growers Pen: Where piglets are kept and given adequate care
e. Sickbay/Isolation pen: where sick animals are kept and treated.
While constructing a pig pen, ensures that the walls is built with blocks and iron bars, the roof made
with iron sheets or asbestos, the pen well ventilated, the gates should be strong, litters are provided as
beddings, shade to keep the building cool all the time.
FEEDING: Pigs are voracious . They feed on concentrates; tubers like cassava, yam, cocoyam; maize,
sorghum and household left over. Occasionally vegetables are supplied to provide vitamins and
minerals. At different stages pigs are fed with different type of rations. Piglets are given Creep feeding 2
weeks after farrowing.
HYGIENE: Pigs pens need to be cleaned regularly to prevent the occurrence of diseases. The following
should be done on regular basis.
a. Clean the pen regularly
b. Change on the wallow on regular basis
c. Clean the troughs regularly
d. Change the beddings at intervals
e. De-worm animals
f. Disinfect the pens and carry out dipping against ecto-parasites
 COMMON DISEASES OF PIGS
Common diseases of pigs include:
i. Brucellosis or contagious abortion
ii. Anthrax
iii. Enteritis or swine dysentery
iv. Hog cholera/ swine fever
v. Transmissible gastro-enteritis

RABBITS MANAGEMENT: They are mono-gastric animals which belong to the family of Leporidae. They
have simple stomach like that of pigs. The meat is very nutritious and low in cholesterol . It is a suitable
alternative to poultry meat.it is better than poultry meat.

BREEDS OF RABBITS
1. California white
2. California red
3. Flemish giant
4. Chinchilla
5. New Zealand white
6. New Zealand red
7. Angora
8. Blue beveren

HOUSING:
 Rabbits are normally housed in hutches or cages.
 It can be constructed in single units ,double or tree-tie units
 The floor space is covered with wire mesh which allows for disposal of the faeces
 The hutches are made of wood with wire netting and asbestos roofing.
 The cages should be 1m from the ground
 Nest boxes should be provided for adequate care of the young ones
Battery Cage: This can be used for fatteners that is raised from 4 weeks (weaners) to the point of
slaughter
FEEDING: They are fed with:
 Concentrates in mash form
 Green feeds suchas vegetable leaves, sweet potato leaves, Aspillia Africana, Stylosanthesgracilis
and Centrosemaspp
 Grower mash

HYGIENE: The following hygienic practices should be carried out to ensure successful management of
rabbit’s production
 Remnant feed should be removed every morning
 Feeders and water troughs should be cleaned daily
 The floor should be cleaned and disinfect at intervals
 Deworm them with appropriate drugs
Importance of rabbit
1. It is a source of meat
2. Skin or pelt
3. Manure
 4. For research purpose

Problem militating against rabbit production in Nigeria.

1. Unpredictable breeding behavior of rabbit
2. Incidence of respiratory diseases e.g., snuffles and pneumonia
3. Inadequate sanitation and proper sanitation programmes.
4. High nest-box mortality of litters

COMMON DISEASES OF RABBIT

1. Coccidiosis
2. Enteritis
3. Ear canker
4. Bloat
5. Mixomitosis
6. Helminthiasis
7. Ringworm
8. Sore-hock

 GOATS MANAGEMENT: Goats are ruminants and very hardy type of animal which are regarded
as scavengers.

Importance of Keeping Goats

1. Goats provides meat as a source of protein
2. Goats supply good nutritious milk
3. Goats provides hides used in the manufacturing of leather works
4. They provides hair(mohair) used for making carpets and bags

Factors Responsible for Success in Goats Production

i. Goats thrive on variety of feeds. They eat almost everything that is not soiled.
ii. They have high efficiency of feed conversion
iii. Goats have short gestation interval.
BREEDS OF GOATS:
1. Sokoto red/Maradi
2. Bornu red
3. Kano brown
4. Bauchi
5. Sahel/Fulani/Desert Goats
6. West African Dwarf Goats
7. West African long legged Goats
8. East African small Goats

SYSTEMS USED FOR GOATS KEEPING

The three systems used for rearing goats are similar to the ones used for all other ruminants.
These are extensive , Semi-intensive and Intensive systems.
HOUSING: Their houses are normally built with asbestos or thatch material for roof, concrete floor.
Litters as bedding are placed on the floor
FEEDING: Goats feed on roughages and concentrates. At times they are giving the peelings of yam,
cassava, groundnuts, guinea corn, etc
HYGIENE:
i. Their houses should properly cleaned, washed and disinfect
ii. Beddings should be removed at intervals
iii. The animals should be occasionally be dewormed and dusted
iv. Feeding and water troughs should be cleaned regularly
v. Sick animal should be culled or isolated

 SHEEP MANAGEMENT: Sheep belong to the genusBovidae which is the domesticated

species. Sheep was first domesticated in Asia and gradually extended to all parts of the world.
Within Africa, sheep are important in Kenya, Mali, Ethiopia, Tanzania and northern Nigeria.
Breeds of Sheep
i. Ouda/Uda
ii. Merino
iii. Y’ankassa
iv. Balami
v. Dorset horn
vi. Lohi
vii. Nellore
viii. West African Dwarf sheep

HOUSING : Housing in sheep rearing is similar to that obtained in goats keeping.

a. The house should be made of concrete, the roof of asbestos or iron sheets and floor of concrete
b. The gates should be made of iron bars and barded wires
c. Bedding of straws or wood shavings should be provided
d. Provide hay racks for feeding sheep
e. The house should be well ventilated
FEEDING OF SHEEP
a. They can be raised entirely on roughages like grasses and legumes
b. Feed supplements like grains , concentrates, hay and silage are also essential
Feed additives like mineral salts and vitamins are also supplied to them
HYGIENE:
 Sheep should be vaccinated with appropriate drugs
 They should be de-wormed and dusted at regular intervals
 Clean feeding troughs and water troughs on regular basis
 The surroundings should be kept clean and bushes around cut down.

TOPIC: ANIMAL NUTRITION

MEANING OF ANIMAL NUTRITION
Animal nutrition is the science of which studies the food requirement of animals.
Food given to livestock is called feed.
The feed is needed for (a)energy, growth repair of worn out tissues and general good health of the
animals.
 Nutrition is defined as the science of feeding and nourishes the body. It is the series of processes
by which an organism takes in or ingests, digest and assimilate food for promoting growth and for the
replacement of worn out tissues.
Animal nutrition can then be defined as the science of feeding animal with an appropriate diet
capable of nourishing the animal for growth development reproduction and repairs of worn out
tissue.
Therefore the ingredients used for making the feeds must have the following nutrients in adequate
quantities and required proportions.
(a) Carbohydrate
(b) Protein
(c) Vitamins
(d) Minerals
(e) Crude fibre
(f) Fat water.
The level of nutrient or nutritional requirement of animal depend on the following factors
• Age of the animal – young grower
• Class of animal – egg producer, ruminant or non-ruminant, meat animal.
• Production level – growers, young layers and old layer dry sow.
Reasons for feeding farm animals feeds are fed to farm animals for the following purposes.
• To provide necessary elements for repairing the wear and tear of the body to provide raw
material for synthesis of body source in growth.
• To serve as a source of energy for vital processes in the body e.g growth, work, reproduction,
respiration digestion etc. For generating heat necessary for maintaining body temperature. To
serve as raw materials for the production of milk meat egg wool etc.

CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTIC OF FEED

Animal feed stuffs are classified on their chemical nutritional composition, bulkiness and use.
The chemical composition or nutrients gives the potential value of the feed but does not give the
actual value.
Feeds can be classified into
1. BASAL / ENERGY FEED OR CARBOHYDRATE CONCENTRATE
Examples are cereal grains like maize, guinea corn, wheat roots and tubers.

• PROTEIN CONCENTRATE
Protein is made up of carbon, hydrogen oxygen and sulphur, nitrogen and phosphorous.
Animal proteins have a higher nutritive value than plant protein because they contain some
essential amino acid which may be lack in plant protein
They are therefore used to supplement plant proteins.
• ROUGHAGES
Characteristics
Roughages are characterized by the relatively large amount of crude fibre that their dry matter
contains.
They are bulky
They are low in protein
They can also be grouped into:
(a) dry roughages : Dry roughages are (a) hays (b) straws
b) Succulent: They are all growing fresh vegetation
They are referred to as pastures. Succulent can also be (a) soilage (b) silage.
  Additives: These are non-nutritive materials which when added to feed improve the
performance of animals but whose absence from the feed does not constitute a nutrient
deficiency situation for the animals. Examples are coccidiostat , synthetic enzymes , antibiotics
etc
SOURCES AND FUNCTIONS OF FOOD NUTRIENTS
The components of feed that are absorbed and utilized in the bodies of animals after digestion are
known as nutrients.
There are six classes of food nutrients which are needed by farm animals for growth and proper
development these are
• carbohydrate
• protein
• fat and oil
• minerals
• vitamins
• water

TYPES OF RATION AND THEIR USES

Definition: A ration is the amount of total feed which is provided to an animal over a 24 hour
period. It is the amount of feed taken by an animal per day.
Diet: This is the quantity of feed consumed by an animal at a meal or period.
Types of Ration: Ration can be classified into :
a. maintenance ration
b. production ration
RATION FORMULATION
Ration Formulation involves the careful combination of all the food nutrients in such a way as to meet
the nutritional requirement for a particular animal. When formulating ration for farm animals the
following principles should be considered;
PRINCIPLES OR FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN FORMULATING LIVESTOCK RATION.
1. The physiological state of the animal whether for pregnant, dry or lactating or young animals
2. The availability of the feed stuff
3. The composition of the nutrients
4. The age of the animal
5. The familiarity of the feed to animals
6. Purpose of keeping the animals
7. Palatability of the feed
8. The cost of the feed stuff
9. The physical characteristic of the ration must be considered e.g. pellet or granules.
A Good Ration must carefully combine Protein sources (e.g. fish meal, soybean or groundnut cake), Fat
sources (e.g palm kernel cake, oils), Carbohydrate sources (e.g. cereals) vitamins and mineral sources
that will provide the entire food nutrient needed for a balanced ration at a reasonable cost.
Supplementary feeding is the act of providing extra or additional feed or nutrients to farm animals in
order to augment the feed that is normally made available to them.

METHODS OF FORMULATING RATION

1. Pearson’s Square method
2. Trial and Error method
3. Algebraic method
4. Linear Programme / Computer method

PEARSON’s SQUARE METHOD

The Pearson Square method is easier when only two ingredients or two variables are involved.
Example 1: Formulate 20% crude protein ration using
Maize – 10% Crude Protein (C.P)
Soybean – 42% Crude Protein (C.P)

In addition to the diet, add the following ingredients;

Rice bran – 10% which has 15% C.P
Bone meal – 1%
Mineral / Vit premix – 0.5%
Salt - 0.5%
12%

Solution
Let the total % of the ingredients equal to 100%
Therefore 100 – 12 = 88% will be supplied by soybean and maize
If rice bran give 1.5% of the total protein i.e 10 X 15 = 1.5% which is 20%
100
Therefore soya bean and maize will give 20 - 1.5 = 18.5%
18.5 X 100 = 21.02
88
Maize 20.98 (part maize)
100% 21.02
Soy bean 11.02 Part soy bean
42% 32 - which is the addition of part
Maize and part soy bean
Ingredient composition now calculated
Percentage maize 20.98 X 0.88 X 100
32
= 57.695%
Percentage Soy bean 11.02 X 0.88 X 100
32
= 30.305%
NOTE: 88% supply by maize and soybean is calculated 88/100 = 0.88

The composition for the ration is:

% crude protein
Maize 57.695 X 0.10 = 5.7695
Soybean 30. 305 X 0.42(%C.P) = 12.728
Rice bran 10.00 X 0.15(%C.P) = 1.5
Bone meal 1.00
Min / Vitpremix .5
Salt .5
100.0 19.9976 ≈ 20% crude protein
The feed is for 100kg
To calculate for 1000kg = 1 tonne
Each ingredientX 1000
100

MALNUTRITION IN FARM ANIMALS

This refers to imperfect or faulty nutrition of animals. It is the condition in which an animal shows
evidence of nutritional deficiency as a result of improper feeding. It occurs when an animal takes in an
insufficient quantity of feed, or eat diet which are deficient in one or more nutrients like protein,
carbohydrate, minerals and vitamins. This eventually results in nutritional disease.
This may also occur if there is interference with the digestion and absorption of one or more nutrients
from the digestive tract, and or binding of nutrients by some substances making amounts available for
utilization by the animal to be inadequate.

TOPIC: BASIC ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES AND FACTORS OF PRODUCTION

Economics is a social science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce
means which have alternative uses. It deals with production, distribution, exchange (marketing) and
consumption of agricultural goods. Basic Economics principles include:
 wants
 scarcity
 choice
 scale of preference
 opportunity cost
 law of diminishing return
 LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURN: It states that increase in the supply of variable factor (fertilizer)
of production to a fixed factor (land) is to have marginal product (output) increase to a point
where increase in the amount of variable factor will bring about decrease in marginal product.
For example, if fertilizer application to a crop growing on a fixed area of land is increasing, the
yield will increase at first. But it will reach a point when further addition of fertilizer will be
increasing the yield at a diminishing rate.

A TABLE SHOWING DIMINISHING RETURN

Fixed Factor Variable Factor Total Product Marginal Product Average Product
10 1 10 10 10
10 2 30 20 15
10 3 60 30 20
10 4 100 40 25
10 5 120 20 24
10 6 132 12 22
10 7 140 8 20
10 8 146 6 18
GRAPH SHOWING LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURN

Importance of Law of Diminishing Return

i.It helps the farmers to minimize cost and maximize profits
ii.It helps in decision making
iii.It helps the famers to know the best production each factor should be combined with
iv.It helps the farmers to know when the combination of the factor is profitable or not.
v. It helps the farmers to reduce cost of production

FACTORS OF PRODUCTION
Every production requires resources which must be combined together to produce goods and provide
services. Production simply means combination of natural, human and man-made (materials) resources
to create goods and services. Factors of production or agents of production are necessary resources that
are combined together to bring about production. Such factors include land, labor, capital and
management or entrepreneur.

1. Land
2. Labour
3. Capital

QUALITIES OF A FARM MANAGER

1.He must be literate and current
2.He must be innovative and flexible
3.He must be willing to accept responsibility
4. He must be wise in decision making
5.He must be firm and impartial in the affairs of his staff
6. He must be diligent and hard working
7. He must be patient and painstaking

FUNCTIONS OF A FARM MANAGER

1.He employs the right type of workers
2.He prepares duty roster, trains and assesses staff performance
3.He sets targets and develops strategies and plans to achieve them
4.He secures land, loans and decides enterprise to embark on
5.He keeps records and supervises accounts
6.He determines what to produce and process before marketing etc

PROBLEMS OF A FARM MANAGER

1.Inadequate capital or finance
2.Inadequate personnel (Incompetent workers)
3.Government unstable policy
4.Administrative problem
5.Lack of storage facilities

TOPIC: FUNCTIONS AND PROBLEMS OF A FARM AMNAGER

MEANING OF A FARM MANAGER

Farming is a business that requires adequate management, hence the need an efficient farm manager. A
farm manager is the person whose responsibility is to direct the affairs of a farm both administratively
and technically
QUALITIES OF A FARM MANAGER
1. He must be literate and current
2. He must be innovative and flexible
3. He must be willing to accept responsibility
4. He must be wise in decision making
5. He must be firm and impartial in the affairs of his staff
6. He must be diligent and hard working
7. He must be patient and painstaking

FUNCTIONS OF A FARM MANAGER

1. He employs the right type of workers
2. He prepares duty roster, trains and assesses staff performance
3. He sets targets and develops strategies and plans to achieve them
4. He secures land, loans and decides enterprise to embark on
5. He keeps records and supervises accounts
6. He determines what to produce and process before marketing
7. He ensure adequate security of the farm
8. He obtains market information and also determines prices of goods
9. He determines when, where and what to sell to make maximum profit
10. He arranges regular supply of inputs.

PROBLEMS OF A FARM MANAGER

1. Inadequate capital or finance
2. Inadequate personnel (Incompetent workers)
3. Government unstable policy
4. Administrative problem
5. Lack of storage facilities
6. Poor personal relationship
7. Lack of adequate evaluation procedure
8. Problem of marketing farm produces
9. Lack of adequate information
10. Lack of transport facilities

TOPIC: PRINCIPLES OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY

DEMANDcan be defined as the quantity of a commodity that an individual is willing and able to buy at
a specific price within a given period of time. Demand is more than the desire to have something. It
must be backed with the ability to pay the price.

LAW OF DEMAND: This law states that there is inverse relationship between the price and the quantity
of produce demanded. It therefore means that the higher theprice the lower the quantity demanded.

DEMAND SCHEDULE: Makes the law of demand explicit. It shows the relationship between the price
and the quantity of the commodity demanded. Demand schedule shows the amount of a commodity
that a person will buy at various prices in a given period.

PRICE (N) QUANTITY DEMANDED(Kg)

100 10
80 20
60 30
40 40
20 50

DEMAND CURVE: This is the representation of a demand schedule in a graphical form. It shows the
relationship between the price of a commodity and the quantity bought at each price. The slope is
negative because the aim of consumer is price reduction
FACTORS AFFECTING DEMAND OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE
1. The price of commodity
2. The price of other commodity
3. Level of consumer income
4. Population
5. Weather
6. Future expectation
7. Technology
8. Advertisement
9. Government policy
10. Social events and festival

MOVEMENT ALONG DEMAND CURVE

This refers to increase or decrease in the quantity of commodity demanded as a result of rise or fall in
the price of the commodity. This represents a movement along the same demand curve.

SHIFT IN DEMAND CURVE

This is a change in the demand other than the change in the price of a commodity eg a change in
consumers’ income will result in a shift in the demand curve either to the right or to the left. When the
shift is to the right it indicates an increase in demand and vice versa. Demand curve can shift through
the following:
i. Increase or decrease in consumer income
ii. Shift in consumer taste and preferences
iii. Prices of other related products

ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
It means the degree of responsiveness of demand to a slight change in price

TYPES OF ELASTICITY OF DEMAND

1.UNITARY ELASTICITY: This is a change in price which causes an equal change in demand, E =1
2. INELASTIC DEMAND: this is when a change in price causes small change in the demand, E <1
3.ELASTIC DEMAND: it is when a change in price causes greater change in demand, E>1
4.ZERO ELASTICITY/PERFECT INELASTIC: demand remains unchanged as a result of changes in price, E=0
5.PERFECT ELASTICITY/INFINITE ELASTICITY: the demand changes as a result of constant price,E=infinite

SUPPLY
Supply is defined as the quantity of a commodity that producer is willing and able to offer for sale at a
given price over a particular period of time. The quantity offer for sale in the market is known as
effective supply.

LAW OF SUPPLY: It states that there is direct or positive relationship between the price and the
quantity offered for sale. Conversely, the higher the price, the higher the quantity offered for sale and
vice versa.

SUPPLY SCHEDULE: It is a table showing a relationship between the price and the quantity supplied

PRICE(N) QUANTITY(Kg)
100 50
80 40
60 30
40 20
20 10
SUPPLY CURVE: It is a graph showing relationship between the price and the quantity of produce
offered for sale. It is derived from supply schedule. It is positive because the aim of production is profit
making.

FACTORS AFFECTING SUPPLY OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE

1.Price of commodity
2.Price of other commodity
3.Changes in cost of production
4.Technological advancement
5.Changes in climate and weather
6.Aims and objectives of the farmers
7.Prices of factors of production
8.Changes in the number of producers
9.Taxation
10.Period of festivals
11.Government policies

MOVEMENT ALONG THE SUPPLY CURVE AND SHIFTER VARIABLES

1.Change in the Quantity Supplied versus Change(shift) in Supply Curve:
 A change in the quantity supply refers to an increase or decrease in the quantity supply as a
result of increase or decrease in price.
 It is caused by a change in price of the commodity while other factors remain the same.
 It involves a movement along a particular supply
ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY
It is the degree of responsiveness of supply to a little change in price of goods.
TYPES OF ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY

1. UNITY ELASTICITY: It means change in price brings equal change in supply, E=1
2. ELASTIC SUPPLY: It means price changes brings increase in quantity of produce supplied, E>1
3. INELASTIC SUPPLY: Price changes causes less quantity supplied, E<1
4. PERFECTLY ELASTIC SUPPLY: Changes in the supply of produce at a given (constant) price, E=infinity
5. PERFECTLY INELASTIC SUPPLY: The supply of produce remains constant as price keeps changing, E=0

PRICE DETERMINATION
Interaction between consumer (demand) and producer (supply) as influenced by price brings about
equilibrium price. Equilibrium price means price at which the quantity demanded and the quantity
supplied is equal. The point where demand and supply curves meet is called equilibrium point/position.
Under this condition, there is no pressure.
PRICE(N) DEMAND(Kg) SUPPLY (Kg)
5 100 20
10 80 40
15 60 60
20 40 80
25 20 100
TOPIC: IMPLICATIONS OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY FOR AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION

The implications of demand and supply for agricultural production include the following
1.When the demand for a farm produce exceeds supply, price tends to rise
2.When the demand for a farm produce is lower than the supply, the price falls
3.Increase in the income of the consumer will make them demand for more farm produce vice versa
4.Increase in the price of produce may lead to low demand for it and shift to the close substitute that
has a lower price
5.High cost of production may lead to low output, low supply and high prices of produce and vice versa

PRICE SUPPORT AND ITS EFFECTS ON AGRICULTURE

Price support is the government imposed price floors on selected farm produce. It is also known as
‘minimum prices’ established by the government above equilibrium price. The government supports in
the following ways:
i. Support for farm prices income and output
ii.Support for soil and water conservation
iii.Support for agric research
iv. Support in the form of farm credit
v. Support in the form of insurance (crop and animals)
vi. Subsidized sale of farm produce
EFFECTS
1. They increase farmers’ income
2. They increase food prices to consumers
3.They cause an over allocation of resources to agriculture
4.The pollution increases because of the greater use of agrochemicals
5.The society pays higher taxes to finance the purchase and storage of surplus output
6. They cause surplus production

PRICE CONTROL AND EFFECTS ON AGRICULTURE

Price control is the fixing of prices above (minimum price) or below (maximum price)the equilibrium
price. It is also called minimum and maximum price legislation. Price control is divided into two:
a. MAXIMUM PRICE CONTROL (PRICE CEILING): This is the maximum legal price a seller may charge for a
produce. It is fixed below the market equilibrium price. It enables the consumers to obtain more of the
produce they could not afford at equilibrium price. Government uses it to control inflation

EFFECTS
1.There will be excess demand over supply and results in shortage of such commodities in the market
2.Rationing problem will occur
3.A black market will exist where produce are bought and sold at prices above the legal limits
4.Producers may hoard part of the produce to create artificial scarcity
5.Producers whose prices are controlled will have a fall in income
6.Low income received by producers may result in changing to production of other commodity causing a
fall in output

b.MINIMUM PRICE CONTROL (PRICE FLOORS)

This is the minimum legal price fixed by the government to protect the producers from low and
fluctuating income. It is also used to regulate wages. A seller can sell at or above the price. Price below
minimum legal price is illegal. Marketing and commodity boards play this role in Nigeria before each
crop season

EFFECTS
1.There will be excess supply over demand which results in persistent produce surplus
2.There will be a rise in prices of commodities.
3.Wastage will result from low demand and excess supply
4.Increase in demand for alternatives as they may be cheaper

SUBSIDY AND EFFECTS ON AGRICULTURAL

Subsidy is an incentive in cash or kind aimed at encouraging producers to produce more goods by
reducing their cost of production. This includes government giving farmers farm inputs such as
fertilizers, improved seeds at prices lower than the normal market prices.

REASONS FOR FARM SUBSIDIES

1. Farmers are poor and therefore should receive higher prices and incomes through public help
2. Farming and particularly the family farm is fundamental and should be nurtured as a way of life
3.Farmers are subject to extraordinary hazards such as flood, droughts, pests and diseases

EFFECTS
1.It encourages farmers to produce and supply large quantities of farm produce
2.It reduces the cost of production
3.It increases the profit of the farmers
4.It increases the supply of produce
5.It reduces the market price of food.

TOPIC: AGRICULTURAL FINANCE

It should be noted that all agricultural activities requires fiscal cash for effective farming activities. In
most cases the cash has to be raised by the farmers, and where he cannot, he source for them.
The loans which can be: Short, medium or long terms are paid by the farmers with interest. Farmers face
a lot of problems in order to obtain the loan as they are required to provide collateral security or to pay
high interest rate.
Due to the nature of agricultural activities, such as
(a) The risk involve
(b) The long period it takes for maturity and
(c) The yield at times not encouraging most financial institutions do not give loans to the farmers

Definition: This is the process of sourcing, acquiring and application of capital in agricultural business.

Importance of Agricultural Financing

1. it enables the farmers to carry out production on a daily basis
2. it helps the farmers to pay wages and other expenses
3. it enables the farmers to adjust to changing economic conditions
4. it increases the efficiency of production
5. it ensures timeliness of operation
SOURCES OF AGRICULTURAL FINANCING
Farmers can source for finance to carry out agricultural activities from the following sources
i. Persona Saving or Self Finance: This refers to the money saved by an individual which can be
used to finance his farming activities
ii. Commercial Banks: Commercial banks are sources through which famers can source or obtain
money. E.g First Bank, UBA, Union Banks, etc.
iii. Micro Finance: They also provide the farmers with credit/loan , although the credit granted is
usually small and inadequate to meet the need of the farmers

TOPIC: AGRICULTURAL FINANCE CONTINUED

CLASSIFICATION OF CREDITS
Credits are loans obtain by a farmer to start or expand his farming business. It may be in kind or cash.
Credits are payable over a period of time with some interest determined by the source of the credits.
Before credit is given out to a farmer, the lender needs detailed information about the borrower.
Certain vital statistics should be provided .Such as :
 Reliability of the citizen
 The intended purpose
 The plan for the proposed projects (feasibility Studies)
 The ability of the farmer to execute the project successfully
 Collateral Security in form of
i. Landed property (stationed in good site)
ii. Stocks and shares
iii. Life assurance policy
TYPES OF CREDITS
There are three types or classes of credits given to the farmers. They are based on length or period
namely:
1. Short term credits
 2. Medium term credits
3. Long term credits

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SOURCES OF CREDITS

a. Institutional Credits: Credits can be obtained from institutions in the form of cash. Such
institutions include banks , cooperative society, government and non-governmental
organizations
b. Non-institutional Credits: These are credits sources which are :
i. personal savings
ii. friends
iii. gifts
iv. relatives
v. money merchants( money lenders)
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON LIQUIDITY:
a. Loan in Cash: These are loans received in cash. E.g Loans from banks, cooperative society
b. Loan in Kind: These are subsidies provided on farm inputs such as equipment and machinery .
They are the assistance render to the farmers in form of material provision
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CREDITS AND SUBSIDIES: The table below shows the differences between
credits facilities and subsidies
CREDITS SUBSIDY
1. they are repayable loans with or without Financial aids in the form of lumpsum
interest
2. it is always in cash It may be in cash or kind
3. it is repayable It is non- repayable
4. it includes bank loans, credit scheme It includes reduction in prices of inputs like
chemicals,seeds, fertilizers etc
5. it has a time period It is given and never to be returned
6. government does not bear part of the Government bears part of the burden
burden

Problems Faced By Farmers in Procuring Agricultural Credits

Farmers face a lot of problems in obtaining loan/credit facilities, some of these problems are
1. Farmers may not have the necessary collateral security to obtain loan.
2. Agricultural projects such as crop and animal production takes time to mature
3. The risk involves in agricultural projects : Farmers are faced with a lot of natural hazards such as
adverse weather conditions and drought
4. The interest rate charged by financial institutions are very high
5. Inadequate proper record of account: most farmers do not keep proper record hence their true
financial position cannot be ascertained
PROBLEMS FACED BY INSTITUTIONS IN GRANTING LOANS TO FARMERS
I. Lack of proper record keeping by farmers
II. Diversion of loans by borrowers to non- agricultural purposes
III. Long gestation period of agricultural crops
IV. Inadequate collateral stocks, share building , life insurance policies
V. The risks involved in agricultural project especially crop production
MEANING OF CAPITAL MARKET: A capital market is where business enterprises, companies and
government raise long term fund in carrying out their activities. OR
These are institutions that deal with medium and long terms loans for investors to inject into their
business. A typical example of a capital market is the stock market
Agricultural investors like other business practitioners can approach this market to source for fund for
agro-business.
INSTITUTIONS INVOLVED IN THE CAPITAL MARKET
1. Commercial Banks
2. Mortgage Banks
3. Nigeria Agricultural Cooperative and rural Development Bank (NACRDB)
4. Government Agencies e.g. Central Bank of Nigeria
5. Stock Broken Firms
SOURCES OF FUND FOR CAPITAL MARKET
a. Bonds
b. Insurance Companies
c. Merchant Banks
d. The Stock Exchange Banks
e. Private Investors

The role of Capital Market in the Development of Agribusiness

The Stock Exchange Market: The stock or equity market is a highly organized capital market which
provides facilities for buying and selling of securities such as shares, Stocks, debenture and government
bonds.
It comprises a loose network of economic transaction and not a physical facility or discrete entity for
trading of company at an agreed price. The stock exchange is principally concerned with the creation of
market or second hand securities. The stock are listed or traded on the stock exchange floor
A very good example of a stock exchange in West Africa is the Nigerian Stock Exchange which was
incorporated in 1960.
The principal dealers in the stock exchange are the
a. Brokers
b. Jobbers
BROKERS: They act as agents ofindividual or firm who wish to sell or buy securities. The public does not
operate directly in the stock exchange. The brokers buy and sell securities on behalf of the clients or
customers. They charge commission for performing the service.

JOBBERS: These are the main dealers of stock, shares and other form of securities.
1. They transact business with the brokers and have no direct dealing with the public.
2. They have two prices, lower price for buying and higher price for selling .
3. They aim at margin or jobber returns.
The public sell securities to or buys from them through brokers.
Companies involved in Stock Exchange in Nigeria connected with agriculture
a. Ellsh Lake Plc
b. FTN Cocoa Processing Plc
c. Livestock Feeds Plc
d. Okomu Oil Palm Plc
e. PRESCO Plc

ROLES OF CAPITAL MARKET: The role of the capital market in agricultural development includes:
 I. Provision of loan: Medium and long term loans are provided to prospective investors in the area
of agricultural projects
II. Technical and financial advice: They offer technical and financial advice to potential investors in
various sectors of the economy. They advise investors on how best to carry out their business
operations
III. Conduct studies on the Economy : They usually carry out detailed study of the economy
progress in the various areas of endeavor and provide solutions to them
IV. Compensation to Insurance Companies : They encourage the growth of business and its
expansion by agreeing to identify (compensate against certain losses)
V. Provision of capital: They help in raising capital for agricultural projects. This is done by bringing
together the funds of large number of investors (insecurities) and making them available to
firms.