Finite Element Method Vs Classical Methiods

1. In classical methods exact equations are formed and exact solutions are obtained
where as in finite element analysis exact equations are formed but approximate
solutions are obtained.
2. Solutions have been obtained for few standard cases by classical methods, where as
solutions can be obtained for all problems by finite element analysis.
3. Whenever the following complexities are faced, classical method makes the drastic
assumptions’ and looks for the solutions:
(a) Shape
(b) Boundary conditions
(c) Loading
Figure below shows such cases in the analysis of slabs (plates).

To get the solution in the above cases, rectangular shapes, same boundary condition
along a side and regular equivalent loads are to be assumed. In FEM no such
assumptions are made. The problem is treated as it is.
4. When material property is not isotropic, solutions for the problems become very
difficult in classical method. Only few simple cases have been tried successfully by

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 researchers. FEM can handle structures with anisotropic properties also without any
difficulty.
5. If structure consists of more than one material, it is difficult to use classical method,
but finite element can be used without any difficulty.
6. Problems with material and geometric non-linearities can not be handled by classical
methods. There is no difficulty in FEM.
Hence FEM is superior to the classical methods only for the problems involving a
number of complexities which cannot be handled by classical methods without making
drastic assumptions. For all regular problems, the solutions by classical methods are
the best solutions. Infact, to check the validity of the FEM programs developed, the
FEM solutions are compared with the solutions by classical methods for standard
problems.

NEED FOR STUDYDING FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

Now, a number of users’ friendly packages are available in the market. Hence one may
ask the question ‘What is the need to study FEA?’
The above argument is not sound. The finite element knowledge makes a good engineer
better while just user without the knowledge of FEA may produce more dangerous
results. To use the FEA packages properly, the user must know the following points
clearly:
1. Which elements are to be used for solving the problem in hand?
2. How to discritise to get good results.
3. How to introduce boundary conditions properly.
4. How the element properties are developed and what are their limitations.
5. How the displays are developed in pre and post processor to understand their
limitations.
6. To understand the difficulties involved in the development of FEA programs and
hence the need for checking the commercially available packages with the results of
standard cases.

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 Unless user has the background of FEA, he may produce worst results and may go
with overconfidence. Hence it is necessary that the users of FEA package should
have sound knowledge of FEA.

Warnings by Commercial FEM Software Packages

When hand calculations are made, the designer always gets the feel of the structure and
gets rough idea about the expected results. This aspect cannot be ignored by any designer,
whatever is the reliability of the program.
User must remember that structural behavior is not dictated by the computer programs.
Hence the designer should develop feel of the structure and make use of the programs to
get numerical results which are close to structural behavior.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

In engineering problems there are some basic unknowns. If they are found, the behavior
of the entire structure can be predicted. The basic unknowns or the Field variables
which are encountered in the engineering problems are:
• Displacements in solid mechanics,
• Velocities in fluid mechanics,
• Electric and magnetic potentials in electrical engineering and
• Temperatures in heat flow problems.
In a continuum, these unknowns are infinite. The finite element procedure reduces such
unknowns to a finite number by dividing the solution region into small parts called
elements and by expressing the unknown field variables in terms of assumed
approximating functions (Interpolating functions/Shape functions) within each
element. The approximating functions are defined in terms of field variables of specified
points called nodes or nodal points. Thus in the finite element analysis the unknowns are
the field variables of the nodal points. Once these are found the field variables at any
point can be found by using interpolation functions.

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GENERAL STEPS OF THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
Step 0: Obtain a basic understanding of the problem you are attempting to solve.
• Are any classical solutions (closed-form) available?
• Is there any experimental solutions?
• Which modes of deformation do you expect to significantly contribute to the
structure’s behavior?
Step 1: Discretize and Select the Element Types
Step 1 involves dividing the body into an equivalent system of finite elements with
associated nodes and choosing the most appropriate element type to model most
closely the actual physical behavior.
• The total number of elements used and their variation in size and type within a given
body are primarily matters of engineering judgment.
• The elements must be made small enough to give usable results and yet large
enough to reduce computational effort.
• Small elements (and possibly higher order elements) are generally desirable where the
results are changing rapidly, such as where changes in geometry occur; large elements
can be used where results are relatively constant.
• The choice of elements used in a finite element analysis depends on the physical
makeup of the body under actual loading conditions and on how close to the actual
behavior the analyst wants the results to be. Judgment concerning the appropriateness
of one-, two-, or three-dimensional idealizations is necessary. Moreover, the choice of
the most appropriate element for a particular problem is one of the major tasks that
must be carried out by the designer/analyst.

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• Elements that are commonly employed in practice are:
• The primary line elements consist of bar (or truss) and beam elements. They have a
cross-sectional area but are usually represented by line segments. In general, the cross-
sectional area within the element can vary. These elements are often used to model
trusses and frame structures. The simplest line element (called a linear element) has two
nodes, one at each end, although higher-order elements having three nodes or more
(called quadratic, cubic, etc. elements) also exist.

Figure: Simple two-noded line element (typically used to represent a bar or beam
element) and the higher-order line element
• The basic two-dimensional (or plane) elements are loaded by forces in their own
plane (plane stress or plane strain conditions). They are triangular or quadrilateral
elements. The simplest two-dimensional elements have corner nodes only (linear
elements) with straight sides or boundaries although there are also higher-order
elements, typically with midside nodes (called quadratic elements).

•
Figure: Simple two-dimensional elements with corner nodes (typically used to
represent plane stress/strain) and higher-order two-dimensional elements with
intermediate nodes along the sides.

• The most common three-dimensional elements are tetrahedral and hexahedral (or
brick) elements; they are used when it becomes necessary to perform a three-
dimensional stress analysis. The basic three-dimensional elements have corner nodes

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 only and straight sides, whereas higher-order elements with midedge nodes (and
possible midface nodes) have curved surfaces for their sides.

Figure: Simple three-dimensional elements (typically used to represent three-

dimensional stress state) and higher-order three-dimensional elements with
intermediate nodes along edges.

• The axisymmetric element is developed by rotating a triangle or quadrilateral about a

fixed axis located in the plane of the element through 360. This element can be used
when the geometry and loading of the problem are axisymmetric.

Figure: Simple axisymmetric triangular and quadrilateral elements used for

axisymmetric problems.

Step 2 - Select a Displacement Function

Step 2 involves choosing a displacement function within each element. The function is
defined within the element using the nodal values of the element. Linear, quadratic, and
cubic polynomials are frequently used functions because they are simple to work with in
finite element formulation. The functions are expressed in terms of the nodal unknowns
(in the two-dimensional problem, in terms of an x and a y component). Hence, the finite
element method is one in which a continuous quantity, such as the displacement
throughout the body, is approximated by a discrete model composed of a set of
piecewise-continuous functions defined within each finite domain or finite element.

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Step 3 - Define the Strain/Displacement and Stress/Strain Relationships
Strain/displacement and stress-strain relationships are necessary for deriving the
equations for each finite element. For one-dimensional small strain deformation, say, in
the x direction, we have strain εx, related to displacement u (kinematics relationship) by:

In addition, the stresses must be related to the strains through the stress strain law
(generally called the constitutive law). The ability to define the material behavior
accurately is most important in obtaining acceptable results. The simplest of stress-strain
laws, Hooke’s law, often used in stress analysis (constitutive relationship), is given by:

Step 4 Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations

There are three standard methods for deriving the element stiffness matrix:
a) Direct (Equilibrium) Methods:
Based on physical reasoning and limited to simple element types and simple
kinematics and constitutive relationships. According to this method, the stiffness
matrix and element equations relating nodal forces to nodal displacements are
obtained using force equilibrium conditions for a basic element, along with force
deformation relationships. This method is most easily adaptable to line or one
dimensional elements (spring, bar, and beam elements).

b) Work or Energy (Variation Methods)

It uses the fact that a deformable body under loading and restraint conditions
will assume a configuration that minimizes the potential energy of the total
system.
To develop the stiffness matrix and equations for two- and three-dimensional
elements, it is much easier to apply a work or energy method. The principle of
virtual work (using virtual displacements), the principle of minimum potential
energy, and Castigliano’s theorem are methods frequently used for the purpose of
derivation of element equations.

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c) Weighted Residual Methods – Stiffness relationship results from a mathematical
approach to obtain approximate solutions to the governing PDE’s. Approximate
solutions of differential equations satisfy only part of the conditions of the problem:
the differential equation may be satisfied only at a few positions, rather than at each
point. The weighted residual methods allow the finite element method to be applied
directly to any differential equation.

Using any of the methods just outlined will produce the equations to describe the
behavior of an element. These equations are written conveniently in matrix form as:

Or in compact matrix form as

Where  f  is the vector of element nodal forces,  k  is the element stiffness matrix

(normally square and symmetric), and d is the vector of unknown element nodal

degrees of freedom or generalized displacements, n. Here generalized displacements may

include such quantities as actual displacements, slopes, or even curvatures.

Step 5 Assemble the Element Equations to Obtain the Global or Total Equations
and Introduce Boundary Conditions

In this step the individual element nodal equilibrium equations generated in step 4 are
assembled into the global nodal equilibrium equations. Another more direct method of
superposition (called the Direct Stiffness Method), whose basis is nodal force
equilibrium, can be used to obtain the global equations for the whole structure. Implicit in

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the direct stiffness method is the concept of continuity, or compatibility, which requires
that the structure remain together and that no tears occur anywhere within the structure.
The final assembled or global equation written in matrix form is

Where F  is the vector of global nodal forces, K  is the structure global or total

stiffness matrix, (for most problems, the global stiffness matrix is square and symmetric)
and d  is now the vector of known and unknown structure nodal degrees of freedom or

generalized displacements. It can be shown that at this stage, the global stiffness matrix
K  is a singular matrix because its determinant is equal to zero. To remove this

singularity problem, we must invoke certain boundary conditions (or constraints or

supports) so that the structure remains in place instead of moving as a rigid body.

Step 6 - Solve for the Unknown Degrees of Freedom (or Generalized Displacements)

Once the element equations are assembled and modified to account for the boundary
conditions, a set of simultaneous algebraic equations that can be written in expanded
matrix form as:

Where n is the structure total number of unknown nodal degrees of freedom. These
equations can be solved for the d’s by using an elimination method (such as Gauss’s
method) or an iterative method (such as Gauss Seidel’s method).

Step 7 Solve for the Element Strains and Stresses

For the structural stress-analysis problem, important secondary quantities of strain and
stress (or moment and shear force) can be obtained because they can be directly
expressed in terms of the displacements determined in step 6.

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Step 8 Interpret the Results

The final goal is to interpret and analyze the results for use in the design/analysis process.
Determination of locations in the structure where large deformations and large stresses
occur is generally important in making design/analysis decisions. Postprocessor computer
programs help the user to interpret the results by displaying them in graphical form.

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