Learning:

Meaning and definitions:

Learning is not something that takes place only within the boundaries of a classroom;
rather it takes place anywhere, anytime and from anyone. Traditional Indian Literature has
examples where people learnt from trees, mountains, rivers, insects, etc. It means learning is
something which is possible anywhere. In order to understand the concept of learning, let us
begin with few definitions of learning which many psychologists and educationists have
proposed.
 Generally, learning is defined as a process of behaviour modification through
experiences, exercise and efforts.
 Learning is a process of progressive behaviour adaptation (Skinner, 1960).
 Learning is a process by which a person becomes changed in his behaviour through
self-activity (Leagans, 1961).
 Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of
experience (Kolb, 1984).
 According to Woolfolk (1995), learning occurs when experience causes a relatively
permanent change in an individual’s knowledge or behaviour.

Nature of learning:
The nature of learning as revealed through various definitions given by
psychologists/educationists is as follow:
 Learning is a process and not a product: Learning is a fundamental and life-long
process. Attitudes, fears, gestures, motor skills, language skills, etc. are the products
of learning. They are not learning themselves.
 Learning is purposive or goal directed: Learning is not an aimless activity. All true
learning is based on purpose.
 Learning generally involves some degree of permanence: Activities bringing
temporary change in behaviour and not lasting do not come under learning.
 Learning is universal and continuous: Every creature till it lives, learns. In human
beings it is not restricted to any particular age, sex, race or culture. It is a continuous
never-ending process which starts from birth and continues till death.
 Learning prepares for adjustment: Learning helps the individual to adjust
herself/himself adequately and adapt to the changes that may be necessary to the new
situations.
 Learning is comprehensive: The scope of learning is spread over each and every
dimension of life. It is a very comprehensive process which covers all domains –
Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor- of human behaviour.
 Learning is change in response or behaviour; may be favourable or
unfavourable: Learning leads to changes in behaviour but this does not necessarily
mean that these changes always bring about improvement or positive development.
There are chances to drift to the negative side too.
 Learning is organizing experience: Learning involves all those experience and
training of an individual (right from birth) which help her/him to produce changes in
 behaviour. It is not mere addition to knowledge or mere acquisition of facts. It is the
reorganization of experience which may also include unlearning.

Theories of learning:
There are so many educational theorists who have proposed many theories of
learning; all these theories can broadly be grouped under three labels:
Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism.

Behaviorism: The behavioral learning theory, or behaviorism, defines how people learn and
behave. Educators and leaders use this concept to facilitate positive behaviour in the
classrooms and workplaces. Understanding this theory can help us understand how people
learn and how we can interact with clients and colleagues better.
The behavioural learning theory is the concept that people acquire all their behaviours
by interacting with the environment through conditioning. It also asserts that all human
behaviour is a response to external environmental stimuli.

Types of Behavioural Learning Theory

1. Classical conditioning

 Classical conditioning is a process that leads to acquiring new behaviors through the
association of two stimuli. The linked stimuli create a newly learned response. One
stimulus prompts an automatic response, while the other stimulus is neutral. The
conditioned response automatically elicits from the neutral stimulus by associating
them with the subject's mind.

 So, according to classical conditioning principles, learning occurs when an association

is formed between a previously neutral stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.
For example, in his experiments, Pavlov paired the natural stimulus of food with the
sound of a bell. The dogs would naturally begin to salivate in response to food, but
after multiple associations, the dogs would salivate to the sound of the bell alone.

2. Operant conditioning:

 Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning, also called Skinnerian conditioning, or

instrumental conditioning, is a behaviour modification method that uses positive and
negative reinforcements to shape or modify a person’s behaviour. It was first
introduced by Edward Thorndike in 1898 but later developed by the behavioural
psychologist B.F. Skinner.

 Like classical conditioning, operant conditioning relies on forming associations. In

this learning theory, associations are made between behaviour and the consequences
of that behaviour. When behaviour leads to a desirable consequence, it becomes more
 likely that they will repeat the behaviour in the future. If the actions lead to a negative
outcome, the behaviour becomes less likely to occur.

 Skinner describes it with his experiment performed on a rat. The experiment

performed in a laboratory where it learns to press a lever in a cage to receive food.
Since the rat has no “natural” association between pressing a lever and getting food, it
has to learn this connection. At first, the rat may explore its cage, climb on top of
things, and search for food. Eventually, while poking around its cage, the rat
accidentally presses the lever, and a food pellet drops in. This voluntary behaviour is
called operant behaviour because it “operates” on the environment.

3. Observational learning
 Observational learning involves watching and simulating others. When individuals
observe others' behaviors, they constantly retain those behaviors and repeat similar
actions in the future.
 Observational learning also refers to shaping and modeling, which typically occurs
during childhood. When children learn to interact and behave with others, such
learning can be an integral component of socialization. Children typically learn to
behave by observing their parents and other people interacting with others.
Cognitivism

Cognitivism, a
theoretical perspective
in psychology,
emphasizes the role of
mental
processes and
structures in learning
and behavior. In
contrast to
behaviorism's focus
on observable behaviors
and reinforcement,
cognitivism proposes
that people actively
construct knowledge
and understanding of
the world through
cognitive processes like
perception, attention,
memory, and problem-
solving (Bandura, 2009).
By highlighting
these internal mental
activities, cognitivism
has deeply influenced
education, spurring
the creation of
instructional design
theories and active
learning strategies that
promote
critical thinking and
problem-solving skills.
Cognitive learning
strategies encompass a
range of techniques that
can be employed
by educators and
learners to enhance the
learning process. These
strategies aim to
facilitate the storage of
acquired knowledge in
long-term memory,
thereby contributing
to the development of a
comprehensive
knowledge base. To
ensure the effectiveness
of these strategies, it is
crucial to have a clear
understanding of the
task at hand and
the type of learning
required (Kurt, 2023).
By employing these
cognitive learning
strateg
Cognitivism, a
theoretical perspective
in psychology,
emphasizes the role of
mental
processes and
structures in learning
and behavior. In
contrast to
behaviorism's focus
on observable behaviors
and reinforcement,
cognitivism proposes
that people actively
construct knowledge
and understanding of
the world through
cognitive processes like
perception, attention,
memory, and problem-
solving (Bandura, 2009).
By highlighting
these internal mental
activities, cognitivism
has deeply influenced
education, spurring
the creation of
instructional design
theories and active
learning strategies that
promote
critical thinking and
problem-solving skills.
Cognitive learning
strategies encompass a
range of techniques that
can be employed
by educators and
learners to enhance the
learning process. These
strategies aim to
facilitate the storage of
acquired knowledge in
long-term memory,
thereby contributing
to the development of a
comprehensive
knowledge base. To
ensure the effectiveness
of these strategies, it is
crucial to have a clear
understanding of the
task at hand and
the type of learning
required (Kurt, 2023).
By employing these
cognitive learning
strateg
Cognitivism, a
theoretical perspective
in psychology,
emphasizes the role of
mental
processes and
structures in learning
and behavior. In
contrast to
behaviorism's focus
on observable behaviors
and reinforcement,
cognitivism proposes
that people actively
construct knowledge
and understanding of
the world through
cognitive processes like
perception, attention,
memory, and problem-
solving (Bandura, 2009).
By highlighting
these internal mental
activities, cognitivism
has deeply influenced
education, spurring
the creation of
instructional design
theories and active
learning strategies that
promote
critical thinking and
problem-solving skills.
Cognitive learning
strategies encompass a
range of techniques that
can be employed
by educators and
learners to enhance the
learning process. These
strategies aim to
facilitate the storage of
acquired knowledge in
long-term memory,
thereby contributing
to the development of a
comprehensive
knowledge base. To
ensure the effectiveness
of these strategies, it is
crucial to have a clear
understanding of the
task at hand and
the type of learning
required (Kurt, 2023).
By employing these
cognitive learning
strateg
  Cognitive learning is a style of learning that focuses on more effective use of the
brain. To understand the process, it’s important to know the meaning of cognition.
Cognition is the mental process of gaining knowledge and understanding through the
senses, experience and thought. Cognitive learning theory merges cognition and
learning to explain the different processes involved in learning effectively.
 Cognition refers to mental activities like thinking, remembering, memory, learning,
comprehension, perception, motivation, and language acquisition. The cognitive
approach to psychology focuses on these internal mental processes and how they
interact to produce intelligent behavior. The cognitive approach to learning then takes
those insights and applies them to education.
 Jean Piaget developed cognitive psychology theory in the 1930s based on his research
with infants and young children. He proposed that people develop basic mental
abilities throughout their lives, each stage characterized by a different cognitive
ability.

Constructivism:
 Constructivism is the theory that says learners construct knowledge rather than just
passively take in information. As people experience the world and reflect upon those
experiences, they build their own representations and incorporate new information
into their pre-existing knowledge (schemas).
 Constructivism is ‘an approach to learning that holds that people actively construct or
make their own knowledge and that reality is determined by the experiences of the
learner’.

 Constructivism is founded on five distinct stages viz.

1. Activating previously acquired knowledge
2. Acquiring new knowledge
3. Comprehending acquired knowledge
4. Applying acquired knowledge
5. Receiving feedback
Principles of learning:
There are some principles of learning which are very well applicable in education as well as
extension. The principles may provide good guidance for making learning effective. These
are-
1. Principle of self-activity: Learning is an active process on the part of the learners. The
kind of learning which takes place is the result of the kind of experience one acquires.
The experiences must be compelling and direct on the part of the learners. Conducting
demonstration by the farmers in their own fields provides opportunity of self-activity, i.e.
learning by doing. This makes learning effective and permanent.
2. Principle of association: New learning may be associated with previous successful and
satisfying responses. If the farmers have obtained profitable return by the application of
 nitrogenous fertilizer, they may be motivated to use balanced fertilizer containing
phosphate and potash, for still higher return.
3. Principle of transfer: The learning acquired previously should be applied in another
relevant situation. Unless knowledge or learning can be applied in a new situation, it
remains very much restricted. If the farmers have learnt the technique of water
management in a particular crop, they should be able to use this knowledge in other crops
as well. This shall spread the effect of learning.
4. Principle of disassociation: For effective learning, undesirable responses are to be
eliminated. This may be done by setting up desirable substitutes which are more
satisfying. When planting a crop in lines gives better yield, the farmers may be advised
not to practice broadcasting.
5. Principle of readiness: Learning takes place more effectively when one is ready to learn.
When farmers are ready to cooperate, with good guidance, they may be able to form
cooperative society.
6. Principle of set attitude: An unfavourable attitude retards learning and a favourable
attitude accelerates it. Unless attitude becomes favourable, adoption will not take place.
7. Principle of practice: Perfection is seldom achieved without practice. The practice must
be correct, otherwise there will be wrong learning. The attainment of perfection demands
that undesirable and useless movements are replaced by desirable and useful ones.
Learning to use a sprayer correctly requires practice several times over.
8. Principle of motivation: Motivation or drive means stimulation toward action. Without
motivation an organism does not behave and hence does not learn. The practice
recommended must be motivating for learning to take place. Favourable experience of
planting trees motivates tribal farmers to collect sapling, from the forest nursery.
9. Principle of timing: Learning takes place more readily when there is introduction of a
topic or skill at appropriate time. When insects have appeared or are likely to appear in
crops, farmers shall readily learn about plant protection.
10. Principle of clarity of objectives: The objective of learning should be clear. Meaningful
learning is interesting and easier than senseless learning. When farmers use crop loan
only for growing crops, they are clear about the objective, of getting the loan. This clear
understanding enables the farmers to learn about proper utilization and repayment of
loans and take further loans if necessary, for economic development.
11. Principle of Satisfaction: A satisfying after-effect reinforces learning. If crops grown
during the rabi-summer season give higher economic return and higher level of
satisfaction to the farmers, they learn to invest more and take more care for crops during
the season.

Learning and organizational behaviour:

Learning is regarded as the fundamental variable influencing human behaviour. It
affects almost all aspects of organisational behaviour too. An understanding of the concept of
learning helps the managers to increase the occurrence of desirable behaviours and decrease
the occurrence of undesirable behaviours of employees. Apart from this, learning also
explains certain attitudes and behaviours of managers towards their subordinates. Learning
process influences the day to day interactions both casual and formal held among the
members of the organisation.
Learning and training:
 Learning and training are two distinct but interconnected processes.
 Learning refers to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and understanding through
various means such as reading, observing, and experiencing. It is a broader concept
that encompasses both formal and informal education.
 On the other hand, training is a more focused and structured approach to learning,
aimed at developing specific skills or competencies. It typically involves a systematic
process of instruction, practice, and evaluation.
 While learning is a lifelong process that occurs naturally, training is often designed
and facilitated by experts to meet specific goals or objectives.
 Both learning and training are essential for personal and professional growth, as they
enable individuals to acquire new knowledge and enhance their abilities.

Difference between learning and training:

Attribute Learning Training
Process Acquiring knowledge or skills
Achieving specific objectives or outcomes
through study, experience, or
through various activities
teaching
Goal Expanding knowledge,
Achieving specific objectives or outcomes
understanding, and personal growth
Self-directed, exploratory, and
Approach Structured, guided, and systematic
flexible
Understanding concepts, theories, and Developing practical skills and
Focus
principles competencies
Time-bound and specific
Duration Continuous and lifelong
Can occur in formal or informal Often takes place in a formal educational or
Context
settings professional environment
Adaptable to individual preferences May have less flexibility due to structured
Flexibility
and needs curriculum or requirements
Often self-assessed or evaluated Assessed through tests, exams, or
Assessment
through reflection performance evaluations

Learning and Feedback:

Feedback is a process in which learners make sense of information about their performance
and use it to enhance the quality of their work or learning strategies.
Feedback plays a crucial role in the learning process by guiding learners, reinforcing correct
knowledge, and addressing misconceptions. It helps learners improve their skills, deepen
their understanding, and stay motivated.
Types of Feedback in Learning:

1. Formative Feedback (During Learning)

 Ongoing feedback aimed at improving learning while it is happening
 Helps students identify their strengths and areas for improvement
 Example: A teacher gives comments on a draft essay, allowing the student to revise
before final submission.
2. Summative Feedback (After Learning):
 Given at the end of a learning process to evaluate achievement
 Often in the form of grades, final comments, or performance reviews
 Example: A final exam score with feedback on areas that need improvement.

3. Positive Feedback
 Reinforces correct behaviour and effort
 Builds motivation and confidence
 Example: “Great job on your presentation! Your arguments were well-structured and
clear.”
4. Constructive Feedback
 Highlights areas for improvement with specific guidance
 Helps learners understand what to do next
 Example: “Your essay has strong ideas, but improving transitions between
paragraphs would enhance clarity.”
5. Peer Feedback
 Learners give feedback to each other
 Encourages collaboration and critical thinking
Example: Students review each other’s work and suggest improvements
Attitudes and values
Attitudes and values" refer to the beliefs, perspectives, and principles that shape an
individual's behavior and decision-making.

 Attitudes are feelings or opinions about people, situations, or things. They can be
positive or negative and are influenced by personal experiences, culture, and social
interactions.
 Values are deeply held principles that guide a person’s behavior and choices. They
are more stable over time and reflect what is important in life, such as honesty,
respect, and responsibility.

Both attitudes and values play a crucial role in shaping personal identity,
relationships, and social norms.
Role of attitudes and values in personality development
Personality development is shaped by a person’s attitudes and values, as they influence
thoughts, behaviors, and interactions with others. Here’s how they contribute:
1. Attitudes and their impact on personality
 Positive Attitude → Boosts confidence, resilience, and optimism, leading to a well-
rounded and charismatic personality.
 Negative Attitude → Can lead to pessimism, low self-esteem, and difficulty in social
interactions.
 Growth Mindset → Encourages learning and self-improvement, which is key to
personal growth.
2. Values as the foundation of personality
 Integrity and Honesty → Build a trustworthy and respectable personality.
 Respect and Empathy → Improve interpersonal relationships and social intelligence.
 Discipline and Responsibility → Shape a strong, dependable character.
 Perseverance and Hard Work → Foster success-oriented behavior and resilience.
3. How attitudes and values work together in personality development
 A positive attitude helps a person adopt and uphold strong values.
 Strong values keep a person grounded and guide ethical decision-making.
 Both shape a person’s behavior, communication style, and emotional intelligence.

4. Benefits of developing positive attitudes and values

 Enhances self-confidence and self-awareness.
 Improves relationships with others through better communication and respect.
 Helps in career growth by making individuals more disciplined and adaptable.
 Creates a balanced and fulfilling life with strong moral and ethical foundations.

In conclusion, attitudes and values are the building blocks of personality

development, shaping how individuals think, act, and interact with the world.
Intelligence:

Meaning:Intelligence, the dictionary says is the ‘ability to learn or understand or to deal with
new or trying situations’. So, intelligence is the mental quality that consists of the abilities to
learn from experience, adapt to new situations, understand and handle abstract concepts, and
use knowledge to manipulate one’s environment. It is the general cognitive problem-solving
skills. It denotes a mental ability involved in reasoning, perceiving relationships and
analogies, calculating, learning quickly etc.

Definitions:

 Intelligence can broadly be defined as the ability to learn, adapt, and solve problems.
 David Wechsler (1972): “Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of the
individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his
environment”
 Francis Galton (1884): “Intelligence is the innate general cognitive capacity”.
 It's the ability to perceive or infer information, retain it as knowledge, and apply it to
adaptive behaviors within an environment or context.
Theories of intelligence:
(Theories of intelligence are also indicative of types. Hence, types of intelligence are not
separately given).
There are several theories of intelligence, each offering different perspectives on how
intelligence works. Here’s a more detailed breakdown of the major theories:
1. Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory (1904)
Key Idea: Intelligence is a single, general ability.
 Charles Spearman proposed that intelligence consists of:
o General Intelligence (g-factor): A single underlying mental ability that
affects performance across all intellectual tasks.
o Specific Abilities (s-factor): Skills that apply to particular tasks (e.g.,
mathematical ability, verbal ability).
 Example: A person who is good at mathematics may also perform well in reasoning
and language tasks due to the general intelligence factor.
2. Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities (1938)
Key Idea: Intelligence is made up of multiple independent abilities, not just one general
factor.
 Louis Thurstone identified seven primary mental abilities:
1. Verbal Comprehension – Understanding words and language.
2. Word Fluency – Generating words quickly.
3. Number Facility – Mathematical ability.
4. Spatial Visualization – Ability to mentally manipulate objects.
5. Memory – Recalling information.
6. Perceptual Speed – Quickly identifying visual details.
7. Reasoning – Problem-solving and logical thinking.
8.
3. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory (1983)
Key Idea: Intelligence is not a single ability but multiple distinct types.
 Howard Gardner proposed eight (later nine) intelligences:
1. Linguistic – The ability to use language effectively, including reading,
writing, and speaking.
2. Logical-Mathematical – The ability to think logically and solve problems
using numbers and patterns.
3. Spatial – The ability to visualize and think in three-dimensional images.
4. Musical – Understanding and creating music.
5. Bodily-Kinesthetic – The ability to control body movements and handle
objects skillfully.
6. Interpersonal – The ability to understand and interact effectively with others.
7. Intrapersonal – The ability to be self-aware and understand one's own
thoughts and feelings.
8. Naturalistic – The ability to recognize and categorize animals, plants, and
other objects in nature.
9. Existential (Possible 9th Intelligence) – Thinking about deep philosophical
questions.The capacity to tackle deep questions about existence.
4. Sternberg’sTriarchic Theory of Intelligence (1985)
Key Idea: Intelligence is made up of three interrelated aspects.
 Three types of intelligence:
1. Analytical Intelligence – Problem-solving and logical reasoning (IQ-related
intelligence).
2. Creative Intelligence – Ability to think outside the box and generate new
ideas.
3. Practical Intelligence – Ability to adapt to real-world situations.
Example: A successful entrepreneur might have high practical intelligence, even if they don't
score highly on IQ tests.
5. Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory of Intelligence (1993)
Key Idea: Intelligence has multiple levels, including broad and narrow abilities.
 Raymond Cattell& John Horn divided intelligence into:
o Fluid Intelligence (Gf): Ability to solve new problems without prior
knowledge.
o Crystallized Intelligence (Gc): Knowledge gained from experience,
education, and culture.
 Later expanded into the CHC Model, which includes broad abilities like memory,
speed, and decision-making, forming a hierarchical model of intelligence.

Measurement of intelligence:
Intelligence is measured through a complicated process. It involves a comparison and
establishment of relationship between C.A (Chronological Age) and M.A. (Mental Age). This
relation is expressed by I.Q. (Intelligence Quotient). When the mental age is divided by the
chronological age and the quotient is multiplied by 100, the result is I.Q.

I.Q.=M.A/C.Ax1OO
So, to measure the mental age and chronological age, we are having intelligence tests.
Intelligence tests are classified according to the activities prescribed in them. These are as
follows:

1. Verbal Tests: Verbal intelligence tests include items that can be expressed in language
forms. In this test, one is given a large no of questions which one has to solve in a very short
period of time.

2. Non- Verbal Tests: Non verbal intelligence tests are expressed by means of objects,
materials, for instance, lines, drawing, pictures, etc. The same procedure is followed in this
test too;one is given a no of question which one has to solve in mean time.

As the name itself suggests, verbal tests make use of language whereas non verbal tests
includes such activities which do not necessitate the use of language. Both these types are
suitable for the individual as well as the group.

A few important tests for measuring intelligence are given below with brief description:
(a) Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS)

 Developed by: Alfred Binet& Theodore Simon (Revised by Lewis Terman at

Stanford University).
 Measures general intelligence (g) and provides an Intelligence Quotient (IQ) score.
 Used to assess intellectual abilities in children, adolescents, and adults
 The current version (the 5th edition, known as SB5) is based on a hierarchical model
of intelligence, assessing bothverbal and non-verbal intelligenceacrossfive key
factorsas follow:
o Fluid reasoning: Solving novel problems and identifying patterns
o Knowledge: General information acquired through learning and experience
o Quantitative reasoning: Understanding numerical relationships and solving
math problems
o Visual-spatial processing: Ability to see relationships among visual objects
and mentally manipulate them.
o Working memory: Ability to hold and manipulate information in short-term
memory
 Scoring: Based on Deviation IQ (Mean = 100, Standard Deviation = 15).
 Uses: Diagnosing learning disabilities, giftedness, and intellectual disabilities.

(b) Wechsler Intelligence Scales

 Developed by David Wechsler and used worldwide.

 Different versions for different age groups:
1. WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) – for adults (16+ years).
2. WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) – for children (6-16
years).
3. WPPSI (Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence) – for
young children (2.5-7 years).
 4.
 Measures four major cognitive abilities:
1. Verbal Comprehension: Understanding and expressing verbal concepts.
2. Perceptual Reasoning: Solving puzzles and visual-spatial reasoning.
3. Working Memory: Short-term memory and information processing.
4. Processing Speed: How quickly one can process information.
 Scoring: Provides an overall IQ score, plus sub-scores for different abilities

(c) Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM)

 Non-verbal test measuring fluid intelligence (problem-solving ability).

 Test Format: Consists of abstract patterns where a missing part must be identified.
 Advantages:
o Culture-fair test (No reading or speaking is required, reducing language or
cultural bias, no language dependency).
o Suitable for people of all educational backgrounds.
o Widely Used Across Cultures: Ideal for international comparisons and non-
Western populations.
 Used for: Identifying giftedness and cognitive decline.

(d) Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test

 Developed by Raymond Cattell to reduce cultural and language biases in intelligence

testing.
 Measures: Fluid intelligence (Gf) – problem-solving ability in novel situations.
 Test Format: CFIT is composed of a series ofnon-verbal visual puzzles, likepattern
completion, classification, matrices, and series.
Four types of tasks are given
 Series Completion – Identify the next shape in a logical sequence.
 Classification – Choose the odd one out from a group of images.
 Matrices – Complete the missing part of a visual pattern (like Raven’s).
 Conditions – Solve problems based on visual rules.
 Advantage: Minimizes cultural and educational influences on test performance.

Classification of Intelligence Quotient:

Based on standard IQ test scoring, classification of IQ (Intelligence Quotient)is generally
done as shown below:
IQ Range Classification Description

130 and Highly advanced reasoning and problem-solving

Very Superior (Gifted)
above abilities. Often qualifies for gifted programs.
Above-average intelligence; strong academic and
120–129 Superior
cognitive performance.
110–119 High Average Better than average intellectual abilities.
90–109 Average Most people fall in this range; normal functioning.
IQ Range Classification Description

80–89 Low Average Slightly below average cognitive abilities.

Borderline Intellectual
70–79 May struggle with academic or complex tasks.
Functioning
May require support in everyday functioning and
Extremely Low
Below 70 learning.
(Intellectual Disability)
Factors affecting intelligence
Intelligence is influenced by a combination of genetic, environmental, biological, and social
factors. Here are the key factors that affect intelligence:
1. Genetic Factors
 Intelligence has a hereditary component, with estimates suggesting genetics account
for 50-80% of intelligence variation.
2. Environmental Factors

 Early Childhood Stimulation: Exposure to books, puzzles, and stimulating activities

enhances cognitive development.
 Education: Quality of education, access to learning resources, and teacher
effectiveness impact intellectual growth.
 Socioeconomic Status: Higher-income families often provide better educational
opportunities, nutrition, and healthcare, influencing intelligence.
 Parental Involvement: Engaged parenting, encouragement, and emotional support
improve cognitive skills.

3. Biological Factors

 Brain Structure and Function: Brain size, neural connectivity, and efficiency of
neural processing affect intelligence.
 Nutrition: Proper nutrition, especially during pregnancy and early childhood,
supports brain development (e.g., Omega-3 fatty acids, iron, iodine).
 Health and Diseases: Chronic illnesses, infections, and prenatal complications (e.g.,
exposure to drugs, alcohol, or toxins) can affect brain function.
4. Psychological Factors
 Motivation and Curiosity: Individuals who are more curious and motivated tend to
develop higher intelligence.
 Emotional Intelligence: The ability to manage emotions and social interactions can
contribute to overall intellectual performance.
 Stress and Mental Health: High stress levels, trauma, and mental health disorders
can negatively impact cognitive abilities.
5. Cultural and Social Influences

 Language and Communication: Early exposure to complex language and

multilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility.
 Peer Influence: Being surrounded by intellectually stimulating peers can encourage
higher cognitive engagement.
 Cultural Values: Cultures that emphasize education, critical thinking, and problem-
solving tend to foster intelligence growth.

6. Technological and Environmental Exposure

 Access to Technology: Exposure to educational technology, the internet, and digital
learning tools can enhance intelligence.