SFSU - ENGR 301 – ELECTRONICS LAB

LAB #1: TIME AND FREQUENCY RESPONSES OF SERIES RLC CIRCUITS

Objective:
To investigate the step, impulse, and frequency responses of series RLC circuits. To compare
experimental results with theory and LTspice simulations, and to account for possible differences. To
gain familiarity with Bode plots.

Components:
1  3.9-mH inductor, 1  10-nF capacitor, 1  1 k potentiometer, and resistors: 1  10 , 1  39 , 1 
1.0 k, and 1  2.0 k, 1  3.9 k, (all 5%, ¼ W).

Instrumentation:
An RLC meter, a waveform generator (square-wave, pulse, and sine-wave), and a dual-trace oscilloscope.

References:
1. Franco, Sergio Electric Circuits Fundamentals, Oxford University Press, 1995 (Chs. 9 and 14).
2. Roberts, Gordon W., and Sedra, Adel S., SPICE, 2nd Ed.; Oxford University Press, 1997.

PART I – THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

RLC circuits are classical examples of second-order systems. Together with their mass-spring-
dashpot mechanical analog, they are used to illustrate fundamental systems-theory concepts and
techniques, such as Laplace-transform techniques and resonance.
The current response of the series RLC circuit of Fig. 1 is found via Laplace-transform techniques
as I(s) = Y(s)V(s), where I(s) and V(s) are the Laplace transforms of i(t) and v(t), s is the complex
frequency, and Y(s) is the complex admittance, that is, the reciprocal of the complex impedance Z(s),

1 1 sC
Y ( s)    2
Z ( s) R  sL  1 s LC  sRC  1
sC

This function is usually expressed in the standardized form

1 2 ( s /  0 )
Y (s)   (1)
R ( s /  0 ) 2  2 ( s /  0 )  1
where

Fig.1 – Series RLC circuit.

Engr 301– Lab #1 – Page 1 of 8

 1 R C
0    (2)
LC 2 L

Here, 0 is the undamped natural frequency, in rad/s, and  is the damping ratio, dimensionless. The
values of these parameters are set by those of the components making up the circuit.
The values of s for which the denominator of Y(s) becomes zero are called the poles of Y(s), and
therefore, the zeros of Z(s). They are easily found to be

s1, 2   0      2  1  (3)
 

We have the following significant cases:

• For  > 1, the poles are real and distinct, and the system is said to be overdamped.
• For  = 1, the poles are real and coincident, and the system is said to be critically damped.
• For 0 <  < 1, the poles are complex conjugate, or s1, 2   0 (  j 1   2 ), where j2 = -1. The
system is now said to be underdamped.
In each of the above cases the poles lie in the left-half of the complex plane s. For  = 0, the poles lie
right on the imaginary axis, and the system is said to be undamped. It is apparent that varying R while
keeping L and C constant will move the poles around in the complex plane.
Systems theory indicates that the response i(t) to a given excitation v(t) can be found as i(t) =
L-1{I(s)} = L-1{Y(s)V(s)}, where L-1 indicates inverse Laplace transformation. The responses of greatest
practical interest in engineering are the impulse, the step, and the ac or frequency responses. The current
response i(t) is readily visualized with the oscilloscope by observing the voltage vR(t) across the resistance
R; then, i(t) = vR(t) /R. Of great interest are also the capacitance and inductance responses vC(t) and vL(t).

The Transient Response:

Figure 3 shows the step or transient response across C for three different values of . It can be proved
that for 0 <  < 1, this response is a damped sinusoid with the frequency

R L
1 2 vO

vI {Rv al} 1
V1 = 0V V
V2 = 1V C
TD = 0.1s
TR = 0.1s 1
TF = 0.1s Fig. 2 – PSpice circuit to display
PW = 25s
PER = 50s the step response across C.
0

Engr 301– Lab #1 – Page 2 of 8

 Fig. 3 – Step or transient response across C for different values of .

d  0 1   2 (4)

called the damped frequency. We also observe the presence of overshoot, defined as
vO (peak)  vO (  )
OS(%)  100
vO (  )

where vO() is the value of vO in the limit t  . The overshoot is related to  as

OS(%) = 100e  / 1 2

(5)

The smaller the value of , the higher the overshoot and the longer it takes for the oscillation to die out.
In the limit   0 we have a sustained oscillation with undamped natural frequency 0. If  is gradually
increased from zero, the oscillation will die out more and more rapidly until the point is reached where
there will be no more oscillation. This point corresponds to critical damping, or  = 1. For  > 1, not
only is there no oscillation, but the system takes even a longer time to reach its steady state.

Frequency Response:
Systems theory indicates that the frequency response of a circuit is found by letting s  j in its transfer
function. In this case it is also more common to work with the parameter Q = 1/(2), after which our
expression above becomes

1
Y ( j )   H BP ( j )
R
where
j ( /  0 )
H BP ( j )  (6)
1  ( / 0 ) 2  j ( /  0 ) / Q
and

Engr 301– Lab #1 – Page 3 of 8

 1 1 L
0  Q (7)
LC R C

The function HBP(j) is called the standard second-order band-pass function.

To investigate the frequency response of our circuit, we apply an ac voltage of the type

vi(t) = Vim cos t (8a)

and we observe the response vo(t) = Ri(t) across the resistor, which is an ac voltage of the type

vo(t) = Vom cos( t   ) (8b)

Here, Vim and Vom are the peak amplitudes (in V),  is the angular frequency (in rad/s), and  is the phase
angle (in degrees). The parameters of the response are related to those of the applied voltage as

Vom = HBP  Vim  = HBP (9)

where HBP and nd HBP are, respectively, the magnitude and phase of HBP.
The LTspice circuit of Fig. 4 is used to visualize the frequency response across R for the case 0
= 1 rad/s. Again, you can simulate this circuit on your own by downloading its files from the Web, as
mentioned earlier. Figure 5 shows the logarithmic plots of magnitude and phase, also called Bode plots,
for three different values of Q. Each magnitude curve peaks at 0 dB for  = 0, this being the reason why
0 is also called the resonance frequency. Moreover, each curve drops to -3 dB at two frequencies L and
H such that

 1 1   1 1 
 L   0  1    H   0  1   (10)
 4Q 2 2Q   4Q 2 2Q 

It is readily seen that these frequencies satisfy the condition L  H = 02, and that phase is 450 at
these frequencies. Moreover, the half-power bandwidth, defined as BW = H – L, is such that

0
Q (11)
BW

It is apparent that the narrower the BW for a given 0, the higher the value of Q. Consequently, Q
provides a measure of the degree of selectivity of a filter such as ours.

C L
1 2 Vo

Vi 1 1
R
1Vac
0Vdc {Rv al}

Fig.4 – PSpice circuit to display the

frequency response across R.
0

Engr 301– Lab #1 – Page 4 of 8

 Fig. 5 – Bode plots for different values of Q

PART II – EXPERIMENTAL PART

To lower the output resistance Rs of the function generator (usually an ill-defined parameter on
the order of 50 ) to a smaller and more predictable value, we interpose a voltage-divider adaptor as
shown in Fig. 6. Note that because of the internal ground connection of the oscilloscope, we must arrange
the elements so that the element across which we wish to observe the response is always located at the
site denoted as X3.
By Thevenin’s theorem, the circuit reduces to the equivalent of Fig. 7 for the case in which we
observe the response across the capacitor. Here, vOC and Req are the parameters of the equivalent source,
RL is the winding resistance of the coil, and Rp is a variable resistance that we adjust to achieve specific
values of  (or Q) for our circuit. This variable resistance is implemented via a potentiometer with the
wiper connected to either one of its remaining terminals. If you need a value of Rp greater than the
potentiometer’s rating, use a suitable resistance in series. The expressions for  and Q derived above still

Fig. 6 – Experimental setup.

Engr 301– Lab #1 – Page 5 of 8

hold, provided we use

R = Req + RL + Rp (11)

In our case, Req  (50 + 39)//10  9 , RL is measured, and is Rp is adjusted to specific values found via
calculation, as we shall see shortly.

Initial Measurements and Calculations:

Henceforth, steps shall be identified by letters as follows: C for calculations, M for measurements, S for
SPICE simulation.

M1: Using an RLC meter from the stockroom, measure and record the values of C (10nF), L(3.9mH), and
RL (the resistance of the coil). By how much do L and C differ from their nominal values?

C2: Calculate the undamped natural frequency f 0  1/(2 LC ) . Please explain what the undamped
natural frequency is.

Step Response:
C3: Calculate the three values of R using equation (2) , and hence of Rp = R – Req – RL, that result in  =
5,  = 1, and  = 0.2, with the values of L and C measured in Step M1. For the case  = 0.2, compute also
the damped frequency fd and overshoot OS(%) via Eqs. (4) and (5). Please explain what damped
frequency and overshoot is. In other words, explain Eqs (4) and (5).

C4: Calculate the values of the poles for the three specified values of , and show their complex-plane
locations. Be neat and precise by keeping the Real axis with unit of (0) . For the complex-plane
locations, please draw it in MATLAB or equivalent, or paste hand-written image of your work.

S5: Using LTspice, along with the component values of Steps M1 and C3, plot the response of the circuit
of Fig. 7 to a 1-V step for the three specified values of  . For the case  = 0.2, use the cursor facility of
LTspice to estimate the overshoot OS(%) as well as the period Td of the decaying oscillation and, hence,
the damped frequency fd = 1/Td. Compare with the predicted values in Step C3. Are they close?

M6: Assemble the circuit of Fig. 6, with the coil as X1, the potentiometer as X2, and the capacitor as X3,

Fig. 7 – Equivalent circuit of Fig. 6 for the case in which X3 is the capacitor (Req = 9 )
so that its equivalent is as in Fig. 7. Keeping in mind that Req = 9 , adjust Rp for  = 1. Then, while
monitoring v1 with Ch.1 of the oscilloscope set on DC, adjust the waveform generator so that v1 is a

Engr 301– Lab #1 – Page 6 of 8

square wave alternating between 0 V and 1 V with a frequency of about f0/10, where f0 is the undamped
frequency of Step C2 (make sure you know where the 0-V baseline is on the screen!).
Now, observe and record the circuit’s response by monitoring v2 with Ch. 2 of the oscilloscope
set on DC. Finally, compare with the response predicted via LTspice in Step S5, and account for any
differences.
Note: In this and the subsequent steps, if the pot is not sufficient to achieve the desired resistance
value, use suitable combinations of resistances in series with the pot. For instance, connecting the 1-k
pot in series with a 3 k ordinary resistor will allow you to span the range of 3 k to 4 k.

M7: Repeat step M6, but with Rp adjusted for  = 5. Provide a physical justification for why the
response is now so sluggish. Compare the measurement with the simulation results.

M8: Repeat step M6, but with Rp adjusted for  = 0.2. Also, from the oscilloscope trace, estimate fd and
OS(%) in a manner similar to Step S5, compare with those predicted in Step C3, and comment. Finally,
provide a physical justification for why the response is now oscillatory. Compare the measurement with
the simulation results.

Impulse Response:
Leaving the potentiometer setting as in Step M8 ( = 0.2), interchange Rp and C so that the circuit
becomes as in Fig. 8. Then, change the waveform generator settings so that v1 is now a pulse train
consisting of pulses each alternating between 0 V and 1 V with a pulse-width of about 0.1/f0, where f0 is
the undamped frequency calculated in Step C2. A pulse this narrow will provide a good approximation to
the impulse function for our circuit. Moreover, to be able to see a repetitive trace on the oscilloscope,
adjust the waveform generator settings so that the above pulses repeat with a frequency of about 10/f0.

M9: While triggering the oscilloscope from v1, observe v2 with the other channel and record it (for best
visualization, you may need to adjust the repetition frequency from the initial suggested value of 10/f0.)
Next, measure the period Td of the damped oscillation, calculate 1/Td, and compare with fd of Step C3.
Finally, justify the waveform for the response v2 using physical insight.

Frequency Response:
To investigate this type of response we still use the circuit of Fig. 8, except that we change the waveform
generator settings so that v1 is now a sinusoidal signal with a constant peak amplitude of 1 V, 0-V DC,
and variable frequency f.
You can measure f by (a) reading the frequency setting on the waveform generator, or (b) by
measuring the period T with the oscilloscope and then computing f = 1/T, or (c) by using a frequency
meter from the stockroom. It is up to each group to decide which method to pursue, and to justify your
choice in the final report.

C10: Find the value of R , and, hence, of Rp, that results in Q = 5 (use Eq. 7) in the circuit of Fig. 8
Then, using Eqs. (10) and (11), calculate fL, fH, and the bandwidth BW. Please explain what bandwidth
BW is.

S11: Using LTspice, along with the component values of Steps M1 and C10, generate the Bode Plots of
the circuit of Fig. 8. Then, using the cursor facility of LTspice, estimate fL and fH, first as the -3-dB
frequencies on the magnitude plot, then as the 45o frequencies on the phase plot. Compare the resulting
values of fL, fH, and BW against those of Step C10, and account for possible differences.

M12: While monitoring v2 with the oscilloscope, vary the waveform generator’s frequency f until v2

Engr 301– Lab #1 – Page 7 of 8

 Fig. 8 – Circuit to investigate the impulse and frequency responses across Rp.

reaches its maximum, and record the value of f. This is the experimental value of f0. Compare with the
calculated value of Step C2. Do they agree within their respective uncertainties? Account for possible
differences! Also, how does the maximum amplitude of v2 compare with the amplitude of v1? Justify via
suitable voltage-divider calculations!

M13: Vary the waveform generator’s frequency f until the amplitude of v2 is down to 70.7% of its
maximum as found in Step M12. There are two such frequencies, namely, fL and fH. How do they
compare with the calculated values of Step C10. Do they agree within their respective uncertainties?

M14: Repeat Step M13, except that now we shall find fL and fH as the 45o frequencies. For phase
measurements, use Channel 1 and Channel 2 of the oscilloscope for input and output. Which of the
methods of estimating fL and fH do you think is the most and which the least dependable, and why? Please
explain the method you used to find the phase measurements.

M15: Verify experimentally the following important properties:

• For f << f0, increasing f by a factor of 10 increases amplitude also by a factor of 10, this being the
reason why it is said that the slope of the magnitude curve is +20 dB/dec there.
• For f >> f0, increasing f by a factor of 10 decreases amplitude also by a factor of 10, this being the
reason why the slope of the magnitude curve is said to be -20 dB/dec there.

M16: Interchange Rp and C so that we are back to the circuit of Fig. 7, to observe the response across C.
Find the value of R that results in Q = 1/ 2 = 0.707, and hence adjust Rp accordingly. Then, by suitably
varying the waveform generator’s frequency f while leaving amplitude and DC offset unchanged, find
experimentally the following:
• The -3-dB frequency f-3dB
• The low-frequency amplitude of v2
• The amplitude of v2 at 10f-3dB and 100f-3dB

S17: Using LTspice, plot the magnitude response across C. Then, compare with the values in M16.

Engr 301– Lab #1 – Page 8 of 8