It

IT UNIT-3 Notes
Topic 12: Manipulating Data
Data Integrity:
1. What is e-commerce?Ans- The buying and selling of goods and services using
computer systems. such as over the internet.

2. What is archive?Ans- Transfer of less frequently used data to a backing store.

3. What is data governance?Ans- systems and procedures for ensuring data is

reliable and secure.

4. What is validation? Ans- Techniques and processes designed to ensure data is

reasonable and follows specific rules.

5. What is Data Integrity?

Ans- Data integrity refers to how reliable of a set of data is. Integrity of data
is influenced by the accuracy and consistency of data and ensures that the data
remains free from error and useable from the moment it is collected or entered
until it is used or archived.
Data integrity has a number of key components. These components include the
following:
Accuracy: data should be correct and free from errors or inconsistencies. It should
reflect the actual values or information it's intended to represent.
Consistency: data should follow set rules and formats. For example, phone numbers
should follow the same format, or dimensions of a product should all use the same
units of measurements. This consistency ensures that the data doesn't contradict
itself or provide conflicting or misleading information.
Completeness: All necessary data should be included with no missing data points.
Reliability: users should be able to trust the data. It should be available when
needed. and its reliability should be ensured through measures such as backups.
security protocols and validation processes.
Security: data integrity also includes the security measures used to prevent
unauthorised access. modification. or deletion of data in order to safeguard data
from tampering or corruption.

6. What are data dictionaries?Ans- A data dictionary is like a blueprint or plan

for a database or dataset. It provides a centralised and agreed plan. detailing
exactly how data will be stnictured and stored in a computer system. The data
dictionary provides metadata for the data elements. which helps ensure that all
data complies with the required stnicture. definitions. relationships and
attributes required for the specific context.

7. What is metadata?
Ans- Details or information that describe other data to provide deeper meaning or
understanding.

8. What are validation rules?Ans- Validation rules provide restrictions to the data
that can be entered to ensure any data that is entered is reasonable. While
validation does not prevent data from being incorrect, it does reduce the potential
scope of any errors in the data.
9. What is structured query language (SQl)?Ans- Structured query language (SQL) is
a widely used programming language used for manipulating and maintaining data.

Common SQL data types

Data Type Description
Integer data types INT Stores whole numbers within a specific range (usually
-2147483648 to 2147483647).
 SMALLINT Used for smaller integers when a smaller range would be needed.
Defining a smaller range saves on storage space. Range for SMALLINT is: -32768 to
32767 or 0 to 65535
BIGINT For very large positive and negative numbers. Used when the
numbers to be stored would exceed the range of the INT data type.
TINYINT Used for small numbers. Typically 0 to 255
Decimal types DECIMAL Stores precise decimal numbers with a specified
precision and scale (e.g .. DECIMAL( 10.2) for up to 10 digits. 2 of which are
decimal places).
FLOAT and REAL For floating-point numbers (approximate values with varying
precision).
Date and time types DATE For floating-point numbers (approximate values with
varying precision).
TIME Stores time values in the format HH:MM:SS (e.g. 13:00:00).
DATETIME Combines date and time (e.g. 2024-01-10 13:00:00).
TIMESTAMP Similar to DATETIME. often used for tracking record creation or
modification timestamps
Character string types CHAR Text-based string with a fixed length e.g. CHAR(8)
for an 8-character string
VARCHAR Used for variable length character strings. Is space efficient
when working with strings that will vary in length, such as names or addresses.
TEXT For larger blocks of text.
NCHAR and NVARCHAR Unicode compatible - used for storing multilingual
text.
Other types BINARY and VARBINARY Stores binary data such as images. audio/video
or other files.
BOOLEAN Stores TRUE or FALSE values only.
JSON Not supponed by all databases or systems. but is a data format that is
increasingly used to pass data between systems. Used if a database will be passing
data to and receiving data from other systems.
10. What is data validation? Ans- Data validation implements rules and procedures !
O anempt 10 reduce the chance of errors occurring. It is important to realise that
data validation does not ensure that data is completely error free. However, it
does ensure that data entered into a particular field follows pre-set rules 1ha1
reduce the number and types of error that can occur.

11. What is a relational database?Ans- A relational database stores data in a

structured way using separate but linked tables. It’s ideal for managing large
amounts of related data. For example, an e-commerce site can store customer,
product, and order details in different tables, reducing errors and redundancy
while allowing easy data access and combination.

Relational Databases: 1. What is data redundancy? Ans- The unnecessary duplication

of data in a database.Data redundancy occurs when data is replicated unnecessarily
in multiple locations. Data redundancy can cause a number of problems, including
increased storage costs. data inconsistency and maintenance implications.
2. What is data normalisation? Ans- Normalization reduces data redundancy by
breaking complex tables into simpler ones. It removes repeated data and creates
relationships between tables, ensuring efficient data management.Normalization has
three main stages: 1NF, 2NF, and 3NF, each reducing data redundancy.
1NF (First Normal Form):Remove repeating data groups.Each column holds a single
attribute and one value per cell.All values in a column are the same type.Each
record has a unique primary key.
2NF (Second Normal Form):Meets all 1NF rules.Remove partial dependencies—data that
applies to multiple records is moved to separate tables.Use foreign keys to link
related tables.
3NF (Third Normal Form):Meets all 2NF rules.Remove transitive dependencies—data not
directly related to the key goes into its own table.Further reduces redundancy and
improves data integrity.
3. What is a Database Management System (DBMS)?Ans- Database management system
(DBMS) is a type of software application that provides tools for creation and
manipulation of databases and the data that they hold.

Big Data: 1. What is Big Data?Ans- Big Data refers to extremely large and complex
data sets generated by modern computer systems. Traditional tools struggle to
manage it, but it can offer valuable insights, making it a key focus for many
organizations.
2. What are the characteristics of Big Data (The Five Vs)?Ans- There are five key
concepts when dealing with Big Data. which are referred to as the "five Vs':
volume. velocity. variety. veracity and value.
VolumeBig Data involves huge and ever-growing amounts of data from sources like
social media and transactions. This creates big challenges for storing and
processing the data.
VelocityBig Data is created at very high speeds. For example, platforms like
Facebook and X (Twitter) generate millions of posts and likes every minute.
VarietyBig Data comes from many sources and in different formats:Structured –
Neatly organized, like in databases.Unstructured – Includes messy data like images,
videos, or free text.Semi-structured – Not fully organized, but includes some tags
or labels to help process it.
VeracityData quality can vary. Since Big Data comes from many sources, some of it
(like social media) may be inaccurate, biased, or misleading. Ensuring data is
reliable is a major challenge.
ValueDespite the challenges, Big Data can be very useful. It helps companies
understand customer behavior, improve services, and make better business decisions.
3. What is latency?Ans- The delay between requesting and receiving data.
4. What is data mining?Ans- Data mining extracts useful information from data using
techniques like clustering, classification, and regression. It often uses machine
learning and AI to find hidden insights.
5. What does the term data warehousing mean?Ans- Data warehousing collects and
stores raw data from various sources in one central place. It combines internal and
external data to give a unified view, making it easier for decision-makers to
access and analyze information.
6. What are data analytics?Ans- Data Analytics helps organizations use data and
statistics to gain insights, make predictions, and support decision-making. Common
tools include reports, charts, machine learning, text analysis, and data security.
There are three main types:
Descriptive Analytics: Summarizes past data to understand what happened and why.
Helps identify good practices or errors.
Predictive Analytics: Uses past data to forecast future events and outcomes. For
example, predicting food shortages due to weather changes.
Prescriptive Analytics: Suggests actions to take based on predictions to get the
best results, like buying extra supplies before a shortage.
7. What are the use of big data by individuals, organisations and society?Ans- Big
Data is widely used by individuals, organizations, and society. It powers
personalized ads, product recommendations, and helps detect problems in areas like
finance, influencing many parts of our daily lives such as:
• Healthcare
• Personalised treatment plans
• Accelerate drug discovery and developement.
• Track and manage public health threats
• Infrastructure planning
• Predictive maintenance
• Traffic management and urban planning
• Utility infrastructure optimisation
• Transportation
• Public transportation optimisation
 • Fuel efficiency and emission reduction
• Fraud detection
• Pattern recognition
• Behaviour analysis
• Real-time monitoring
Topic 13: Enabling Technologies

Virtualisation and Distributed Systems

1. What is virtualisation and why is it used?Ans- Virtualisation is the act of
creating a virtual version of something, such as a computer system. server. storage
device or network resource. The virtual version can then be used in a similar way
to the original.
2. What are the different ways virtualisation can be achieved?Ans- There are
different types of virtualisation. including desktop. storage and network
vinualisation. Desktop Virtualisation: Run multiple operating systems on one
computer, like using Windows on a Mac. Thin clients are an example.Storage
Virtualisation: Combine multiple physical storage devices into one virtual storage
pool for easier management.Network Virtualisation: Create virtual networks
independent of physical hardware, allowing flexible designs and isolation of
resources, such as separating staff and student networks in a school.
3. What is a thin client?Ans- Thin client is a computer that runs resources stored
on a remote server rather than locally installed resources.
4. What are the benefits and drawbacks of using Virtualisation?Ans-
Benefits of Virtualisation: Drawbacks of Virtualisation:
Better use of resources: Virtualisation helps you make the most of your existing
hardware, saving money and improving efficiency.
Isolation: If a problem like malware happens inside one virtual machine, it stays
contained and doesn’t affect the rest of the system.
Flexibility and scalability: Virtual environments are easy to adjust and can grow
with changing needs.
Disaster recovery: You can create snapshots—complete copies of the system—that let
you restore everything quickly after a failure. Complex setup: Setting up and
managing virtual machines can be complicated and needs specialist software and
skilled staff.
High upfront cost: Buying virtualisation software, powerful hardware, and training
staff can be expensive initially.
Performance issues: Since virtual machines share the same physical hardware,
running too many or poor setup can cause slowdowns.
5. What is the difference between virtual machines and containerisation?Ans-
Issue Virtual Machine (VM) Containerisation
Abstractionlevel Full hardware virtualisation Includes a complete operating system
(OS) instance Hypervisor emulates the underlying hardware Can run multiple VMs with
different Operating Systems on a single physical machine. Operates at the
application layer Contains the application and any dependencies Shares the host OS
kernel but runs in isolated user spaces Smaller footprint as only required
dependencies included instead of full OS.
Resource usage Consumes more resources (memory. disc space and CPU) compared to
containers Requires more time to start and have larger . . image sizes.
Minimal overhead compared to VMs Faster startup times. reduced resource
consumption and smaller image sizes.
Isolation Strong isolation: each VM has its own OS instance and runs on a
hypervisor Suitable for running applications with different OS requirements or
security constraints. Lower level of isolation compared to VMs Isolated from each
other, but may share certain resources Higher risk of security vulnerabilities if
not configured properly.
Portability Typically less portable because they encapsulate an entire OS Moving
VMs between different hypervisors or cloud platforms might require additional
configuration. Highly portable Self-contained: they encapsulate the application
and its dependencies Easier to run the same containerised application consistently
across various environments.
Uses Best used for running applications with wide ranging OS requirements Strong
suppon for legacy applications Good for isolation/security critical situations.
Useful for microservice architectures Good for cloud-native applications.
where rapid deployment, scalability and portability are key considerations.
6. How are distributed systems used to share data?Ans- A distributed system is a
group of independent computers working together to improve performance,
scalability, and fault tolerance. These systems often spread nodes across different
locations and hardware.They are commonly used for:
Web services: Distribute content globally to reduce delays and improve user
experience (e.g., video streaming).Data services: Manage large data sets across
multiple sites to prevent data loss and improve access (e.g., distributed
databases).Blockchain: Stores transaction records across many locations, reducing
risks of failure or tampering.
Distributed systems help organizations provide reliable and fast access to data and
services worldwide.
7. What issues are associated with distributed systems?Ans- Distributed systems are
complex to set up and manage, requiring skilled specialists and significant time
and money. Because they need a lot of hardware across different locations, many
companies use cloud providers like Google Cloud Platform (GCP) and Amazon Web
Services (AWS) to take advantage of global infrastructure.
8. What are the benefits of using distributed systems?Ans- Failure Resistance:
They’re designed to handle failures. If one part goes down, others can keep the
system running, and data can be restored from backups on other nodes.
Concurrency: Tasks run simultaneously across different nodes. This boosts
performance by sharing the workload across available systems.
Replication: Data is copied across systems to prevent loss. But keeping all
versions in sync can be tricky—differences can lead to errors in other parts of the
system.
Performance: Distributing tasks improves speed overall. But if data is sent to a
faraway server instead of a closer one, response time can suffer. The system must
smartly choose the best option.

Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)

1. Why is human-computer interaction important?Ans- Human-computer interaction
(HCI) is important because it focuses on making systems easy and effective for
users to interact with. A well-designed HCI improves user experience (UX) by
ensuring that systems are intuitive, efficient, and enjoyable to use. It helps
users complete tasks with ease, supports usability, learnability, and
accessibility, and provides clear feedback and consistency, which all contribute to
higher satisfaction and productivity.
2. What are the different ways human-computer interaction can be implemented?Ans-
Human-computer interaction (HCI) can be implemented in three main ways:
Visual HCI – Uses visual elements like layout, colour, icons, typography, and
images to help users interact with systems. It also includes responsive design and
visual feedback to improve usability across devices.
Audio HCI – Involves using sound and speech for interaction. This includes voice
commands (e.g. Siri, Alexa), speech feedback, and sounds for alerts or actions—
especially helpful for users with visual impairments.
Haptic HCI – Uses touch and physical feedback, like vibrations or force feedback in
phones or game controllers. It also includes tactile displays (e.g. Braille) and
wearable sensors for more immersive or accessible experiences.

3. What ergonomic principles are related to human-computer interaction?Ans-

Ergonomics is all about designing the environment and tools so that people can
interact with computers in a way that’s comfortable, efficient, and productive. It
considers both physical and mental limits of users to improve how they use the
system.
Physical Ergonomics:This is the part most people think of first. It focuses on the
body — how you sit, move, and how much strain you put on yourself while using a
computer. The goal is to reduce stress and avoid injuries like neck pain, back
pain, or repetitive strain injuries.
• Posture:Good posture is key to avoiding pain and injuries. That means
having adjustable chairs and desks so users can sit comfortably, and positioning
keyboards and mice so they don’t strain wrists, arms, or shoulders.
• Input Devices:Keyboards and mice should be designed to reduce muscle
strain — ergonomic keyboards, wrist supports, or trackballs help with this. Voice
recognition is also becoming a great alternative to reduce physical effort.
• Visual Display:Staring at screens for a long time can cause eye strain
and headaches. Displays should let users adjust brightness, contrast, and text size
to suit their needs. It’s also important to reduce glare by placing the screen away
from direct sunlight or using window shades.
Cognitive Ergonomics:This deals with the mental side — how the design helps users
think and work without getting overwhelmed.
• Workload:Systems should avoid giving users too much information at
once. Keeping interfaces simple, clear, and predictable helps reduce mental fatigue
and errors.
• Memory:Because our memory can only hold so much, interfaces should use
familiar layouts and provide reminders or cues so users don’t have to remember
everything.
• Attention:To help users focus, designs should minimize distractions
like unnecessary alerts, pop-ups, or visual clutter. Features like ‘do-not-disturb’
modes can help users concentrate on their tasks.
This way, ergonomic principles make interacting with computers easier, more
comfortable, and less tiring — both physically and mentally.
4. How are interfaces designed to meet users’ needs and requirements?Ans- GUIs may
look different, but they share common features to meet the needs of users and
organisations.
MenusMenus let users quickly find tools without typing commands. A good menu groups
related items and follows familiar patterns, like putting ‘Save’, ‘Open’, and
‘Print’ in the ‘File’ menu. It should be creative but still feel familiar so users
aren’t confused.
IconsIcons are small pictures that act as shortcuts to programs or features. They
make using the system easier by showing clear images instead of text. Using
consistent styles helps users recognize icons across apps.
Accessibility To include all users, interfaces should allow:
• Changing font size and style for better reading
• Adjusting colours or using high contrast for visibility
• Support for screen readers, which read text aloud and explain buttons
or labels
• Alt text for images so screen readers can describe them
• Captions or transcripts for videos to help users with hearing issues
Windows Windows are rectangular areas on the screen that separate content. They
usually have:
• A title bar showing the program or file name
• Buttons to close, minimise, or maximise
• Menu bars for extra options
• Scroll bars to see hidden content
• The main content area where you work
Pointers Pointers (or cursors) show where the user is interacting, usually an arrow
that changes shape depending on the action.

Cloud Storage and Data Security

1. How is data stored in the cloud?Ans- Data is saved on remote servers owned by
cloud providers like Amazon or Microsoft. These servers are kept in secure data
centers, and the data is stored digitally across multiple machines to keep it safe
and easy to access through the internet. Users don’t need to manage the hardware
themselves—they just connect online to store or get their data.
2. How is data secured in cloud-based systems?Ans- In cloud-based systems, data is
secured in several ways to protect it from being stolen, misused, or lost. One key
method is encryption, which scrambles the data into unreadable code using a special
key—only someone with the right key can unlock and read it. This makes the data
useless to anyone who gets access without permission.
Another common way to secure data is through passwords. These help make sure only
the right people can access certain systems or files. Strong passwords use a mix of
letters, numbers, and symbols, and each account should have a different one.
Other security methods include PINs, security questions, and pattern locks, which
all work by making sure only the authorized user can get in. The way data is
protected often depends on whether it's just being stored or actively sent across
the internet, but the goal is always the same—keeping it safe and private.
3. What is a Database Management System (DBMS)?Ans- Database Management System
(DBMS) is software that helps you store, organize, and manage data. It acts like a
smart digital filing cabinet where you can add, update, delete, and search for
information easily.
Instead of storing data in separate files or documents, a DBMS keeps everything in
one place and makes sure it’s well-organized, secure, and easy to access by the
right people. Examples include MySQL, Oracle, Microsoft SQL Server, and PostgreSQL.
Key features of a DBMS:
• Stores data in tables (like a spreadsheet)Allows multiple users to
access data at the same time
• Keeps data safe and secure with passwords and permissions
• Prevents errors and duplicates
• Makes it easy to search and update data
4. What is the role of a Database Management System (DBMS) in controlling access to
data?Ans- A DBMS helps keep data safe by controlling who can access it, what they
can do with it, and what parts they can see. It uses authentication (like usernames
and passwords) to check who’s trying to log in, and authorization to give the right
level of access based on the user's role—like whether they can just view data or
also edit or delete it.
The DBMS can also show only certain parts of the data to different users using
views, and apply rules like row-level security to limit access to specific records.
Other tools like access control lists and auditing help further manage who can see
what and track what each user does. All of this helps protect the data’s privacy,
integrity, and security.

Encryption

1. What is meant by the term encryption?Ans- Encryption is a way to protect data by

scrambling it so that only authorized people with the right key can read it. It
uses a mathematical algorithm to turn the data into unreadable code.There are two
main types:
Symmetric encryption – the same key is used to lock and unlock the data, often used
for securing stored data.Asymmetric encryption – uses a pair of keys (public and
private) and is mostly used for protecting data while it's being sent, like when
you log into websites or shop online.
2. What are the features and functions of symmetric encryption?Ans- Symmetric
encryption uses the same key to both encrypt and decrypt data. Anyone who knows the
key can access the data. It’s useful for securing stored data with few users or
personal devices like a USB stick. However, it’s less effective for sharing data
between systems because the key must be shared with anyone who needs access.
The process has three steps:
1. Key generation: The key is usually a random string of letters and
numbers or a complex password. It’s best to use a computer to create a strong,
unique key to prevent guessing or attacks.
2. Encryption: The original data (plain text) and the key go into an
encryption algorithm, which scrambles the data into unreadable ciphertext.
3. Decryption: The ciphertext and the same key are used in a decryption
algorithm that reverses the process, turning the data back into plain text.

3. What are the benefits and limitations of symmetric encryption?Ans- Symmetric

encryption offers strong protection against casual attacks. For example, if your
laptop is stolen, encrypted data will stay safe because the thief probably won’t
have the key. It’s also faster and uses simpler algorithms than asymmetric
encryption, making it more efficient for encrypting large amounts of stored data or
when using less powerful devices.
The main challenge is keeping the key secure. You have to share the key with
everyone who needs access, and it’s vulnerable during this exchange. Special
protocols help protect the key when sharing it. After sharing, the more people who
have the key, the higher the risk it might be accidentally or intentionally shared
with someone who shouldn’t have access.
4. What are the features and functions of asymmetric encryption?Ans- Asymmetric
encryption, also called public-key encryption, is a very secure method that uses
two different but related keys: a public key and a private key.
• The public key is shared with everyone and is used to encrypt messages.
• The private key is kept secret by the owner and is used to decrypt
messages encrypted with the public key.
Here’s how it works:
Encryption:
1. The sender gets the recipient’s public key.
2. The sender uses the public key to encrypt their message, turning it
into unreadable ciphertext.
3. The encrypted message is sent to the recipient.
Decryption:
1. The recipient uses their private key to decrypt the ciphertext.
2. Because the private key matches the public key mathematically, the
original message is recovered.

5. What are the benefits and limitations of asymmetric encryption?Ans- Asymmetric

encryption is very secure and lets you safely share data even over insecure
channels like the internet. The public and private keys are linked mathematically,
but it’s practically impossible to figure out the private key from the public one,
so the public key can be shared freely.However, because the encryption process is
complex and uses a lot of computing power, it’s not usually used to protect large
amounts of data or on personal devices.
6. What are the features and functions of certificate-based encryption?Ans-
Certificate-based encryption uses digital certificates to verify the identity of
people or websites during communication, adding an extra layer of security to
asymmetric encryption.
A digital certificate is like an ID card for a public key. It’s issued by a trusted
organization called a Certificate Authority (CA), which checks that the owner is
genuine before issuing the certificate.
The certificate contains important info, including:
• The public key used to encrypt data.
• The subject, which confirms who owns the public key (like a passport
for a person or website).
• The issuer, which is the CA that issued the certificate.
• A validity period, showing how long the certificate is valid before it
needs renewal.
• The digital signature of the issuer to prove the certificate is
authentic.
This system helps establish trusted, secure connections, such as when visiting
websites using HTTPS and SSL.
Here’s how it works in a typical website scenario:
1. Certificate exchange: When you visit a secure site, your browser asks
the site to prove its identity. The site sends its SSL certificate to your browser.
Your browser checks if the certificate is valid and trusted.
2. Key exchange and encryption: After confirming the certificate, your
browser creates a one-time session key for encrypting the data. This key is
encrypted with the site’s public key and sent to the server. The server decrypts it
with its private key and sends back an encrypted confirmation.
3. Data transmission: With the secure session established, the server and
your browser exchange data securely using faster symmetric encryption.

7. What are the benefits and limitations of certificate-based encryption?Ans-

Certificate-based encryption helps systems safely share a unique session key, which
is then used to quickly and efficiently encrypt data with symmetric encryption.
This makes data transfer faster than if asymmetric encryption was used for
everything, which is important for busy websites and good user experience.The main
limitation is that you have to trust the Certificate Authority (CA) to properly
verify organizations before giving them certificates, and to be trustworthy itself.
Despite this, the added security makes certificate-based encryption very popular.
It’s widely used for things like:
• HTTPS websites for secure online shopping and communication
• Email encryption to protect sensitive messages
• Software signing to confirm software is genuine and safe
• VPNs to create secure remote connections over the internet
Topic 14: Using IT systems in organisations

Role of IT systems
1. What is the role of IT systems in organisations?Ans- IT systems are essential
for modern businesses and organisations, as they support and enhance virtually
every aspect of operations. From monitoring production processes to providing
employees with access to vital business information, IT systems ensure
organisations operate efficiently and effectively.
A core role of IT systems is operational support. They enable the smooth completion
of everyday tasks for management, employees, and customers, helping organisations
achieve key goals such as improving efficiency, boosting productivity, enhancing
decision-making, facilitating communication and collaboration, reducing costs,
increasing profits, improving customer service, and maintaining security and
compliance.
To deliver effective operational support, IT systems are applied across many
critical business areas:
• Automation: IT automates repetitive or simple tasks like data entry,
report generation, and basic customer service processes, freeing employees for more
strategic work and improving both organisational efficiency and customer
experience.
• Monitoring and Maintenance: IT systems continuously monitor performance
and identify issues early, preventing downtime, data loss, and operational
disruptions.
• Customer Service: Tools such as self-service portals, chatbots, and
online knowledge bases automate and improve customer interactions, enabling
customers to resolve common issues independently and reducing support workload.
• Data Management and Analysis: Organisations use IT systems to collect,
store, and analyse data, gaining insights that help optimise operations, reduce
costs, and improve products and services.
• Resource Management: Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems
integrate finance, human resources, supply chain, and other functions into a
centralized system for better resource allocation and operational control.
• Collaboration: IT provides platforms for communication and teamwork,
enabling employees to work together effectively regardless of location. Cloud-based
tools support real-time document sharing and co-authoring, enhancing productivity.
• Communication Tools: Email, instant messaging, and video conferencing
software keep teams connected and support flexible communication styles tailored to
different needs and locations.
• Enterprise Social Media and Networks: Social platforms encourage
informal communication, cross-department collaboration, and idea sharing, fostering
innovation and stronger employee engagement.
• Project Management Software: These tools help teams plan, organise,
assign tasks, track progress, and meet deadlines, ensuring projects stay on
schedule and resources are used efficiently.
• Knowledge Management: Systems such as Document Management Systems
(DMS), Content Management Systems (CMS), and knowledge repositories store,
organise, and provide easy access to information, supporting informed decision-
making and consistent operations.
• Product Development: IT supports all product development stages—from
ideation and design to development, testing, manufacturing, and user feedback—
helping organisations innovate and maintain competitiveness.
• Service Delivery: IT systems streamline service delivery through
automation, data management, and workflow optimisation, allowing organisations to
efficiently reach and serve customers at scale.
In summary, IT systems are indispensable for organisations, providing the
infrastructure and tools needed to operate effectively, adapt to change, and
achieve strategic objectives in today’s competitive environment.
2. What is transaction processing, and how is it used in organisations?Ans-
Transaction processing (TP) refers to the management of individual tasks that
involve changes to data within a system, usually related to financial transactions
or product management such as stock or inventory control. The key aim of TP is to
maintain data integrity by ensuring each task is completed accurately and reliably.
Transactions are typically short-lived, self-contained events interacting with
larger systems like databases. For example, when a purchase is made on an e-
commerce website, the stock quantity is updated immediately to provide correct and
current availability information to other customers.
In organisations, transaction processing is applied in various critical areas:
Electronic Point of Sale (EPOS)Modern retail stores, cafes, and restaurants use
EPOS systems instead of traditional cash registers. EPOS integrates sales
processing and inventory management by linking customer transactions to back-office
systems. It allows quick payments via cash, card, or smartphones, while
automatically updating stock levels and triggering reorders when inventory is low.
EPOS also collects sales data to provide insights into popular products and
improves customer experience through features like self-service checkouts and
loyalty programs.
Order ProcessingOrder processing is a common form of transaction processing used in
e-commerce and ticketing systems. Each order must follow the ACID principles to
ensure reliability:
Atomicity: The transaction is treated as a whole unit, either fully completed or
not at all.
Consistency: The system transitions between valid states, e.g., validating payment
before updating stock.
Isolation: Concurrent orders don’t interfere with each other, ensuring accurate
stock handling.
Durability: Once confirmed, transaction data is permanently saved, even in case of
system failure.
Financial SystemsFinancial transaction processing relies heavily on maintaining
data integrity and security. With the rise of digital payments, these systems must
operate 24/7 with high availability and handle large transaction volumes,
especially during peak periods like holidays. They must also incorporate strong
security measures to prevent fraud and comply with financial regulations, which
adds complexity to system design.
Bacs Payment Schemes Limited (Bacs) Bacs Payment Schemes Limited (Bacs) is a UK-
based organisation that manages major payment systems, mainly direct debits and
direct credits. Direct debits allow companies to take regular payments from
customers’ bank accounts (e.g., utility bills), while direct credits transfer money
directly into accounts (e.g., salaries). Similar organisations exist elsewhere,
such as ACH in the USA and SEPA in the EU.
3. What is customer relationship management (CRM)?Ans- Customer relationship
management (CRM) systems are software tools that help businesses manage
interactions with customers and stakeholders. They use databases and other tools to
provide targeted support, improve customer experience, boost engagement, and
increase profits.
4. How and why do organisations use customer relationship management (CRM) systems?
Ans- Businesses use customer relationship management (CRM) systems to better
understand and engage with their customers. These systems help improve marketing,
sales, and service by turning customer data into useful insights. Here’s how
they’re used effectively:
Synchronise marketing events CRM systems help companies plan and coordinate
marketing activities across different platforms. They allow businesses to schedule
campaigns such as social media posts, emails or SMS messages from within the
system. CRM tools also integrate with external platforms so the same message can be
automatically shared across all channels.
Loyalty schemes CRM systems work closely with EPOS and inventory databases to
support loyalty schemes. These systems track transactions and trends both at a
general and individual level. Customers earn points based on purchases, which can
be exchanged for discounts or rewards. CRM also allows personalised offers, such as
sending a voucher for a breakfast cereal the customer has previously bought,
encouraging repeat business.
Buying trends CRM systems provide insight into sales data. This helps companies
decide how much stock to order, when to promote products, and which customers to
target. These insights help in making strategic decisions that improve efficiency
and sales.
Customer service CRM allows companies to personalise customer interactions, such as
sending birthday greetings or follow-up emails after purchases. The system also
tracks customer issues, ensuring timely and satisfactory responses to queries or
complaints.
Customer retention Retaining customers is vital for long-term success. CRM systems
help maintain relationships by drawing on data from across the business. They
support customers with relevant offers or assistance, increasing the chance of
repeat custom and positive word-of-mouth.
Upselling CRM tools identify patterns in customer behaviour. For example, if a
customer buys a laptop, the system may recommend accessories like a case or mouse.
These suggestions often lead to impulse buys, boosting overall profits.
5. How are management information systems (MIS) used in organisations?Ans-
Management information systems (MIS) are systems and processes that support the
operations of an organisation by providing managers with the information they need
to effectively run the organisation and make data-driven decisions. MIS has three
main functions, these are:
Record keeping MIS gathers data from various internal sources like transactional
systems (e.g. EPOS, CRM), employee databases, financial records, and operational
systems, and combines it with external data such as market research, industry
reports, government databases, and competitor analysis. The data is processed
through tasks like validation, cleansing, and aggregation to make it useful. MIS
handles structured, semi-structured, and unstructured data, simplifying complex
information and presenting it in an easy-to-understand way for users.
Decision-makingEffective decision-making is supported through high-quality data
that gives detailed insights that can be used as actionable knowledge. An effective
MIS should provide users with mechanisms for retrieving information in an effective
and efficient manner. Common tools include the use of query cools. search engines.
dashboards and reporting interfaces that allow users to access relevant information
based on their needs and preferences. Information retrieval systems are designed to
provide users with quick access to up-to.<face and accurate data to support
decision-making.
Project managementMIS supports project management by integrating with project
software to provide data-driven insights. This helps organisations focus projects
better, identify product issues for process improvements, spot potential risks
early, and enable effective contingency planning.
6. What are intelligent transportation systems (ITS), and how are they used?Ans-
Intelligent transportation systems (ITS) improve public and private transport by
using sensors, cameras, and monitoring tools to collect real-time data on traffic,
accidents, road closures, and weather. Analyzing this data helps identify
bottlenecks, demand levels, and predict issues, enabling better planning and real-
time adjustments. Key points of ITS are:
Scheduling and route planning ITS uses advanced routing algorithms that consider
real-time traffic, road conditions, and restrictions to find the most efficient
routes, reducing travel time and fuel use. This benefits logistics and on-demand
transport like taxis. For public transport, ITS enables:
• Dynamic scheduling: Adjusts bus and train times based on passenger
numbers and congestion to reduce wait times.
• Demand-responsive scheduling: Creates flexible routes based on real-
time passenger demand, avoiding empty stops.
• Incident management: Quickly updates schedules to minimize disruptions
from accidents or events.
Timetabling The algorithms in the systems can be used to predict future patterns
and demand. For example. using historical data and machine learning. the system may
identify specific areas of a city with high demand at the beginning or end of the
working day; so more buses at more regular intervals are required in those areas at
those times. It may also anticipate future demand. such as a steady increase in use
of a specific route which may suggest that this demand will continue to increase in
the future.
LocationsITS makes use of location-based services to collect and analyse location
data to generate insights into travel patterns, traffic flows and user behaviour.
It collects this data through:
• User-generated data: Anonymized speed and location info from smartphone
apps helps map real-time traffic.
• Community reports: Updates from the public and media share info on
accidents and road closures.
• Sensors and cameras: ITS partners with agencies to gather data from
traffic sensors and CCTV.
This combined data gives a detailed view of current traffic conditions.
Fleet ManagementITS uses GPS and telematics to track vehicle location, speed, and
driving behavior in real time. This helps logistics companies monitor fleets,
ensure safe driving, and make quick decisions on routing and scheduling based on
current demand. It's especially useful for handling sensitive or fragile cargo.
7. What are expert systems, and how are they used in organisations?Ans- Expert
systems are IT systems designed to assist decision-making in specialised fields
like medicine or technical support. They work using a knowledge base (facts and
rules from human experts) and an inference engine (which processes that information
to suggest solutions).
These systems operate within a narrow scope, focusing on specific tasks—for
example, recommending medication based on symptoms. Unlike AI or machine learning,
expert systems don’t learn from new data; they rely on fixed, pre-programmed
knowledge and rules.
In organisations, expert systems help solve complex problems by simulating expert
reasoning, offering consistent and efficient decision support in areas such as
diagnostics, troubleshooting, and compliance checking.
Operational issues
8. What operational issues do organisations face, and how do these issues impact IT
systems and users?Ans- Organisations face a variety of operational issues that can
significantly impact their IT systems and users. These include governance, risk
management, system transitions, maintenance, and data handling. Each area poses
specific challenges that, if not addressed, can disrupt productivity, data
security, and overall business continuity.
IT Governance and PolicyIT governance refers to the structures and processes that
ensure IT supports organisational goals, mitigates risks, and complies with laws.
It aligns IT strategy with business objectives and ensures legal and regulatory
compliance.Key components include:
• Strategic Alignment – Ensuring IT investments support the
organisation’s goals.
• Risk Management – Identifying and preparing for potential IT threats.
• Resource Management – Efficient use of technology and human resources.
• Performance Measurement – Using metrics to monitor IT success.
• Legal Compliance – Meeting data protection, privacy, and cybersecurity
standards.
IT policies guide user behaviour, define roles and responsibilities, and outline
how critical decisions (like server replacement) are made.
Business Continuity and Disaster Recovery
Business continuity planning prepares an organisation to operate during disruptions
(e.g. cyberattacks or system failures). It includes procedures to maintain
services, protect customers, and minimise financial loss.
Disaster recovery focuses on restoring systems and data after a major failure. It
includes:
• Recovery objectives (RTOs and RPOs)
• Backup strategies
• Role assignments and emergency protocols
Together, these plans reduce downtime, maintain trust, and ensure compliance with
regulations.
Risk ManagementRisk management involves identifying threats (e.g. cyberattacks,
human error), assessing their impact, and developing mitigation strategies. This
may involve:
• Upgrading security systems
• Enhancing data recovery measures
• Integrating risk controls into other policies (like disaster recovery)
Good risk management protects systems and supports decision-making.
User Policy (Acceptable Use Policy - AUP)This outlines how staff may use IT
resources (e.g. internet, email, software). It defines:
• Acceptable and unacceptable behaviour
• Handling of sensitive data
• Consequences for policy breaches
The AUP ensures security and maintains professional standards.
Managing IT ChangeoverWhen replacing or upgrading systems, changeovers must be
carefully managed to minimise risk:
• Phased: Introduce the new system gradually by department or module.
Lower risk but slower.
• Direct (Big Bang): Full switch to the new system at once. Quick but
riskier.
• Parallel: Run both systems temporarily to verify new system
reliability. Safer but resource-heavy.
• Pilot: Test the system in a limited area or group. Useful for
identifying issues before full rollout.
Each method is chosen based on risk, scale, and criticality of the system.
System MaintenanceMaintenance ensures systems remain reliable and up to date:
• Perfective: Adds improvements or features based on feedback or
strategy.
• Adaptive: Updates systems due to external changes (e.g. regulations or
new hardware).
• Corrective: Fixes bugs and restores normal operations. Usually reactive
and followed by regression testing to avoid new issues.
Data ArchivingData archiving stores older data that’s not actively used but still
needed. Benefits include:
• Meeting legal data retention requirements
• Supporting disaster recovery
• Providing data for analytics and audits
• Reducing the load on active systems
It helps organisations stay compliant and efficient.
Disaster Recovery PlanningA solid disaster recovery plan includes:
• Inventory of Critical Data – Knowing what needs to be backed up.
• Recovery Objectives – Setting timelines (RTOs) and data loss tolerances
(RPOs).
• Risk Analysis – Identifying threats, assessing their impacts, and
creating mitigation strategies.
• Team Roles – Assigning responsibilities during recovery efforts.
• Communication Plans – Ensuring clear contact procedures internally and
externally.
• Training & Drills – Preparing staff to act effectively during real
incidents.
The plan must be regularly reviewed and approved by senior management to remain
relevant.
In summary, managing IT within an organisation is complex. Governance, planning,
change management, maintenance, and disaster recovery all contribute to ensuring
systems are secure, users are supported, and the organisation remains operational
and compliant.
Topic 14: Using IT systems in organisations

Project management
1. Why is project management necessary when developing IT systems?Ans- Project
management is essential when developing IT systems due to the complexity and scale
of such projects. IT projects involve many aspects that need constant monitoring.
Failure in one area can affect overall quality, deadlines, and costs. The fast-
changing nature of IT means that clients often change requirements, making
management vital to avoid missed deadlines and increased expenses.
Managing a ProjectManaging an IT project involves coordinating multiple stages and
stakeholders. The project manager ensures stakeholders are involved appropriately
and manages client expectations by balancing their needs with available resources
like time, budget, and staff.
Key Features of Project Management:
Complexity ManagementBreaks down complex tasks into manageable parts, ensuring each
is planned, executed, and monitored effectively.
Resource AllocationEnsures effective use of human resources, hardware, time, and
budget. The project manager assigns tasks and allocates resources efficiently.
Risk MitigationIdentifies potential risks and prepares contingency plans. Common
risks include:
• Changing requirements (e.g., feature creep)
• Technical issues (e.g., hardware failures or data breaches)
• Human factors (e.g., misconfiguration or staff absence)
• Wider issues (e.g., pandemics, legislation changes)
Quality AssuranceOversees all stages to ensure the project meets agreed standards
and specifications.
Communication and CollaborationCoordinates communication among developers,
designers, testers, and stakeholders to ensure goals and expectations are clear.
Change ManagementManages evolving requirements and incorporates them with minimal
disruption, supporting staff through transitions.
Scheduling and DeadlinesMaintains timelines to ensure fast delivery (time to
market), helping the organisation remain competitive.
2. What are the key characteristics of a successful IT project?Ans- IT projects
vary in focus, from large-scale hardware rollouts to small software solutions.
Regardless of scale, the following characteristics are essential for success:
Clear Objectives Well-defined objectives guide planning, execution, and evaluation.
Using SMART objectives ensures goals are specific, measurable, achievable,
relevant, and time-bound.
Effective Stakeholder Engagement Stakeholders—those affected by or interested in
the project—must be involved throughout. Their feedback and support help guide the
project and ensure smooth adoption.
• Internal stakeholders: Team members, users, managers.
• External stakeholders: Clients, customers, community members,
regulatory bodies.
Detailed Planning A successful project has a comprehensive plan detailing scope,
deliverables, timelines, resources, risks, and quality standards. Realistic
scheduling and budgeting are critical.
Skilled Team The team should have the right skills and experience. The project
manager should assign tasks that match team members’ abilities and ensure
motivation and commitment.
Adaptability Plans should be flexible to accommodate changing requirements and
technologies, while keeping project goals intact and limiting feature creep.
Effective Communication Clear communication among team members, stakeholders, and
leadership ensures alignment, issue resolution, and expectation management.
Scheduled meetings and progress updates are key.
Quality Focus Quality must be maintained throughout the project. The project
manager defines quality standards and ensures best practices are followed to meet
expectations.
Risk Management Risk plans should identify, analyse, prioritise, and address
potential risks. Proactive management helps reduce negative impacts on the project.
Continuous Improvement Ongoing reviews during and after the project help identify
lessons learned and successes to improve future projects.
On-Time and On-Budget Meeting deadlines and budget constraints is vital. The
project manager must track progress, monitor spending, and take corrective action
when necessary.

3. What are SMART targets?Ans- SMART targets are an approach to setting goals and
objectives for a project in a way that ensures they can be used effectively to
monitor and evaluate the project. SMART targets must be:
Specific - the goal must be clear and well defined so that it can be more easily
tracked and assessed.
Measurable - there must be some way to quantify or measure success/progress of work
towards the goal.
Achievable - it is important to ensure that the goal can be achieved. It is often
helpful to break tasks down into smaller, more manageable sub-tasks. However, a
project manager should be careful not to subdivide a target so much that the team
loses sight of the overall objectives of the project.
Relevant - each target should align with the overall project aims. If it is not
clear how a target links. try rephrasing it or provide additional information to
relevant stakeholders to make sure they know the purpose of the target.
Time-bound - every target should have a clear and appropriate deadline. Open-ended
tasks result in a lack of urgency or focus. Unrealistic timelines place team
members under too much pressure. resulting in low morale and increased errors.

4. What tools are commonly used to manage projects, and how are they used
effectively?Ans- The most commonly used tools for project management are:
1. Nodes and Gantt Charts
2. Critical Path Analysis (CPA)
3. Precedence Tables
Nodes and Gantt ChartsNodes and Gantt charts are key project management tools used
together for planning and tracking.
• Nodes represent key milestones, events, or deliverables in a project.
Each node marks a significant point of progress or completion.
• Gantt charts visually display the project timeline, showing the start
and end dates of tasks as horizontal bars. They make it easy to see task durations,
dependencies, overlapping tasks, and overall progress.
How do draw Gantt charts: Edexcel AL - A2 - Unit 3 - Topic 15: System
development : How to Do a Gantt Chart Correctly in Exam
Critical path analysisCritical path analysis identifies the sequence of tasks that
must be completed on time to meet the project deadline. It helps project managers
prioritize essential tasks and allocate resources accordingly. Tasks not on the
critical path can have some flexibility (slack) and be adjusted without affecting
the overall schedule.
To perform a critical path analysis. the project manager must:
1. Identify all the individual tasks needed to complete the project.
2. Estimate the time it will take to complete each task (duration).
3. Identify any dependencies between tasks (e.g. back-end database must be
completed before integration testing for the e-store can begin).
4. Present the tasks using a suitable diagram (e.g. Gantt chart. arrow
diagram method).
5. Work out the longest sequence of casks that are dependent on each other
- this is the critical path.
Once the critical path analysis is complete, the project manager should continue to
refer to it and refine it throughout the project.
1. The project manager should allocate slack to tasks that are not on the
critical path. These tasks have some flexibility and can be delayed or rescheduled
without affecting the final deadline.
2. Progress on all tasks should be monitored, but special attention must
be given to those on the critical path, as any delays here can directly impact the
overall schedule.
3. If delays happen, the project manager must assess how they affect the
timeline and update the project plan accordingly. This might involve moving
resources from less critical tasks to keep the critical ones on track.
4. In the case of major issues, the project manager should first try
adjusting deadlines for non-critical tasks. If that’s not enough, they may need to
negotiate new deadlines with the client, or in serious situations, consider
changing the project scope.
How to draw CPA diagrams:
Edexcel AL - A2 - Unit 3 - Topic 15: System development : How to draw CPA Digrams
with Revision
Edexcel AL - A2 - Unit 3 - Topic 15: System development : CPA Digram question -
2020 Unit 4 paper
Precedence Tables
A precedence table is a helpful tool used to schedule and organize tasks in a
project. It shows the order in which tasks must be done and highlights any
dependencies between them. This helps project managers understand the overall
timeline, spot possible bottlenecks, and focus resources on the most important
tasks.
The table usually includes task duration, start and end times, and which tasks must
be done first. This allows managers to see which tasks are critical to keeping the
project on schedule.
Key Features of a Precedence Table
• Tasks: Each row represents one specific task in the project.
• Precedence: Shows which tasks must be completed before another can
begin (dependencies). Example: If Task 4 has precedence 2, 3 – then Tasks 2 and 3
must be done before Task 4 starts.
• Duration: The estimated time (usually in days) to complete each task.
Early Start (ES): The earliest a task can begin, based on its dependencies.
• Early Finish (EF): ES + Duration – the earliest a task can be
completed.
• Late Start (LS): The latest a task can start without delaying the
entire project.
• Late Finish (LF): LS + Duration – the latest a task can finish without
delay.
 • Slack: The flexibility or "buffer" time for a task (Slack = LS – ES).
Example of a Precedence Table:
Task Precedence Duration (days) Early Start (ES) Early Finish (EF) Late Start
(LS) Late Finish (LF) Slack
1. Gather requirements and planning – 5 0 5 0 5 0
2. Content audit and revision 1 7 5 12 9 16 4
3. Information architecture development 1 8 5 13 8 16 3
4. Wireframing and prototyping 2, 3 10 13 23 19 29 6
5. Visual design and branding 2, 3 12 13 25 21 33 8
6. Front-end development 4, 5 15 23 38 32 47 9
7. Back-end development and integration 4, 5 18 23 41 34 52 11
8. Content migration and integration 2 8 28 36 45 53 17
9. Testing and quality assurance 6, 7, 8 8 38 46 47 55 9
10. Launch and deployment 9 3 46 49 55 58 9
5. How to fill a pert diagram?Ans- Edexcel IT - A2 - Unit 3 - Topic 15: System
development: How to fill a PERT DIAGRAM easily
Waterfall method
1. What is waterfall methodology?Ans- The waterfall development methodology is a
traditional, linear approach to project management where each phase must be
completed before moving to the next. It is best suited for small or simple projects
with clearly defined and stable requirements. Changes are difficult to accommodate
once the project has started. For example, upgrading office network infrastructure
is ideal for the waterfall method, while complex software development projects are
not.
2. What is the concept of the waterfall development methodology, and what are its
key features?Ans- The Waterfall methodology is a structured and linear approach to
system development. It breaks the project into clear, separate phases, and each
must be completed before the next begins. This makes it ideal for projects with
well-defined requirements that are unlikely to change.
Key Phases and Activities of the Waterfall Methodology:
Requirements Gathering and AnalysisThis phase involves identifying the system's
goals and what users need it to do.
• Stakeholders (like managers and future users) are consulted.
• Requirements are collected via interviews, surveys, or observation.
• Information is analyzed for trends, gaps, or conflicting needs.
• A strong, skilled project team is assembled based on project
requirements.
System DesignOnce the requirements are clear, the system’s structure, appearance,
and functionality are planned.
• UX/UI Design: Ensures the system is easy and enjoyable to use.
• Wireframes/Prototypes: Rough visual layouts used to test ideas early.
• Visual Design: Focuses on the final look, branding, and usability.
• Accessibility: Ensures everyone, including users with disabilities, can
use the system.
• Network/System Diagrams: Maps out hardware and infrastructure setup.
• Flowcharts: Visually shows data flow and logic, helping explain complex
systems.
ImplementationThis is where the actual system is built based on the design
documents.
• Coding: Developers write the system’s software.
• Building Infrastructure: Hardware is assembled and configured.
• Database Creation: Databases are designed and connected to the system.
• Interface Development: User interfaces are created with accessibility
in mind.
• Documentation: User manuals and technical guides are prepared for both
users and support staff.
Testing and DebuggingAfter development, the system is tested to find and fix any
problems.
• Unit Testing: Checks individual pieces of code for correct behavior.
 • Integration Testing: Ensures that different parts of the system work
together.
• System Testing: The entire system is tested in real-world scenarios.
• Acceptance Testing: Stakeholders test the system to confirm it meets
their needs.
• All results are documented for tracking and quality assurance.
Installation (Deployment)The finished system is transferred from the developer’s
environment to the real-world environment.
• Hardware Installation: Physical devices are set up on-site.
• Cloud Configuration: Cloud services are connected and tested.
• Software Deployment: Software is installed and configured on target
machines.
• Training: Users are trained based on their roles. IT staff receive more
in-depth system training.
MaintenanceAfter the system goes live, ongoing support is provided.
• Bug Fixes: Unexpected problems are reported and resolved.
• Performance Optimization: The system is fine-tuned for better
efficiency.
• Security Updates: Regular updates keep the system protected from new
threats.
• New Features: As business needs evolve, new functions can be added
without rebuilding the entire system.
• Documentation Updates: All changes are reflected in updated user and
technical manuals.
3. What are the main phases involved in the waterfall development method?Ans- The
waterfall methodology consists of six sequential, self-contained phases:
1. Requirements Gathering/Analysis – Define what the system must do and
identify any constraints by consulting stakeholders.System Design – Create detailed
plans for the system's visual and technical components based on the requirements.
2. Implementation – Develop the system using the designs, which may
involve coding, configuring software, or upgrading infrastructure.
3. Testing – Verify that the system works correctly, is reliable, and
meets the defined requirements.
4. Deployment – Release the system to users for real-world use.
5. Maintenance – Monitor and support the system post-deployment, including
fixing bugs and making updates.

Agile approach
1. What is the concept of the agile development methodology, and what are its key
features?Ans- Agile is a modern project management and software development
approach that emphasizes flexibility, continuous improvement, and early delivery of
working software. Unlike the traditional Waterfall model, which completes the
entire system in one go, Agile delivers the product in small, usable parts,
allowing teams to adapt and improve over time.
Key Features of the Agile Methodology:
Iterative and Incremental Development
• Agile projects are iterative, meaning the product is reviewed and
refined regularly.
• They are also incremental, where new features and improvements are
added gradually.
• This ensures the system constantly evolves based on user feedback and
changing needs.
Fast and Frequent Delivery
• Agile delivers working versions of the system early and often, even if
they include only basic features.
• This helps end users start using the system sooner and provide real-
world feedback.
Same Core Activities, Different Process
• Activities like UX/UI design, coding, and testing are still part of
Agile.The main difference is how and when they are performed — not all at once, but
continuously throughout the project.
User Involvement and Feedback
• Agile relies heavily on regular communication with stakeholders and
users.
• Feedback is used to guide development and adjust priorities, ensuring
the final product matches user needs.
Flexibility and Adaptability
• Agile allows changes to be made even late in the project.
• This makes it ideal for large and complex projects where requirements
may evolve over time.
2. What are the benefits and challenges of using an agile approach?Ans- Benefits of
Agile:
• Faster time to market: By focusing on fewer features at a time, working
parts of the system can be delivered much sooner. This allows real users to test
the system early and give feedback.
• Greater flexibility: Since changes are small and frequent, it’s easier
to adapt quickly to new requirements or market shifts without restarting the entire
project.
• Improved product quality: Continuous testing, feedback, and refinements
help catch and fix problems early, leading to a better final product.
• Higher team morale: Agile promotes teamwork and collaboration, which
often results in more motivated and engaged team members.
Challenges of Agile:
• Cultural shift required: Moving from a traditional, structured method
to Agile can feel uncertain and unstructured, making the transition difficult.
• Uncertain timelines: Since priorities are based on ongoing feedback, it
can be hard to predict exactly when the project will finish or what the next focus
will be.
• Needs strong communication: Agile depends heavily on open and frequent
communication within the team and with stakeholders to succeed.
3. What are the main phases involved in the agile approach to development?Ans- The
Agile approach has similar phases to the waterfall method, but focuses on small,
continuous improvements and revisits each phase repeatedly in every iteration. The
key phases in each Agile iteration are:
1. Requirements: At the start of the project, overall requirements are
set. Then before each iteration, these are reviewed and refined to decide what
specific features or changes will be worked on next.
2. Plan: There’s a broad plan made at the beginning of the project, but
it’s less detailed than traditional methods. Before each iteration, the team
creates a focused plan outlining the features they aim to deliver during that
cycle.
3. Design: Agile uses user-centered design, prioritizing what users need.
Designs are created “just-in-time” — only what’s needed for the upcoming iteration,
keeping things flexible and efficient.
4. Develop: The team works on small, incremental changes identified during
planning and design. Since the updates are small, they can be delivered quickly.
5. Release: At the end of each iteration, the new version is released to
users. The team monitors how it performs and gathers feedback before starting the
next cycle.

4. What activities typically take place during an agile development approach?Ans-

There are two key activities in Agile development:
Scrum:Scrum is both a framework and a set of activities that help teams work in an
Agile way. It includes four main events:
• Sprint Planning: The team decides the goals and tasks for the upcoming
sprint.
• Daily Scrum: A short daily meeting where team members share progress
and discuss any issues, promoting teamwork and quick problem-solving.
 • Sprint Review: At the end of a sprint, the team shows their work to
stakeholders and gathers feedback.
• Sprint Retrospective: After the review, the team reflects on the sprint
to find ways to improve in the next cycle.
Sprints:A sprint is a short development cycle, usually lasting 1 to 4 weeks. This
fast pace helps deliver features quickly but requires careful management to avoid
overworking the team.
5. Difference between Waterfall method and Agile approach.Ans-
Waterfall Method Agile Approach
Linear and sequential: The project is divided into clear, separate phases
(requirements, design, implementation, testing, installation, maintenance), and
each phase is completed fully before moving on to the next.
Fixed scope: Once a phase is finished and approved, it is rarely revisited or
changed.
Long delivery times: The final product is delivered at the end of the entire
process, which can delay user feedback and adjustments.
Well-suited for projects with clearly defined requirements: Works best when
requirements are stable and unlikely to change.
Focus on detailed documentation and upfront planning: Each phase produces
documentation and deliverables to guide the next phase. Iterative and
incremental: The project is broken into small cycles called sprints, each
delivering a small part of the system with continuous improvements.
Flexible and adaptive: Requirements and designs are revisited and adjusted
regularly based on user feedback and changing needs.
Faster delivery: Functional parts of the system are delivered early and frequently,
allowing real-world testing and quick responses to change.
User-focused design: Agile emphasizes user experience and collaboration, with
frequent communication between team members and stakeholders.
Less rigid planning: Plans are made for shorter periods, allowing the team to adapt
as the project progresses.
Diagram used in systems design and developement
1. How do you create and interpret information flow diagrams?Ans- Information Flow
Diagrams (IFDs) are visual tools that show how information moves within and between
systems, organizations, or processes. They help explain complex systems and
identify how different parts communicate, which is useful for planning new IT
solutions or improving existing processes.
How to Create an IFD:
1. Identify Entities: These are the sources or destinations of
information, like customers, databases, or external systems.
2. Map the Flows: Use arrows to show the direction in which information
travels between entities.
3. Add Processes: Use boxes to represent any transformation or processing
of information.
4. Include Decisions: Use diamond shapes to show points where the flow
depends on specific conditions or decisions.
How to Interpret IFDs:
• Look at the entities to understand who or what is involved in sending
or receiving data.
• Follow the arrows to see how information moves through the system.
• Check the process boxes to understand how data is changed or used.
• Pay attention to the decision diamonds to see where information flow
depends on certain conditions.
Levels of IFDs:
• Level 0: A high-level overview of the whole system and its external
interactions.Level 1: More detail on major subsystems and their internal
information flows.
• Level 2: Very detailed, showing specific processes and exactly how they
handle information.
Topic 16: Emerging Technologies
Machine learning
1. What is machine learning?Ans- Machine learning is a branch of artificial
intelligence (AI) that allows computers to learn and improve without being
explicitly programmed. Unlike expert systems that rely on pre-set rules, machine
learning systems identify trends and correlations in large datasets and apply what
they’ve learned, even when new data doesn't fit specific rules.
It involves training the system with large amounts of data so it can recognize
patterns and make predictions. Machine learning is widely used in sectors like
healthcare, finance, manufacturing, and transportation to uncover insights and
improve performance.
2. What is supervised learning?
Ans- Supervised learning is the use of labelled data to train a machine learning
model.
3. What is unsupervised learning?Ans- Unsupervised learning is the use of
unlabelled data to train a machine learning model.
4. What are the concepts, features, and functions of machine learning?Ans- There
are four main features that contribute to the overall structure of a machine
learning system or solution: algorithms. data, training and predictions.
AlgorithmAlgorithms are sets of instructions that help a machine learning system
process data and improve over time. They are often complex and based on
mathematical or statistical methods. Many are
now available as pre-built AI models, allowing companies to choose algorithms based
on the
problem they need to solve. Key problem types include:
• Regression: Predicts continuous outcomes (e.g., forecasting sales).
• Classification: Categorizes data (e.g., identifying spam emails).
• Clustering: Groups similar data (e.g., segmenting customers).
• Anomaly Detection: Finds unusual patterns (e.g., detecting fraud).
Data
Machine learning relies on large volumes of data to work effectively. As more
devices generate and share information, the amount of available data continues to
grow—fueling the rise of machine learning. The quality and quantity of this data
directly impact how well a system can learn. Machine learning can process various
data types, including text, images, numbers, and sound. The kind of data used helps
determine which model or approach is most suitable.

TrainingTraining is the process where machine learning models learn from data. The
dataset is typically split into two parts:
• Training set: This larger portion teaches the model by helping it find
patterns and adjust its decision-making. For example, in spam detection, the model
compares its prediction to the actual label and learns from the difference.
• Test set: This smaller, unseen portion is used after training to
evaluate how well the model performs. If results are poor, the model may be refined
and retrained until it achieves the desired accuracy.
Predictions
Once you are satisfied that the model is working as expected, it can be applied to
new data to make predictions. For example, identifying cars and pedestrians in
images from a self-driving car. or determining if a comment on social media is
positive. negative or neutral.
5. What are the potential impacts and possibilities of machine learning?Ans-
Machine learning has many potential applications. Beyond using numerical data for
classification, as seen in the iris plant example, it offers powerful tools that
can significantly impact individuals and organisations. These tools are as
follows:
Natural language processing (NLP) NLP focuses on enabling computers and humans to
interact using everyday language. It helps machines understand, interpret, and
generate human language meaningfully by considering context and regional language
variations. This improves accuracy compared to traditional word-by-word input
methods.
Key Applications of NLP:
• Search Engines: NLP improves search results by helping engines
understand user intent better.
• Virtual Assistants: When combined with speech recognition, NLP enables
assistants like Siri and Alexa to understand accents, grammar variations, and non-
standard questions.
• Automated Language Translation: NLP enhances translation quality by
using large datasets to produce translations closer to those of native speakers,
moving beyond literal word-for-word translation.
• Chatbots for Customer Service: NLP improves chatbot quality and
responsiveness, especially for common or simple queries. This allows human agents
to focus on complex or critical issues, leading to better customer service.
Speech recognition Speech recognition has been used for interacting with computers
since the 1980s and 1990s, originally focused on accessibility and limited
automation like phone helplines. As computing power, data availability, and
algorithms advanced, its use became more widespread. Early systems required users
to train the software with voice samples, which was time-consuming and often
inaccurate. Today, tools like Apple’s Siri and Amazon’s Alexa use large datasets
and natural language processing to greatly improve the accuracy and quality of
speech recognition.

Image recognitionImage recognition is a fast-growing area of machine learning aimed

at helping computers better understand and process images, which are typically
complex and varied. It has many potential applications that support safety,
decision-making, and accessibility.
• Self-driving cars: Detects pedestrians, vehicles, and signs to aid
driving decisions.
• Medical imaging: Identifies small abnormalities in scans to support
early diagnosis.
• Security and surveillance: Detects suspicious activity or individuals
in video footage.
• Social media: Enables automatic tagging of faces or objects in photos.
• Product search: Allows quick, accurate searches using images.
• Assistive technology: Helps people with sight-loss by identifying
objects and describing them audibly via smartphone cameras.
Pattern recognition Pattern recognition is central to all areas of machine
learning. It involves identifying trends, correlations, and similarities in data.
Machine learning algorithms are designed to detect, learn from, and adapt to these
patterns—often at a scale and complexity beyond human ability—allowing them to
uncover insights that people might overlook.

Virtual and augmented reality

1. What is Virtual Reality (VR)?Ans- Virtual reality (VR) is a technology that
provides users with an immersive experience within a computer-generated
environment. VR aims to create a feeling that the user is actually present in the
virtual world. The technology for VR continues to evolve. providing increasing
levels of immersion and more realistic experiences. Most VR systems have several
key components:
• Headsets: Worn like goggles, they provide a 3D view with stereoscopic
screens and often include headphones and head-tracking to enhance immersion.
• Software: Generates visuals, sounds, and haptic feedback. Advances in
processing power have expanded VR use, especially for entertainment.
• Controllers: Handheld devices that track user movements and allow
interaction with the virtual environment, simulating actions like picking up
objects or navigating terrain.

2. What are the uses of Virtual reality? Ans- The immersive quality of VR offers a
variety of applications beyond entertainment, including:
 • Education: Enables students to experience content in engaging ways,
such as exploring historical sites or underwater environments.Training: Provides a
safe space to practice high-risk skills, like pilots handling emergencies or
doctors performing surgeries.
• Design and Engineering: Allows architects and engineers to visualize
and interact with 3D models of buildings before construction, helping to identify
and fix design flaws early.
3. What is Augmented Reality? And what are its uses?
Ans- Unlike virtual reality, which aims to completely immerse a user in a simulated
environment, augmented reality (AR) aims to blend the virtual and real worlds by
superimposing computer-generated content on elements of the real world captured
through a digital device. For example, some retailers offer an AR feature that lets
you select products, like chairs or tables, and see how they look in your room
before buying them. Other examples include:
• Education: supporting skill development, such as maintenance, by adding
virtual tags or labels to items to help users identify and learn about components.
• Navigation: augmented maps that overlay information and directions onto
buildings and roads as you explore.
• Entertainment: interactive games where digital elements merge with the
real world, creating unique experiences.

Internet of Things (IoT)

1. What is meant by the term Internet of Things (IoT)? How does it work? Ans- The
Internet of Things (IoT) is a network of devices that are not traditionally
considered 'smart' (such as household appliances) but have been enabled to
generate, send, and receive data. For example, IoT devices like thermostats,
lights, and security cameras can be interconnected so they can be controlled and
monitored remotely via a smartphone app. In industrial settings, IoT sensors can
track inventory levels or the location of a delivery in real time. There are three
key concepts that drive the IoT:
Connecting devices: everyday objects are equipped with sensors that allow them to
collect data related to their key function. The devices also need a form of data
connection to share that data with other devices and systems.
Exchanging data: devices communicate with each other and other systems. This can be
within a limited/private network, such as a smartwatch connecting directly to the
user's phone, or over wider networks such as the internet.
Automating tasks: the goal of the IoT is to make our lives easier and more
efficient by automating routine or repetitive tasks. For example, systems that
monitor weather data and environmental factors and automatically water plants, or
that send alerts to people to take hay fever medication when the pollen count is
high.
2. How can the Internet of Things (IoT) affect individuals and organisations?Ans-
The Internet of Things (IoT) affects both individuals and organisations by
enhancing convenience, efficiency, and decision-making through connected devices.
For individuals, IoT improves daily life with smart devices like thermostats,
lights, and security systems that can be controlled remotely. Even without a smart
home, people interact with IoT through services like order tracking, where real-
time updates are provided on packaging, dispatch, and delivery status.
For organisations, IoT enables better service delivery and operational efficiency.
Businesses use interconnected systems to monitor processes, track inventory, and
manage logistics in real time. This generates large amounts of data, which helps in
improving customer experience and streamlining operations—but also introduces
challenges related to data management and security.
3. What is an application programming interface (API)?Ans- Application programming
interface (API) is a set of functions that enable two computer systems or programs
to communicate and Share data.
4. What are the benefits and challenges associated with Iot?Ans-
Benefits of the IoTConvenience: IoT aims to meet user needs more easily, often
through automation. For example, a coffee machine could sync with an alarm clock to
prepare a fresh drink as you wake up.
Efficiency: By automating routine tasks, individuals and organisations save time,
energy, and resources, allowing focus on more meaningful activities.
Safety: IoT devices can monitor for hazards and send alerts.
• In industry, dangerous systems can be monitored remotely, with alerts
sent to key personnel.
• At home, sensors can detect dangers like carbon monoxide.
• Ride-hire services (e.g., Uber) share live route data for passenger
safety and alert if a driver diverts from the planned route.
Challenges of the IoT
Security: Connecting devices to the internet increases risk. Strong security
measures are essential to prevent threats.
Privacy: As more devices generate and share data, concerns about how personal data
is used and protected grow significantly.
Standardisation: Devices from different manufacturers must communicate effectively,
but varied technologies make this difficult.
• Standard protocols (e.g., Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, USB) help.
• APIs (Application Programming Interfaces) are often used to enable
systems to exchange data despite differences.
Environmental Concerns:
• E-waste: Short device lifespans and improper disposal can lead to toxic
leaks.
• Energy Use: Constant connectivity increases power demand for devices
and supporting infrastructure.
• Data Centres: Storing vast IoT data consumes huge amounts of energy for
servers and cooling systems.
• Resource Use: Manufacturing many small devices requires mining of rare
earth metals, causing resource depletion and damage.
• Pollution: Production and global transportation of IoT devices
contribute to air, water pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions, worsening climate
change.

5. What technology and infrastructure enable and support the IoT?Ans- The Internet
of Things (IoT) relies on a range of technologies and IT infrastructure to function
effectively. These can be broadly grouped into four key areas: sensors, networks,
embedded systems, and storage.
SensorsSensors are essential for collecting real-world data and converting it into
digital signals. They monitor environmental or object-specific conditions like
temperature, motion, humidity, or heart rate.
• Examples include temperature sensors in homes or biometric sensors in
fitness trackers.
• Sensors are the foundation of IoT, enabling everyday objects to become
data-generating smart devices.
NetworksIoT devices rely on network infrastructure to transmit data between
sensors, systems, and devices.
• Networks can be wired or wireless, and common types include broadband,
public Wi-Fi, 4G LTE, and 5G.
• The choice of network depends on factors like range, bandwidth, power
use, and scalability.
• Constant connectivity is often required for IoT systems to be
effective.
Embedded SystemsEmbedded systems are specialised computing units integrated into
IoT devices.
• They typically include a microprocessor or microcontroller, memory, and
communication modules.
• These systems perform specific tasks, such as controlling a washing
machine or monitoring steps in a fitness tracker.
• They are compact, energy-efficient, reliable, and form the "things" in
the IoT.
StorageIoT devices generate massive amounts of data that must be stored and managed
efficiently. This includes:
• Sensor data (e.g., temperature, location)
• Multimedia data (e.g., images, audio)
• Log data (e.g., system status, errors)
• User data (e.g., preferences, settings)
There are four main types of storage used in IoT systems:
1. Edge storage: Data is stored/processed locally on the device or nearby
gateway—ideal for real-time applications and reducing network load.
2. Cloud storage: Centralised storage with high scalability and
accessibility.
3. Fog computing: Decentralised mini-data centres located near the devices
for faster response and lower latency.
4. Hybrid storage: A combination of edge, fog, and cloud storage to
balance performance, security, and cost.
Together, these components enable the IoT to function efficiently, delivering
automation, insights, and smart capabilities across various domains.
6. What are the potential security issues related to the IoT?Ans- The Internet of
Things (IoT) presents several security risks due to its interconnected devices and
the sensitive data they collect and transmit. The following are key security
concerns associated with IoT systems:
Privacy ConcernsIoT devices often gather personal data, such as location, health
metrics, and behavior patterns. If this data is accessed without authorization, it
can lead to:
• Privacy breaches
• Identity theft
• Threats to personal safety
Mitigation: Use strong encryption and access controls to protect data privacy.
Data IntegrityTampering with IoT-generated data can cause severe consequences. For
example:
• False industrial readings may disrupt processes.
• Incorrect health data can delay critical treatments.
Mitigation: Implement data validation and integrity checks to detect and prevent
errors or manipulation.
Unauthorised AccessIoT devices are often targeted by cybercriminals using
vulnerabilities like:
• Weak passwords
• Outdated firmware
• Unpatched software
Mitigation: Use strong authentication, keep software updated, and apply security
patches regularly. Many embedded systems lack automatic updates, making this an
ongoing challenge.
Denial of Service (DoS) AttacksA DoS attack floods networks or devices with
excessive traffic, causing slowdowns or outages. IoT systems are especially
vulnerable due to their reliance on constant communication.
Mitigation:
• Use network segmentation to isolate secure areas
• Apply traffic filtering to control data flow
• Enable rate limiting to prevent overload
Insecure Communication ChannelsIoT devices often use unencrypted channels (like
public Wi-Fi or Bluetooth), which can expose data to interception.
Mitigation:
• Use encryption protocols like SSL/TLS or IPsec
• Avoid connecting to unsecured public networks (e.g., cafes, malls,
hotels)
By addressing these concerns with proactive security measures, individuals and
organisations can better protect their IoT systems and the valuable data they
manage.
7. How can high-level plans for IoT solutions be produced?Ans- To produce high-
level plans for an IoT solution, identify the goals and how tasks will generate
data. Consider the components, systems, and required processes. Create a written
plan detailing needs, followed by an information flow diagram illustrating the
design.
Example – Smart Home:Components: Smart thermostats, door locks, cameras, lights,
motion sensors.Description: Devices communicate wirelessly via a central hub
connected to the internet and a smartphone app for remote control. The Wi-Fi is
secured with a passkey. Short-term data is stored on the hub and devices, while
long-term data is backed up to the cloud for analytics and tracking.

Exam Practice: