LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO DEL NORTE STATE UNIVERSITY

“For Nation’s Greater Heights”

MODULE 4

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

1. Title: Problem Solving and Reasoning

2. Topic: Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

3. Time Frame: 4 hrs.

4. Introduction

The two major types of reasoning, deductive and inductive, refer to the process by which
someone creates a conclusion as well as how they believe their conclusion to be true. Deductive
reasoning requires one start with a few general ideas, called premises, and applies them to a
specific situation. Recognized rules, laws, theories, and other widely accepted truths are used to
prove that a conclusion is right. Inductive reasoning uses a set of specific observations to reach
an overarching conclusion; it is the opposite of deductive reasoning.

5. Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. distinguish inductive or deductive reasoning through identification of the statements;
2. use reasoning skills to draw logical conclusion through induction and deduction process;
and
3. apply inductive and deductive reasoning to solve problems.

6. Learning Activities

WHAT IS MATHEMATICAL REASONING?

It refers to the ability of a person to analyze problem situations and construct logical arguments
to create both conceptual foundations and connections to be able to process the available
information and solve the problem. In our daily lives, we make decisions based on our
reasoning but this is a process that varies depending on the situation obtained on the ground.

There are two types of reasoning:

1. Inductive Reasoning
2. Deductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning

The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the examination of specific examples
is called inductive reasoning. The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is a
conjecture, since it may or may not be correct.

When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next number in the list according to some
pattern you have observed, you are using inductive reasoning.

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“For Nation’s Greater Heights”

Illustration:
1. Every object that I release from my hand falls to the ground. Therefore, the next object I
release from my hand will fall to the ground.

2. Every crow I have ever seen is black. Therefore all crows are black.

3. Based on available data, the Earth has revolve around the sun following an elliptical path
for millions of years. Therefore, the Earth will continue to revolve around the sun in the same
manner next year.
For a deeper understanding on the concept of inductive reasoning, watch the video with
following link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NarWCrwSBKI

EXAMPLE 1: Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number

Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists.
a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ?
b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?

Solution
a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number. Thus, we predict that the
next number in the list is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.
b. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the third numbers differ by 3. It appears
that the difference between any two numbers is always 1 more than the preceding
difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict that the next number in the list will be 6
larger than 15, which is 21.

Inductive reasoning is not used just to predict the next number in a list. In Example 2 we use
inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about an arithmetic procedure.

EXAMPLE 2: Use Inductive Reasoning to Make a Conjecture

Consider the following procedure:

Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2,
and subtract 3.

Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive reasoning to
make a conjecture about the relationship between the size of the resulting number and the
size of the original number.

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Solution

Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the procedure would produce the following
results:
Original number: 5

Multiply by 8: 8 x 5 = 40

Add 6: 40 + 6 = 46

Divide by 2: 46 ÷ 2 = 23

Subtract 3: 23 – 3 = 20

We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 20. Starting with 6 as our original
number produces a final result of 24. Starting with 10 produces a final result of 40. Starting
with 100 produces a final result of 400. In each of these cases the resulting number is four
times the original number. We conjecture that following the given procedure produces a
number that is four times the original number.

Scientists often use inductive reasoning. For instance, Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) used
inductive reasoning to discover that the time required for a pendulum to complete one swing
called the period of the pendulum, depends on the length of the pendulum. Galileo did not
have a clock, so he measured the periods of pendulums in "beartbeats." The following table
shows some results obtained for pendulums of various lengths. For the sake of convenience,
a length of 10 inches has been designated 1 unit.

Length of pendulum, in Period of pendulum, in

units heartbeats
1 1
4 2
9 3
16 4
The period of a pendulum is the time it
25 5 takes for the pendulum to swing from left
36 6 to right and back to its original position.

EXAMPLE 3: Use Inductive Reasoning to Solve an Application

Use the data in the above table and inductive reasoning to answer each of the following
questions.

a. If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its period?

b. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to its period?

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Solution

a. In the table, each pendulum has a period that is the square root of its length. Thus we
conjecture that a pendulum with a length of 49 units will have a period of 7 heartbeats.

b. In the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a period that is twice that of a
pendulum with a length of 1 unit. A pendulum with a length of 16 units has a period that is
twice that of a pendulum with a length of 4 units. It appears that quadrupling the length of
a pendulum doubles its period.

Counterexamples

A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all cases. If you can find one case
for which a statement is not true, called a counterexample, then the statement is a false
statement. In Example 4 we verify that each statement is a false statement by finding a
counterexample for each.

EXAMPLE 4: Find a Counterexample

Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by example.

For all numbers x:

a. |𝑥| > 0
b. 𝑥 2 > 𝑥
c. √𝑥 2 = 𝑥

Solution
A statement may have many counterexamples, but we need only find one counterexample to
verify that the statement is false.

a. Let 𝑥 = 0. Then |0| = 0. Because 0 is not greater than 0, we have found a counterexample.
Thus, “ for all x, |𝑥| > 0” is a false statement.

b. For 𝑥 = 1, we have 12 = 1. Since 1 is not greater than 1, we have found a counterexample.

Thus, “for all numbers x, 𝑥 2 > 𝑥” is a false statement.

c. Consider 𝑥 = 3. Then , √(−3)2 = √9 = 3. Since 3 is not equal to -3, we have found a

counterexample. Thus, “for all x, √𝑥 2 = 𝑥” is a false statement.

Deductive Reasoning
Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is distinguished
from inductive reasoning in that it is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general
principles and procedures.

Illustration:
1. All men are mortal. I am a man. Therefore, I am mortal.

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(General principle: If p implies q and p holds, then q must follow.)

2. Given two supplementary angles with one of them measuring 120 degrees, the measure
of the other angle 60 degrees.
(General principle: supplementary angles add up to 180 degrees)

3. If 6𝑥 = 12, then 𝑥 = 2.
(General principle: if a, b, and c are real numbers and a=b, then ac=bc.)

Watch the video with following link for a deeper understanding on deductive reasoning:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yMzNaqdxiZY

EXAMPLE 5: Use Deductive Reasoning to Establish a Conjecture

Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a umber that is four
times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the
sum by 2, and subtract 3.

Solution

Let 𝑛 represent the original number.

Multiply by 8: 8𝑛

Add 6: 8𝑛 + 6
8𝑛+6
Divide by 2: = 4𝑛 + 3
2

Subtract 3: 4𝑛 + 3 − 3 = 4𝑛

We started with 𝑛 and ended with 4𝑛. The procedure given in this example produces a number
that is four times the original number.
Deductive Reasoning in Mathematics

You may have observed that some of your math classes made extensive use of deductive
reasoning to prove theorems and solve problems. The following quote by the mathematician
Paul R. Halmos (1916-2006) advocates that you not limit yourself to only using deductive
reasoning to prove theorems "Mathematics is not a deductive science-that's a cliché. When
you try to prove a theorem, you don't just list the hypotheses, and then start to reason. What
you do is trial and error, experimentation, guesswork."
I Want to be a Mathematician: An Automathography (1985).
Inductive Reasoning vs. Deductive Reasoning

In Example 6 we analyze arguments to determine whether they use inductive or deductive

reasoning.

EXAMPLE 6: Determine Types of Reasoning

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Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive reasoning or

deductive reasoning.

a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year. Last year the tree
did not produce plums, so this year the tree will produce plums.

b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor estimated that my
home improvement will cost Php 35,000. Thus, my home improvement will cost more than
Php 35,000.

Solution

a. This argument reaches a conclusion based on specific examples, so it is an example of

inductive reasoning.

b. Because the conclusion is a specific case of a general assumption, this an example of

deductive reasoning.

Logic Puzzles

Logic puzzles, similar to the one in Example 7, can be solved by using deductive reasoning
and a chart that enables us to display the given information in a visual manner.

EXAMPLE 7: Solve a Logic Puzzle

Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has a different occupation (editor,
banker, chef, or dentist). From the following clues, determine the occupation of each neighbor.

1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
4. The banker lives next door to Brian.

Solution
From clue 1, Maria is not the banker or the dentist. In the following chart, write XI (which
stands for "ruled out by clue 1) in the Banker and the Dentist columns of Maria's tow
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Sean
Maria X1 X1
Sarah
Brian

From clue 2, Sarah is not the editor. Write X2 (ruled out by clue 2) in the Editor column of
Sarah's row. We know from clue 1 that the banker is not the last to get home, and we know

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from clue 2 that Sarah is the last to get home; therefore, Sarah is not the banker. Write X2 in
the Banker column of Sarah's row

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean
Maria X1 X1
Sarah X2 X2
Brian

From clue 3, Sarah is not the dentist. Write X3 for this condition. There are now Xs for three
of the four occupations in Sarah's row; therefore, Sarah must be the chef. Place a (/) in that
box. Since Sarah is the chef, none of the other three people can be the chef. Write X3 for
these conditions. There are now Xs for three of the four occupations in Maria's row; therefore,
Maria must be the editor. Insert a (/) to indicate that Maria is the editor, and write X3 twice to
indicate that neither Sean nor Brian is the editor.

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean X3 X3
Maria / X1 X3 X1
Sarah X2 X2 / X3
Brian X3 X3

From clue 4, Brian is not the banker. Write X4 for this condition. See the following table. Since
there are three Xs in the Banker column. Sean must be the banker. Place a (/) in that box.
Thus, Sean cannot be the dentist. Write X4 in that box. Since there are 3 Xs in the Dentist
column, Brian must be the dentist. Place a (/) in that box.

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean X3 / X3 X4
Maria / X1 X3 X1
Sarah X2 X2 / X3
Brian X3 X4 X3 /

Therefore, Sean is the banker, Maria is the editor, Sarah is the chef, and Brian is the dentist.

7. Practice Exercises
Answer the following comprehensively. Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.

1. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists.
a. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ?
b. 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, ?

2. Consider the following procedure:

Pick a number. Multiply the number by 9, add 15 to the product, divide the sum by 3,
and subtract 5.

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Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive reasoning to
make a conjecture about the relationship between the size of the resulting number and the
size of the original number.

3. Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by finding a

counterexample for each.
𝑥
a. 𝑥 = 1 b. √𝑥 2 + 16 = 𝑥 + 4

4. Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number that is
three times the original number.

Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 6, add 10 to the product, divide the
sum by 2, and subtract 5. Hint: Let 𝑛 represent the original number.

5. Brianna, Ryan, Tyler and Ashley were recently elected as the new class officers (president,
vice president, secretary, and treasurer) of the freshmen class in a certain state college.
From the following clues, determine which position each holds:
1. Ashley is younger than the president but older than the treasurer.
2. Brianna and the secretary are both same age, and they are the youngest
members of the group.
3. Tyler and the secretary and next-door neighbors.

8. Learning Assessment Tasks

Answer the items in Worksheet No 4

References:

Mathematics in the Modern World (2018). Rex Book Store, Inc.

Ben-Shlomo Y, Brookes S, Hickman M. 2013. Lecture Notes: Epidemiology, Evidence-based Medicine and
Public Health (6th ed.), Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford.

https://www.healthknowledge.org.uk/public-health-textbook/research-methods/1a-epidemiology/methods-of-
sampling-population

http://www.stats.gla.ac.uk/steps/glossary/sampling.html

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