COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Assignment #1
CCSR1N3/15

GROUP MEMBERS:

HABTEWOLD ABABU​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ UU87983R

KALEAB ANDUALEM​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ UU92653R

MIKIYAS TADESE​​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ UU94122R

NAZRAWI EYOB​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ UU92743R

UMAR MAHAMUD​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ UU93618R

INSTRUCTOR NAME: Dr. Worku W.​

SUBMITTED DATE: 5 April 2025​

 1.​ Write brief history of computer graphics (CG).

Computer graphics (CG) has evolved significantly since its inception, transforming from simple
visual representations to complex, photorealistic images that are integral to various industries.

1950s: The Dawn of Computer Graphics

In the early 1950s, computer graphics emerged as a visualization tool for scientists and engineers
in research centers like Bell Labs and Boeing. The development of the Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
allowed for the display of visual graphics, and input devices like the light pen enabled interaction
with these displays.

1960s: Foundations and Innovations

●​ 1963: Ivan Sutherland developed Sketchpad, a revolutionary program that introduced

concepts such as pop-up menus, constraint-based drawing, and hierarchical modeling.​

●​ 1968: Sutherland and David Evans established a computer graphics group at the
University of Utah, which became a hub for significant advancements in the field.​

1970s: Advancements in Techniques and Hardware

●​ 1974: Ed Catmull, a student at the University of Utah, developed the Z-buffer

hidden-surface algorithm and texture mapping, crucial for rendering realistic 3D images.​

●​ 1975: Bui Tuong Phong introduced the Phong reflection model and Phong shading,
enhancing the realism of rendered images by improving the depiction of light reflections
on surfaces.​

1980s: Rise of Commercial Applications and Standards

 ●​ 1982: The movie "Tron" showcased extensive use of computer-generated imagery (CGI),
bringing CG to mainstream cinema.​

●​ 1984: Robert Cook proposed distribution ray tracing, allowing for realistic simulation of
effects like motion blur and depth of field.
●​ 1986: The founding of Pixar Animation Studios marked a significant milestone in the
commercial application of computer graphics.

1990s: Integration into Consumer Technology

●​ The advent of affordable graphics hardware led to the widespread use of computer
graphics in personal computing. Software like Adobe Photoshop, introduced in 1988,
became industry standards for image editing.
●​ The development of the OpenGL graphics library in 1992 provided a standardized API
for rendering 2D and 3D vector graphics, facilitating cross-platform development.​

2000s and Beyond: Photorealism and Real-Time Rendering

●​ Advancements in hardware accelerated real-time rendering, enabling complex visual

effects in video games and simulations. Techniques like ray tracing became more feasible
for real-time applications.​

●​ The integration of computer graphics with artificial intelligence and machine learning has
opened new frontiers in areas like virtual reality, augmented reality, and realistic human
animations. 6​

Throughout its history, computer graphics has continually pushed the boundaries of visual
representation, profoundly impacting fields ranging from entertainment to scientific research.
 2.​ Discuss advantages of computer graphics.

Computer graphics (CG) have revolutionized the way we create, interpret, and interact with
visual information. The advantages of computer graphics are manifold, impacting various sectors
and enhancing numerous processes. Here are some key benefits:

1. Enhanced Visual Communication

Computer graphics enable the creation of compelling visual content that effectively conveys
complex ideas and data. Visual representations, such as charts and infographics, simplify
intricate information, making it more accessible and understandable.

2. Realistic Virtual Experiences

The advancement of CG has led to the development of immersive virtual environments. These
realistic simulations are utilized in various fields, including gaming and virtual reality, providing
users with engaging and lifelike experiences.

3. Creative Design Possibilities

Computer graphics offer designers unparalleled flexibility and precision. They facilitate the
creation of intricate and detailed designs that might be challenging to produce manually. This
capability is particularly beneficial in fields like architecture and engineering, where accuracy is
paramount. 0

4. Time-Saving Productivity Tools

CG tools streamline the design and editing processes, allowing for quick modifications and
iterations. This efficiency reduces the time required to develop visual content, thereby enhancing
overall productivity.

5. Improved Data Visualization

Complex datasets can be transformed into intuitive visual formats using computer graphics. This
transformation aids in the identification of patterns and trends, facilitating better decision-making
and analysis.

6. Interactive User Interfaces

The integration of CG in user interfaces results in more interactive and user-friendly

applications. Engaging visual elements enhance user experience, making software and
applications more intuitive and appealing.

7. High-Quality Digital Art

Artists leverage computer graphics to produce high-quality digital artworks and animations.
These creations are used across various media, including films and digital platforms, expanding
the horizons of artistic expression.

In summary, computer graphics have become indispensable in modern society, offering tools and
capabilities that enhance communication, design, productivity, and user engagement across
multiple disciplines.

3.​ Discuss disadvantages of computer graphics.

While computer graphics (CG) have revolutionized various fields by enhancing visual
communication and design, they also present several challenges and limitations. Here are some
notable disadvantages:

1. Specialized Skills and Software Requirements

Creating high-quality computer graphics demands proficiency in specialized software tools and a
deep understanding of graphic design principles. Acquiring these skills can be time-consuming
and often necessitates formal training or education. Moreover, professional-grade software can
be expensive, posing a barrier for individuals or organizations with limited resources.
2. Time-Intensive Creation Process

Developing intricate and detailed graphics is a labor-intensive process. Designers may need to
invest significant time in conceptualization, creation, and refinement stages. This extended
timeline can be a drawback in fast-paced environments where quick turnaround is essential.

3. High Costs

Beyond the expense of software, producing computer graphics can involve substantial costs
related to hardware upgrades, licensing fees, and potential outsourcing to skilled professionals.
These financial considerations can be prohibitive for small businesses or independent creators. 2

4. Risk of Unrealistic Representations

Computer graphics can sometimes lead to the creation of images or animations that are
exaggerated or unrealistic. This can result in misinterpretations or the dissemination of
misleading information, particularly in contexts where accuracy is crucial.

5. Technological Dependence and Rapid Obsolescence

The field of computer graphics is continually evolving, with frequent updates to software and
hardware. Staying current requires ongoing investment in new tools and continuous learning.
Additionally, over-reliance on technology can be problematic if technical issues arise, potentially
disrupting workflows. 2

6. Complexity and Accessibility Issues

Advanced graphical systems can be complex, making them less accessible to beginners. Users
may face steep learning curves, and some software interfaces may not be user-friendly, hindering
productivity and creativity.

7. Ethical and Privacy Concerns

The ability to create highly realistic images and animations raises ethical questions, particularly
when such graphics are used to manipulate perceptions or fabricate scenarios. Issues related to
privacy and consent also emerge when individuals' likenesses are replicated or altered without
permission.

In summary, while computer graphics offer powerful tools for visual expression and
communication, they come with challenges that require careful consideration, including skill
acquisition, time and financial investment, and ethical implications.

4.​ List down and briefly explain about the application areas of computer
graphics.

Computer graphics (CG) have become integral to numerous industries, enhancing the way we
visualize, design, and interact with information. Here are some prominent application areas:

1. Entertainment and Media

●​ Film and Television: CG enables the creation of visual effects and animations, bringing
imaginative concepts to life in movies and TV shows.​

●​ Video Games: Essential for developing immersive environments and realistic characters,
CG plays a pivotal role in modern gaming experiences.​

2. Education and Training

●​ Simulations: CG is used to create realistic simulations for training purposes, such as

flight simulators for pilots or virtual scenarios for medical training.​

●​ Educational Tools: Interactive graphics help in illustrating complex concepts, making

learning more engaging and effective.​

3. Medicine
 ●​ Medical Imaging: Techniques like MRI and CT scans rely on CG to construct detailed
visual representations of the human body, aiding in diagnosis and treatment planning.​

●​ Surgical Simulations: Surgeons use CG-based simulations to practice procedures,

enhancing precision and safety.​

4. Engineering and Architecture

●​ Computer-Aided Design (CAD): Engineers and architects utilize CG to create detailed

2D and 3D models of structures and components, facilitating design and analysis.​

●​ Visualization: CG allows for the visualization of architectural designs and engineering

projects before actual construction, aiding in decision-making and presentations.​

5. Scientific Research

●​ Data Visualization: Researchers employ CG to represent complex data sets graphically,

making it easier to identify patterns and insights.​

●​ Molecular Modeling: In fields like chemistry and biology, CG helps in visualizing

molecular structures and interactions.​

6. Business and Information Technology

●​ Presentation Graphics: Businesses use CG to create compelling charts and graphs for
reports and presentations, enhancing communication of information.​

●​ User Interface (UI) Design: CG is crucial in designing intuitive and visually appealing
interfaces for software applications and websites.​
7. Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR)

●​ Immersive Experiences: CG is foundational in developing VR and AR applications,

providing users with interactive and immersive environments for gaming, training, and
other applications.​

8. Cartography and Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

●​ Map Making: CG aids in creating detailed and accurate maps for navigation, urban
planning, and environmental studies.​

●​ Spatial Analysis: GIS utilizes CG to analyze and visualize spatial data, assisting in
decision-making processes related to geography.​

These applications demonstrate the versatility of computer graphics in transforming how

information is presented and interacted with across various domains.
 5.​ What is the difference between the following display devices (monitors)? How
does each device work?
a. CRT​ b. LCD​ c. LED​ d. PLASMA

1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Monitors

How They Work: CRT monitors utilize electron beams emitted from electron guns to illuminate
phosphor dots on the inside of a glass screen. These beams are directed and focused using
magnetic fields to scan across the screen, line by line, creating images through the combination
of red, green, and blue phosphors.

Characteristics:

Size and Weight: Bulky and heavy due to the deep tube design.

●​ Image Quality: Capable of displaying multiple resolutions without loss of quality.

 ●​ Energy Consumption: Consumes more power compared to modern display
technologies.​

2. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Monitors

How They Work: LCDs consist of liquid crystal molecules sandwiched between polarizing filters
and glass panels. When an electric current passes through, these crystals align to modulate light
from a backlight, controlling its passage to create images.
Characteristics:

●​ Slim Profile: Much thinner and lighter than CRTs.

●​ Energy Efficiency: Consumes less power due to efficient backlighting.
●​ Fixed Native Resolution: Optimal image quality at a specific resolution; other
resolutions may appear less sharp.​

3. Light Emitting Diode (LED) Monitors

How They Work: LED monitors are essentially LCDs that use LEDs for backlighting instead of
traditional fluorescent tubes. This allows for more precise control of brightness and contrast.
Characteristics:

●​ Improved Brightness and Contrast: LEDs offer better luminance and deeper blacks.​

●​ Energy Efficiency: More energy-efficient than standard LCDs.​

●​ Thinner Design: Allows for even slimmer displays.​

4. Plasma Displays

How They Work: Plasma screens contain small cells filled with ionized gas (plasma) that emits
ultraviolet light when electrically charged. This UV light then excites phosphor coatings inside
each cell to produce visible light, forming images.
Characteristics:

●​ High Contrast Ratios: Capable of deep blacks and rich colors.

●​ Wide Viewing Angles: Consistent image quality from various perspectives.
●​ Susceptibility to Burn-in: Static images can cause permanent damage over time.​

6.​ Flat-panel display could be classified as emissive and non-emissive. Discuss

the difference between the two and give examples for each.

Flat-panel displays are broadly categorized into two types based on their light generation
methods: emissive and non-emissive displays.

Emissive Displays

Emissive displays generate their own light by converting electrical energy directly into light
energy. Each pixel in these displays acts as a self-illuminating element.

Examples:

●​ Plasma Panels: Utilize small cells containing electrically charged ionized gases (plasma)
that emit ultraviolet light, which then excites phosphor coatings to produce visible light. ​

●​ Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs): Consist of semiconductor diodes that emit light when an
electric current passes through them. ​

●​ Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs): Similar to LEDs but use organic compounds
to emit light, allowing for flexible and thinner displays.​

Non-Emissive Displays
Non-emissive displays do not produce their own light; instead, they rely on external light
sources, such as backlighting or ambient light, and manipulate this light to create images.

Examples:

●​ Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs): Use liquid crystals that modulate light from a
backlight to produce images. The liquid crystals themselves do not emit light but control
the passage of light through polarization. ​

In summary, the primary distinction between emissive and non-emissive displays lies in their
light production mechanisms: emissive displays generate light internally, while non-emissive
displays depend on external light sources to render images.

7.​ Discuss about the RGB color model and the YIQ color model.

Color models are essential frameworks in computer graphics and television systems for
representing and manipulating colors. Two prominent models are the RGB (Red, Green, Blue)
and YIQ color models, each serving distinct purposes and applications.

RGB Color Model

The RGB color model is an additive color system based on the human eye's sensitivity to red,
green, and blue light. By combining these three primary colors at varying intensities, a broad
spectrum of colors can be produced.

●​ How It Works: In the RGB model, colors are created by adding light of the three
primary colors. Each color channel (R, G, B) can have intensity values typically ranging
from 0 to 255. For example:​

○​ (255, 0, 0) represents pure red

○​ (0, 255, 0) represents pure green.
 ○​ (0, 0, 255) represents pure blue.
○​ (255, 255, 255) represents white (full intensity of all three colors).
○​ (0, 0, 0) represents black (absence of all colors).​

●​ Applications: This model is predominantly used in devices that emit light, such as
computer monitors, televisions, and smartphone screens. It's also fundamental in digital
imaging and graphics design.​

YIQ Color Model

The YIQ color model was developed for analog color television broadcasting in the United
States, particularly by the National Television System Committee (NTSC). It separates image
data into components that align with human visual perception, optimizing bandwidth and
ensuring compatibility with black-and-white televisions.

●​ Components:​

○​ Y (Luminance): Represents the brightness information of the image. It is a

weighted sum of the RGB components, reflecting the human eye's greater
sensitivity to green light.
○​ I (In-phase): Carries orange-cyan color information.
○​ Q (Quadrature): Carries purple-yellow color information.​

●​ How It Works: By transmitting luminance (Y) separately from chrominance (I and Q),
the YIQ model allows black-and-white TVs to display the Y component, ensuring
backward compatibility. Color TVs decode all three components to reproduce full-color
images.​

●​ Applications: Primarily used in NTSC television broadcasting. While largely supplanted

by other color spaces in modern digital systems, understanding YIQ is crucial for
grasping the evolution of color television technology.​
Key Differences Between RGB and YIQ

●​ Purpose: RGB is designed for direct color representation in devices that emit light,
whereas YIQ was developed to optimize color broadcasting for television, balancing
bandwidth efficiency and compatibility.​

●​ Component Representation: RGB directly represents color intensities, while YIQ

separates brightness from color information, aligning with human visual perception to
optimize signal transmission.​

●​ Compatibility: YIQ ensures that color broadcasts are viewable on black-and-white

televisions by isolating luminance information, a consideration not inherent in the RGB
model.
 8.​ How images are represented and processed inside the computer.

Images are represented and processed inside a computer as a grid of pixels, with each pixel
having specific color and intensity values. Here's a breakdown of how this works:

i . Representation of an Image

An image is typically stored as a matrix or a grid of pixels (short for "picture elements"). Each
pixel represents a small part of the image. The image as a whole is made up of a large number of
these tiny pixels. The resolution of the image (e.g., 1920x1080) tells you the width and height of
the grid in terms of pixels.

Color Representation

Each pixel has a color value which is usually represented using the RGB (Red, Green, Blue)
color model. In this model:

●​ Each color component (Red, Green, and Blue) is assigned an integer value in the range of
0 to 255.​

●​ The combination of these three color components results in a specific color. For example:​

○​ (255, 0, 0) represents pure red.

○​ (0, 255, 0) represents pure green.
○​ (0, 0, 255) represents pure blue.
○​ (255, 255, 255) represents white (the combination of all colors at maximum
intensity).
○​ (0, 0, 0) represents black (absence of color).​

For an image, each pixel will have an RGB triplet, and the entire image is an array of these RGB
values.
Grayscale Images

For simpler images, like black-and-white photos, a single intensity value is used for each pixel,
representing the brightness of the pixel. This is called a grayscale image. The intensity is usually
between 0 (black) and 255 (white), with varying shades of gray in between.

ii. Image File Formats

Images can be saved in different formats, such as:

●​ JPEG: A compressed image format often used for photographs. It reduces file size by
discarding some image details, making it lossy.​

●​ PNG: A lossless format that maintains full image quality but often has larger file sizes. It
supports transparency.​

●​ GIF: A format with a limited color palette (256 colors) and is often used for simple
animations.​

●​ BMP: A raw, uncompressed image format that is larger but simple.​

Each file format has different ways of encoding pixel data, with or without compression.

iii. Image Processing

Image processing involves manipulating the pixel data to perform operations like:

●​ Filtering: Applying a mathematical filter (such as blurring, sharpening, etc.) to modify

pixel values.​

●​ Edge Detection: Identifying boundaries or transitions in an image using algorithms like

Sobel or Canny.​
 ●​ Resizing: Changing the resolution of an image by adjusting the number of pixels
(interpolation techniques are used).​

●​ Color Adjustments: Modifying the brightness, contrast, or saturation of an image.​

●​ Object Detection and Recognition: Identifying specific objects, faces, or features in an

image using machine learning and computer vision techniques.​

iv . Computer Vision

In computer vision, algorithms analyze and interpret image data. This process involves:

●​ Preprocessing: Converting images into a format suitable for analysis (e.g., converting to
grayscale or resizing).​

●​ Feature Extraction: Detecting edges, shapes, and textures within the image.​

●​ Machine Learning: Using training data to recognize objects or classify images based on
learned patterns.​

v. Storing Image Data

Images are stored as sequences of binary data on a computer's storage devices. The binary values
represent pixel colors and other metadata like resolution, color depth, and file format. For
example:

●​ An 8-bit color depth means each color channel (RGB) is represented by 8 bits (1 byte), so
each pixel requires 3 bytes (1 byte for each color channel).​
 ●​ A 24-bit image would require 3 bytes per pixel, while a 32-bit image might include an
additional alpha channel for transparency.​

vi. Rendering and Displaying

When an image is displayed on a screen, the computer sends the pixel data to the display, where
it is rendered using the screen's pixel grid. Modern screens can display millions of colors by
varying the intensity of red, green, and blue for each pixel.

In summary, images inside a computer are represented as arrays of pixel values, which are
processed and manipulated using algorithms to achieve various effects, recognition, or
transformations.

9. What is transformation in computer graphics? Discuss about the five

common transformation

Transformation is the change in size, shape, location and orientation of an object in display. It
refers to the mathematical operations used to manipulate the position, orientation or size of an
object within a 2D or 3D scene, enabling the creation of dynamic and interactive visuals.

The five common transformations are : Translation, Rotation, Reflection, Scaling and Shear.

Translation
It is a transformation of an object by moving the whole object from one position to another
without changing the size, shape or orientation of the object. We translate two dimensional point
by adding translation distances tx and ty to the original coordinates of the point (x, y).
The translation distance pair (tx, ty) is called the translation vector.
Translation can be represented by a row or column vector equation: [x’ y’] = [x, y] + [tx, ty]
The image shows the translation of a triangle by the translation vector that translates the point A
to point B.

Rotation
Rotation involves turning an object around a specified point or axis, either in 2D or 3D, and is a
fundamental transformation used to change an object's orientation. Rotation is used to reposition
an object along a circular path in the XY-plane.
To generate a rotation we specify a rotation angle a and the position of the rotation point(pivot
point) (xr, yr) about which the object is to be rotated. Positive value of rotation angle defines
counter clockwise rotation while negative value of rotation angle defines clockwise rotation.
To rotate a point (x, y) counterclockwise about the origin by an angle θ, use the following
equations: x' = x * cos(θ) - y * sin(θ) and y' = x * sin(θ) + y * cos(θ), where (x', y') are the new
coordinates. We can write this in the form of a column vector matrix equation.
[ x’ ] = [ cos(θ) -sin(θ) ] [ x ]
[ y’ ] [ sin(θ) cos(θ) ] [ y ]

The equation of rotation of an object about the axis of rotation (xr, yr) is given by :
x’ = xr + (x - xr)cos(θ) - (y - yr)sin(θ)
Y’ = yr + (x - xr)sin(θ) + (y - yr)cos(θ)

The image of a rotation of a triangle about the origin.

Reflection

reflection refers to the rendering of reflective surfaces, creating mirror-like effects. It is a

transformation which produces a mirror image of an object. The mirror Image of a 2D object is
generated relative to an axis of reflection - a line, by rotating the object 180 degrees about the
axis of reflection.
An example of reflecting an object (the green one) by the y-axis to produce the red object.
Scaling
Scaling transformation is a geometric transformation that alters the size of an object in a
coordinate space. It can make an object larger or smaller while maintaining its shape and
proportions. Scaling can be uniform (same factor in all directions) or non-uniform (different
factors for different axes).

The equation for scaling is given by :

x’ = x . Sx
y’ = y . Sy
Where the (Sx, Sy) is the scaling factor. Same values of Sx and Sy will produce Uniform
Scaling and different values of Sx and Sy will produce Differential Scaling.
Shear
A Shear transformation is a transformation that distorts the shape of an object such that the
transformed shape appears as if the object were composed of internal layers that have been
caused to slide over each other. The two common types of shear transformation are x-direction
shear transformation and y- direction shear transformation.
The equation for x-direction shear is given by: x’ = x + Shx . y, y’ = y, where Shx is the x shear
parameter. And the equation for y-direction shear is given by : x’ = x, y’ = y + Shy . x, where
Shy is the y shear parameter
 10. What is homogeneous matrix? Discuss its use in transformation

Homogeneous Matrix

A homogeneous matrix is an extension of traditional matrices used in geometry to facilitate

transformations in a unified way. It incorporates translation along with other linear
transformations (like rotation and scaling) in a single matrix representation.

Structure

In 2D space, a homogeneous coordinate is represented as a 3D vector:

$$\begin{pmatrix} x
y
1 \end{pmatrix}​$$

The third component is typically set to 1, allowing for the inclusion of translation operations.

The corresponding homogeneous transformation matrix in 2D is:

$$T = \begin{pmatrix} a & b & tx ​

c & d & ty ​
0 & 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix}$$
Where:

●​ $$a,b,c,da, b, c, da,b,c,d $$ define linear transformations (like rotation, scaling, or shear).

●​ $$tx,tytx, tytx,ty$$ represent translations along the x and y axes.

3D Homogeneous Matrix

In 3D, the homogeneous coordinate extends to a 4D vector:

$$\begin{pmatrix} x ​
y​
z​
1 \end{pmatrix}​$$
And the transformation matrix is:

$$T = \begin{pmatrix} a & b & c & tx ​

d & e & f & ty ​
g & h & i & tz ​
0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix}$$​​

Uses in Transformation

1.​ Combining Transformations:​

Homogeneous matrices allow for the combination of multiple
transformations (translation, rotation, scaling) into a single
matrix. This can be done through matrix multiplication,
simplifying the overall transformation process.​
​
For example, if you have a rotation matrix RRR and a
translation matrix TTT, the combined transformation CCC is:​
​
C=T⋅RC = T \cdot RC=T⋅R​

2.​ Simplifying Calculations:​

Calculating the new coordinates of a point after
transformations becomes straightforward. For a point PPP
represented in homogeneous coordinates:​
​
P′=T⋅PP' = T \cdot PP′=T⋅P​
​
This single operation computes the result of both rotation and
translation simultaneously.​
 3.​ Facilitating Perspective Projections:​
In computer graphics, homogeneous coordinates are critical for perspective
transformations. They allow for the representation of points at infinity and facilitate the
projection of 3D points onto a 2D plane.​

4.​ Handling Multiple Dimensions:​

Homogeneous matrices extend easily to higher dimensions, enabling transformations in
4D or more, which is beneficial in advanced graphics and simulations.​

Example of Transformation

Consider a point P=(2,3)P = (2, 3)P=(2,3) that undergoes a scaling by a factor of 2 and then a
translation by (1,1)(1, 1)(1,1).

1.​ Scaling Matrix:​

​
$$ S=(200020001)S = \begin{pmatrix} 2 & 0 & 0 ​
0&2&0​
0 & 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix}S=​200​020​001$$​​

2.​ Translation Matrix:​

​
$$T=(101011001)T = \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 0 & 1 ​
0&1&1​
0 & 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix}T=​100​010​111​​$$​

3.​ Combined Transformation:​

​
C=T⋅S=(201021001)C = T \cdot S = \begin{pmatrix} 2 & 0 & 1 \\ 0 &
2 & 1 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix}C=T⋅S=​200​020​111​​
 4.​ Applying Transformation:​
Convert point PPP to homogeneous coordinates:​
$$Ph=(231)P_h = \begin{pmatrix} 2 ​
3​
1 \end{pmatrix}Ph​=​231​​$$​
Then apply the combined transformation:​
$$Ph′=C⋅PhP'_h = C \cdot P_hPh′​=C⋅Ph​$$​

11. Discuss about the following:

a. Animation​ b. Simulation​ c. Image processing​ d. Virtual reality

a. Animation

Definition:​
Animation is the process of creating the illusion of movement by displaying a series of static
images or frames in rapid succession. Each frame differs slightly from the previous one,
simulating motion.

Types of Animation:

●​ 2D Animation: Traditional hand-drawn or vector-based movement on a flat plane.​

●​ 3D Animation: Computer-generated characters and environments with depth.​

●​ Stop-motion Animation: Real-world objects physically moved in small increments and

photographed frame by frame.​

●​ Motion Graphics: Text or abstract graphics animated, often used in media and
advertising.​
Applications:

●​ Entertainment (films, cartoons, video games)​

●​ Education (animated tutorials)​

●​ Advertising (explainer videos)​

●​ Scientific visualization​

b. Simulation

Definition:​
Simulation is the imitation of real-world processes or systems over time, typically using models
in a virtual environment to observe behavior and predict outcomes.

Features:

●​ Mimics physical systems like flight dynamics or weather patterns.​

●​ Involves mathematical modeling and computation.​

●​ Can be interactive or passive.​

Applications:

●​ Training: Flight simulators for pilots, driving simulators.​

●​ Science & Engineering: Testing physical theories or product performance.​

●​ Healthcare: Surgery or patient-care simulators.​

 ●​ Military: Combat simulations for strategic planning.​

c. Image Processing

Definition:​
Image processing involves performing operations on images to enhance them or extract useful
information. It is a key technique in computer vision and artificial intelligence.

Types:

●​ Digital Image Processing: Manipulation of images using algorithms (e.g., in Python,

MATLAB).​

●​ Analog Image Processing: Works on two-dimensional analog signals.​

Common Techniques:

●​ Noise reduction​

●​ Image sharpening and enhancement​

●​ Edge detection​

●​ Image compression​

●​ Pattern recognition​

Applications:

●​ Medical imaging (MRI, CT scan analysis)​

 ●​ Face and object recognition​

●​ Satellite image analysis​

●​ Optical character recognition (OCR)​

d. Virtual Reality (VR)

Definition:​
Virtual Reality is an immersive multimedia technology that simulates a three-dimensional
environment, allowing users to interact with a virtual world using specialized hardware like VR
headsets and motion controllers.

Components:

●​ Head-mounted displays (HMDs)​

●​ Motion tracking systems​

●​ Haptic feedback devices​

Applications:

●​ Gaming: Fully immersive gaming experiences.​

●​ Training: Simulated environments for pilots, military personnel, surgeons.​

●​ Education: Virtual field trips, interactive 3D learning.​

●​ Design & Architecture: Walkthroughs of buildings before they are built.​

●​ Therapy: Exposure therapy for phobias, PTSD treatment.​