INTRODUCTION TO

POWER SYSTEM PROTECTON

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Overview Of Protection
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OVERVIEW OF PROTECTION FUNDAMENTALS

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Relays are compact devices that are connected throughout the power
system to detect intolerable or unwanted conditions within an assigned
area. They are in effect, a form of active insurance designed to maintain
a high degree of service continuity and limit equipment damage. They
are “Silent Sentinels”. While protective relays will be the main emphasis of
this chapter, other types of relays, applied on a more limited basis or used
as part of a total protective relays system will also be covered.

2.0 CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS

Relays can be divided into five functional categories:

a. Protective Relays, which detect defective lines, defective apparatus,

or other dangerous or intolerable conditions. These relays can either
initiate or permit switching or simply provide an alarm.

b. Monitoring Relays, which verify conditions on the power system or in

the protection system. These relays include fault detectors, alarm units,
channel-monitoring relays, synchronism verification, and network
phasing. Power system conditions that do not involve opening circuit
breakers during faults can be monitored by these relays.

c. Programming Relays, which establish or detect electrical sequences.

Programming relays are used for reclosing and synchronising.

d. Regulating Relays, which are activated when an operating parameter

deviates from predetermined limits. Regulating relays function through
supplementary equipment to restore the quantity to the prescribed
limits.

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e. Auxiliary Relays, which operate in response to the opening or closing

of the operating circuit to supplement another relay or device. These
include timers, contact-multiplier relays, sealing units, receiver relays,
lock-out relays, closing relays and trip relays.

In addition to these functional categories, relays may be classified by

input, operating principle or structure and performance characteristic:

(i) Input
¾ Current
¾ Voltage
¾ Power
¾ Pressure
¾ Frequency
¾ Temperature
¾ Flow
¾ Vibration

(ii) Operating Principle of Structure

¾ Percentage
¾ Multi-restraint
¾ Product
¾ Solid state
¾ Electromechanical
¾ Thermal.

The above classification and definitions are based on the ANSI Standard
37.90 (IEEE 313).

3.0 PROTECTIVE RELAYING SYSTEMS AND THEIR DESIGN

Technically, most relays are small systems within themselves. Throughout

this chapter, however, the term systems will be used to indicate a
combination of relays of the same or different types. Properly speaking,
the protective relaying system includes circuit breakers as well as relays.
Relays and circuit breakers must function together; there is little or no
value in applying one without the other.

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Protective relays or systems are not required to function during normal

power system operation, but must be immediately available to handle
intolerable system conditions and avoid serious outages and damage.
Thus, the true operating life of these relays can be on the order of a few
seconds, even though they are connected in a system for many years. In
practice, the relays operate far more during testing and maintenance
than in response to adverse service conditions.

In theory, a relay system should be able to respond to the infinity of

abnormalities that can possibly occur within the power system. In
practice, the relay engineer must arrive at a compromise based on the
four factors that influence any relay application:

a. Economics - Initial, operating and maintenance.

b. Available measure of fault or trouble - Fault magnitudes and location
of current transformers and voltage transformers.
c. Operating practices - Conformity to standard and accepted practices;
ensuring efficient system operation.
d. Previous experience - History and anticipation perhaps better
expressed of trouble likely to be encountered within the system.

The third and fourth considerations are perhaps better expressed as the
“personality of the system and the relay engineer”.

Since it is simply not feasible to design a protective relaying system

capable of handling any potential problem, compromises must be made.
In general, only those problems, which according to past experience are
likely to occur, receive primary consideration. Naturally, this makes
relaying somewhat of an art. Different relay engineers will, using sound
logic, design significantly different protective systems for essentially the
same power system. As a result there is little standardisation in protective
relaying. Not only may the type of relaying system vary, but also will the
extent of the protective coverage. Too much protection is almost as bad
as little.

Nonetheless, protective relaying is a highly specialised technology

requiring an in-depth understanding of the power system as a whole. The
relay engineer must know, not only the technology of the abnormal, but
have a basic understanding of all the system components and their

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operation in the system. Relaying, then, is a “Vertical” specialty requiring

a “horizontal” viewpoint. This horizontal, or total system, concept of
relaying includes fault protection and the performance of the protection
system during abnormal system operation such as severe overloads,
generation deficiency, out-of-step conditions, and so forth. Although
these areas are vitally important to the relay engineer, his concern has not
always been fully appreciated or shared by his colleagues. For this
reason, close and continued communication between the planning, relay
design, and operation systems should be mandatory, since power systems
grow and operating conditions change.

A complex relaying system may result from poor system design or the
economic need to use fewer circuit breakers. Considerable savings can
be realized by using fewer circuit breakers and a more complex relay
system. Such systems usually involve design compromises requiring careful
evaluation, if acceptable protection is to be maintained.

4.0 DESIGN CRITERIA

The application logic of protective relays divides the power system into
several zones, each requiring its own group of relays. In all cases, the five
design criteria listed below are common to any well-designed and
efficient protective system or system segment:

a. Reliability – the ability of the relay or relay system to perform correctly

when needed (dependability) and to avoid unnecessary operation
(security).
b. Speed – minimum fault time and equipment damage.
c. Selectivity – maximum service continuity with minimum system
disconnection.
d. Economics – maximum protection at minimum cost.
e. Simplicity – minimum equipment and circuitry.

Since it is impractical to fully satisfy all these design criteria simultaneously

the necessary compromises must be evaluated on the basis of
comparative risks.

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4.1 Reliability
System reliability consists of two elements – dependability and security.
Dependability is the certainty of correct operation in response to system
trouble, while security is the ability of the system to avoid mis-operation
between faults. Unfortunately, these aspects of reliability tend to counter
one another: increasing security tends to decrease dependability and
vice versa. In general, however, modern relaying systems are highly
reliable and provide practical compromise between security and
dependability.

Protective relay system must perform correctly under adverse system and
environmental conditions. Regardless of whether other systems are
momentarily blinded during this period, the relays must perform
accurately and dependably. They must either operate in response to
trouble in their assigned area or block correctly if the trouble is outside
their designated area.

Dependability can be checked relatively easily in the laboratory or during

installation by simulated tests or staged faults. Security on the other hand is
much more difficult to check. A true test of system security would have to
measure response to an almost infinite variety of potential transients and
counterfeit trouble indications in the power system and its environment. A
secure system is usually the result of a good background in design
combined with extensive miniature power system testing and can only be
confirmed in the power system itself and its environment.

4.2 Speed
Relays that could anticipate a fault would be utopian. But, even if
available, they would doubtlessly raise the question of whether or not the
fault or trouble really required a trip-out. The development of faster relays
must always be measured against the increased probability of more
unwanted or unexplained operations. Time, no matter how short, is still the
best method of distinguishing between real and counterfeit trouble.

Applied to a relay, high speed indicates that the operating time usually
does not exceed 50 ms (3 cycles on a 60-hertz base). The term
instantaneous indicates that no delay is purposely introduced in the
operation. In practice, the terms high speed and instantaneous are
frequently used interchangeably.

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4.3 Selectivity versus Economics

High speed relays provide greater service continuity by reducing fault
damage and hazards to personnel. These relays generally have a higher
initial cost, which, however, cannot always be justified. Consequently,
both low and high-speed relays are used to protect power systems. Both
types have high reliability records. Records on protective relay operations
consistently show 99.5% and better relay performance.

4.4 Simplicity
As in any other engineering discipline, simplicity in a protective relay
system is always the hallmark of a good design. The simplest relay system,
however, is not always the most economical. As previously indicated,
major economies are possible with a complex relay system that uses a
minimum number of circuit breakers. Other factors being equal, simplicity
of design improves system reliability – if only because there are fewer
elements that can malfunction.

5.0 FACTORS INFLUENCING RELAY PERFORMANCE

Relay performance is generally classed as:

(1) Correct
(2) No conclusion
(3) Incorrect

Incorrect operation may be either failure to trip or false tripping. The

cause of incorrect operation may be, a) Wrong application, b) Incorrect
settings, c) A personnel error or 4) Equipment mal-function. Equipment
that can cause an incorrect operation includes current transformers,
voltage transformers, circuit breakers, cable and wiring, relays, channels
or station batteries.

Incorrect tripping of circuit breakers not associated with the trouble area
is often as disastrous as a failure to trip. Hence, special care must be
taken in both application and installation to ensure against the possibility
of incorrect tripping.

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“ No conclusion” is the last resort when no evidence is available for a

correct or incorrect operation. Quite often this is a personnel involvement.
6.0 Zones of Protection
The general philosophy of relay application is to divide the power system
into protective zones that can be protected adequately with the
minimum amount of the system disconnected. The power system is
divided into protective zones for:

i) Generators
ii) Transformers
iii) Buses
iv) Transmission and distribution circuits
v) Motors

A typical power system and its zones of protection are shown in Fig1. The
purpose of the protective system is to provide the first line of protection,
within the guide-lines outlined above. Since failures do occur, however
some form of backup protection is provided to trip out the adjacent
breakers or zones surrounding the trouble area. Protection in each zone is
overlapped to avoid the possibility of unprotected areas

7.0 PPLYING PROTECTIVE RELAYS

The first step in applying protective relays is to state the protection

problem accurately. Although developing a clear, accurate statement
of the problem can often be the most difficult part, the time spent will pay
dividends – particularly when assistance from others is desired.
Information on the following associated or supporting areas in necessary.

a. System configuration
b. Existing systems protection and its difficulties
c. Existing operating procedures and practices; possible future
expansions
d. Degree of protection required
e. Fault study
f. Maximum load and current transformer ratios
g. Voltage transformer locations, connections and ratios
h. Impedance of the lines and transformers.

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7.1 System Configuration

System configuration is represented by a single line diagram showing the
area of the system involved in the protection problem. This diagram
should show in some detail the location of the breakers, the bus
arrangements, the taps on lines & their capacity, the location & size of the
generation, the location, size & connections of the power transformers
and the system frequency.

Transformer connections are particularly important. For ground relaying,

the location of the ground sources must also be known.

7.2 Existing systems Protection and Procedures

The existing protective equipment and the reasons for the desired
changes should be outlined. Difficulties with the present relaying system
are a valuable guide to improvements. New installations should be so
specified. As new relay system will often be required to operate with or
utilize parts of the existing relaying, details on these existing systems are
important.

Wherever possible, changes in system protection should conform to

existing operating procedures and practices. Exceptions to standard
procedures tend to increase the risk of personnel error and may disrupt
the efficient operation of the system. Anticipated system expansions can
also greatly influence the choice of protection.

7.3 Degree of Protection Required

To determine the degree of protection required, the general type of
protection being considered should be outlined, together with the system
conditions or operating procedures and practices that will influence the
final choice. These data will provide answer to the following types of
questions. Is pilot, high-speed, medium, or slow-speed relaying required?
Is simultaneous tripping of all breakers of a transmission line desired? Is
instantaneous reclosing needed?

7.4 Fault Study

An adequate fault study is necessary in almost all relay applications.
Three-phase faults, line-to-ground faults and line-end faults should all be
included in the study. Line-end fault data are important in cases where
one breaker may operate ahead of another. For ground relaying, the

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fault study should include zero sequence voltage and negative sequence
currents and voltages. These quantities are easily obtained during the
course of a fault study and are often extremely useful in solving a difficult
relaying problem.

7.5 Maximum Loads, Transformer Data and Impedance

Maximum load current, potential transformer connections, its ratios and
locations are required for proper relay application. Maximum loads
should be consistent with the fault data and should be based on the
same system conditions. Line and transformer impedance should also be
known. Phase sequence should be specified if three-line connection
drawings are involved.

Obviously, not all the above data are necessary in every application. It is
desirable, however, to at least review the system with respect to the
above points and wherever applicable, to compile necessary data.

In any event, no amounts of data can ensure a successful relay

application unless the protection problems are first defined. In fact, the
application problem is essentially solved when the available measures
(handles) for distinguishing between tolerable and intolerable conditions
can be identified and specified.

8.0 ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM DEVICE NUMBERS AND FUNCTIONS

The device switching equipment are referred to by numbers, with

appropriate suffix letters when necessary, according to the functions they
perform.

These numbers are based on a system adopted as standard for

automatic switchgear by IEEE and incorporated in American Standard
C37.2 – 1970. This system is used in connection diagrams, in instruction
books and in specifications.

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8.1 Device Numbering

Device Number Definition Function
1 Master Element It is an initiating device, such as a
control switch, voltage relay, float
switch, etc., which serves either
directly or through such permissive
devices as protective and time
delay relays. to
place an equipment in or out of
operation.
2 Time Delay It is a device which functions to give
Starting or a desired amount of time delay
Closing Relay before or after any point of
operation in a switching sequence
or protective relaying system,
except as specifically provided by
device function 48, 62 and 79
described later.
3 Checking or It is a device which operates in
Interlocking response to the position of a number
Relay of other devices (or to a number of
predetermined conditions), in an
equipment, to allow an operating
sequence to proceed, to stop, or to
provide a check of the position of
these devices or of these conditions
for any purpose.
4 Master It is a device, generally controlled by
Contactor the device No.1 or equivalent, and
the required permissive and
protective devices, that serve to
make and break the necessary
control circuits to place an
equipment into operation under the
desired conditions and to take it out
of operation under other or
abnormal conditions.
5 Stopping Device It is a control device used primarily

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Device Number Definition Function

to shut down an equipment and
hold it out of operation. This device
may be manually or Electrically
actuated, but excludes the function
of electrical lockout (see device
function 86) on abnormal conditions.
6 Starting Circuit It is a device whose principal
Breaker function is to connect a machine to
its source of starting voltage.
7 Anode Circuit It is one used in the anode circuits of
Breaker a power rectifier for the primary
purpose of interrupting the rectifier
circuit if an arc back should occur.
8 Control Power It is a disconnecting device – such
Disconnecting as a knife switch, circuit breaker or
Device pullout fuse block, used for the
purpose of connecting and
disconnecting the source of control
power to and from the control bus
or equipment.
Note: Control power is considered to
include auxiliary power, which
supplies such apparatus as small
motors and heaters.
9 Reversing It is used for the purpose of reversing
Device a machine field or for performing
any other reversing functions.
10 Unit Sequence It is used to change the sequence in
Switch which units may be placed in and
out of service in multiple – unit
equipment.
11 Reserved for
future
application
12 Over–Speed It is usually a direct connected
Device speed switch which functions on
machine over–speed.
13 Synchronised A centrifugal speed switch, a slip

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Device Number Definition Function

Speed Device frequency relay, a voltage relay, an
undercurrent relay or any type of
device that operates at
approximately synchronous speed
of a machine.
14 Under Speed It is a device, which functions when
Device the speed of a machine falls below
CCa predetermined value.
15 Speed or It is a device that functions to match
Frequency and hold the speed or the
Matching frequency of a machine or of a
Device system equal to, or approximately
equal to, that of another machine,
source or system.
16 Reserved for
future
application
17 Shunting or It serves to open or to close a
Discharge shunting circuit around any piece of
Switch apparatus (Except a resistor), such
as a machine field, a machine
armature, a capacitor or a reactor.
Note: This excludes devices which
perform such shunting operation as
may be necessary in the process of
starting a machine by devices 6 or
42 or they’re equivalent, and also
exclude device 73 function which
serves for the switching of resistors.
18 Accelerating or It is used to close or to cause the
Decelerating closing of circuits, which are used to
Device increase or to decrease the speed
of a machine.
19 Starting-To- It is a device, which operates to
Running initiate or cause the automatic
Transition transfer of a machine from the
Contactor starting to the running power
connection.

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Device Number Definition Function

20 Electrically It is an electrically operated,
operated Valve controlled or monitored valve in a
fluid line.
Note: The function of the valve may
be indicated by the use of the
suffixes.
21 Distance Relay It is a device, which functions when
the circuit admittance impedance
or reactance increases or decreases
beyond predetermined limits.
22 Equaliser Circuit It is a breaker, which serves to
Breaker control or to make and break the
equaliser or the current–balancing
connections for a machine field, or
for regulating equipment, in a
multiple-unit of the installation.
23 Temperature It is a device to raise or lower the
Control Device temperature of a machine or other
apparatus or of any medium, when
its temperature falls below, or rises
above, a predetermined value.
Note: An example is a thermostat
which switches on a space heater in
a switchgear assembly when the
temperature falls to a desired value
as distinguished from a device which
is used to provide automatic
temperature regulation between
close limits and would be
designated as 90T.
24 Reserved for
future
application
25 Synchronising or It is a device that operates when
Synchronism– two ac circuits are within the desired
Check Device limits of frequency, phase angle and
voltage, to permit or to cause the
paralleling of these two circuits.

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Device Number Definition Function

26 Apparatus It is a device, which functions when
Thermal Device the temperature of the shunt field or
the armature winding of a machine,
or that of a load limiting or load
shifting resistor or of a liquid or other
medium exceeds a predetermined
value ; or if the temperature of the
protected apparatus, such as a
power rectifier, or of any medium
decreases below a predetermined
value.
27 Under Voltage It is a device, which functions on a
Relay given value of undervoltage.
28 Flame detector It is a device that monitors the
presence of the pilot or main flame
in such apparatus as a gas turbine
or a steam boiler.
29 Isolating It is a device used for disconnecting
Contactor one circuit from another for the
purposes of emergency operation,
maintenance, or test.
30 Annunciator It is a non-automatically reset
relay device that gives a number of
separate visual indications upon the
functioning of protective devices
and which may also be arranged to
perform a lockout function.
31 Separate It connects a circuit such as the
Excitation shunt field of a synchronous
Device converter, to a source of separate
excitation during the starting
sequence ; or one which energises
the excitation and ignition circuits of
a power rectifier.
32 Directional It is a device which functions on a
Power Relay desired value of power flow in a
given direction, or upon reverse
power, like resulting from arc back in

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Device Number Definition Function

the anode or cathode circuits of a
power rectifier.
33 Position Switch It makes or breaks contact when the
main device or piece of apparatus,
which has no device function
number, reaches a given position.
34 Master It is a device such as a motor-
Sequence operated multi-contact switch, or
Device the equivalent, or a programming
device, such as a computer, that
establishes or determines the
operating sequence of the major
devices in an equipment during
starting and stopping or during other
sequential operations.
35 Brush– It is used for raising, lowering, or
Operating, or shifting, the brushes of a machine, or
Slip-ring-short- for short circuiting its slip rings, or for
circuiting engaging or disengaging the
Device contacts of a mechanical rectifier.
36 Polarity or It operates or permits the operation
Polarising of another device on a
Voltage Device predetermined polarity only or
verifies the presence of a polarising
voltage in an equipment.
37 Undercurrent or It functions when the current or
Under power power flow decreases below a
Relay predetermined value.
38 Bearing It functions on excessive bearing
Protective temperature, or on other abnormal
Device mechanical conditions, such as
undue wear, which may eventually
result in excessive bearing
temperature.
39 Mechanical It is a device that functions upon the
Condition occurrence of abnormal
Monitor mechanical conditions, (except that
associated with bearings as covered

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Device Number Definition Function

under device function 38), such as
excessive vibration, eccentricity,
expansion, shock, tilting, or seal
failure.
40 Field Relay It functions on a given or abnormally
low value or failure of machine field
current, or on an excessive value of
the reactive component of
armature current in an ac machine
indicating abnormally low field
excitation.
41 Field Circuit It is a device, which functions to
Breaker apply, or to remove the field
excitation of a machine.
42 Running Circuit It is a device whose principal
Breaker function is to connect a machine to
its source of running or operating
voltage. This function may also be
used for a device, such as a
contactor, that is used in series with
a circuit breaker or other fault
protecting means, primarily for
frequent opening and closing of the
circuit.
43 Manual Transfer It transfers the control circuits so as
or Selector to modify the plan of operation of
Device transfers the switching equipment or of some
of the devices.
44 Unit Sequence It is a device, which functions to start
Starting Relay the next available unit in a multiple-
unit equipment on the failure or on
the non-availability of the normally
preceding unit.
45 Atmospheric It is a device that functions upon the
Condition occurrence of an abnormal
Monitor atmospheric condition, such as
damaging fumes, explosive mixture,
smoke or fire.

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Device Number Definition Function

46 Reverse–Phase, It is a relay which functions when the
Phase–Balance, poly-phase currents are of reverse
Current Relay phase sequence, or when the poly-
phase currents are unbalanced or
contain negative phase–sequence
components above a given
amount.
47 Phase – It functions upon a predetermined
Sequence value of poly phase voltage in the
Voltage Relay desired phase sequence.
48 Incomplete It is a relay that generally returns the
Sequence Relay equipment to the normal, or off,
position and locks it out if the normal
starting, operating or stopping
sequence is not properly completed
within a predetermined time. If the
device is used for alarm purpose
only, it should preferably be
designated as 48A (alarm).
49 Machine, or It is a relay that functions when the
Transformer, temperature of a machine
Thermal Relay armature, or other load carrying
winding or element of a machine, or
the temperature of a power rectifier
or power transformer (including a
power rectifier transformer) exceeds
an predetermined value.
50 Instantaneous It is a relay that functions
overcurrent, or instantaneously on an excessive
Rate of rise value of current, or on an excessive
Relay current rise, thus indicating a fault in
the apparatus or circuit being
protected.
51 AC Time It is a relay with either a definite or
Overcurrent an inverse time characteristic that
Relay functions when the current in an ac
circuit exceeds a predetermined
value.

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Device Number Definition Function

52 AC Circuit It is a device that is used to close
Breaker and interrupt an ac power circuit
under normal conditions or to
interrupt this circuit under fault or
emergency conditions.
53 Exciter or It is a relay that forces the dc
Generator Relay machine field excitation to build up
during starting or which functions
when the machine voltage has build
up to a given value.
54 Reserved for
future
application.
55 Power Factor It is a relay that operates when the
Relay power factors in an ac circuit rises
above or below a predetermined
value.
56 Field It is a relay that automatically
Application controls the application of the field
Relay excitation to an ac motor at some
predetermined point in the slip
cycle.
57 Short – Circuiting It is a primary circuit switching
or Grounding device that functions to short-circuit
Device or to ground a circuit in response to
automatic or manual means.
58 Rectification It is a device that functions if one or
Failure Relay more anodes of a power rectifier fail
to fire, or to detect an arc-break or
failure of a diode to conduct or
block properly.
59 Overvoltage It is a relay that functions on a given
Relay value of overvoltage.
60 Voltage or It is a relay that operates on a given
Current Balance difference in voltage, or current
Relay input or output of two circuits.
61 Reserved for
future

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Device Number Definition Function

application
62 Time – Delay It is a time delay relay that serves in
Stopping or conjunction with the device that
opening Relay initiates the shutdown, stopping, or
opening operation in an automatic
sequence.
63 Pressure Switch It is a switch, which operates on
given values or on a given rate of
change of pressure.
64 Ground It is a relay that functions on failure
Protective Relay of the insulation of a machine,
transformer or of other apparatus to
ground, or on flashover of a dc
machine to ground.
Note: This functions is assigned only to
a relay which detects the flow of
current from the frame of a machine
or enclosing case or structure of a
piece of apparatus to ground, or
detects a ground on a normally
ungrounded winding or circuit. It is
not applied to device connected in
the secondary circuit or secondary
neutral of a current transformer, or in
the secondary neutral of current
transformer, connected in the
power circuit of a normally
grounded system.
65 Governor It is the assembly of fluid, electrical,
or mechanical control, equipment
used for regulating the flow of water,
steam, or other medium to the prime
mover for such purpose as starting,
holding or stopping speed load.
66 Notching or It functions to allow only a specified
Jogging Device number of operations of a given
device, or equipment, or a specified
number of successive operations

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Device Number Definition Function

within a given time of each other. It
also functions to energise a circuit
periodically or for fractions of
specified time intervals, or that is
used to permit intermittent
acceleration or jogging of a
machine at low speeds for
mechanical positioning.
67 AC directional It is a relay that functions on a
Overcurrent desired value of ac overcurrent
Relay flowing in a predetermined
direction.
68 Blocking Relay It is a relay that initiates a pilot signal
for blocking of tripping on external
faults in a transmission line or in other
apparatus under predetermined
conditions, or co-ordinates with
other devices to block tripping or to
block re-closing on an out-of-step
condition or on power swings.
69 Permissive It is generally a two position,
Control Device manually operated switch that in
one position permits the closing of a
circuit breaker, or the placing of an
equipment into operation, and in
the other position prevents the
circuit breaker or the equipment
from being operated.
70 Rheostat It is a variable resistance device
used in an electric circuit, which is
electrically operated or has other
electrical accessories, such as
auxiliary position or limit switches.
71 Level Switch It is a switch which operates on
given values, or on a given rate of
change, of level.
72 DC circuit It is used to close and interrupt a dc
Breaker power circuit under normal

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Device Number Definition Function

conditions or to interrupt this circuit
under fault or emergency
conditions.
73 Load – Resistor It is used to shunt or insert a step of
Contactor load limiting, shifting, or indicating
resistance in a power circuit, or to
switch a space heater in circuit, or
to switch a light, or regenerative
load resistor of a power rectifier or
other machine in and out of circuit.
74 Alarm Relay It is a device other than the
annunciator, as covered under
device No.30, which is used to
operate in connection with a visual
or audible alarm.
75 Position It is a mechanism that is used for
Changing moving a main device from one
Mechanism position to another in an equipment
;as for example, shifting a
removable circuit breaker unit to
and from the connected,
disconnected, and test positions.
76 DC Overcurrent It is a relay that functions when the
Relay current in a dc circuit exceeds a
given value.
77 Pulse Transmitter It is used to generate and transmit
pulses over a telemetering or pilot-
wire circuit to the remote indicating
or receiving device.
78 Phase Angle It is a relay that functions at a
Measuring, or predetermined phase angle
out-of-step between two voltages or between
Protective two currents or between voltage
Relay and current.
79 AC Re-closing It is a relay that controls the
Relay automatic reclosing and locking out
of an ac circuit interrupter.
80 Flow Switch It is a switch, which operates on

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Device Number Definition Function

given values, or on a given rate of
change, of flow.
81 Frequency It is a relay that functions on a
Relay predetermined value of frequency,
either under/over on normal system
frequency or rate of change of
frequency.
82 DC Re-closing It is a relay that controls the
Relay automatic closing and reclosing of a
dc circuit interrupter, generally in
response to load circuit conditions.
83 Automatic It is a relay that operates to select
Selective automatically between certain
Control or sources or conditions in an
Transfer Relay equipment, or performs a transfer
operation automatically.
84 Operating It is the complete electrical
Mechanism mechanism or servo-mechanism,
including the operating motor,
solenoids, position switches, etc., for
a tap changer, induction regulator
or any similar piece of apparatus
which has no device function
number.
85 Carrier or Pilot- It is a relay that is operated or
wire Receiver restrained by a signal used in
Relay connection with carrier-current or
dc pilot-wire fault directional
relaying.
86 Locking–out It is an electrically operated, hand or
Relay electrically reset, relay that functions
to shut down and hold an
equipment out of service on the
occurrence of abnormal conditions.
87 Differential It is a protective relay that functions
Protective relay on a percentage or phase angle or
other quantitative difference of two
currents or of some other electrical

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Device Number Definition Function

quantities.
88 Auxiliary Motor It is one used for operating auxiliary
or Motor equipment such as pumps, blowers,
Generator exciters, rotating magnetic
amplifiers, etc.
89 Line Switch It is used as a disconnecting load
interrupter, or isolating switch in an
ac or dc power circuit, when this
device is electrically operated or
has electrical accessories, such as
an auxiliary switch, magnetic lock,
etc.
90 Regulating It functions to regulate a quantity, or
Device quantities, such as voltage, current,
power, speed, frequency,
temperature, and load, at a certain
value or between certain (generally
close) limits for machines, toe lines or
other apparatus.
91 Voltage It is a relay that operates when the
Directional voltage across an open circuit
Relay breaker or contactor exceeds a
given value in a given direction.
92 Voltage and It is a relay that permits or causes the
power connection of two circuits when the
Directional voltage difference between them
Relay exceeds a given value in a
predetermined direction and causes
these two circuits to be
disconnected from each other
when the power flowing between
them exceeds a given value in the
opposite direction.
93 Field changing It functions to increase or decrease
Contactor in one-step the value of field
excitation on a machine.
94 Tripping or Trip- It functions to trip a circuit breaker,
free Relay contactor, or equipment, or to

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Device Number Definition Function

permit immediate tripping by other
devices ; or to prevent immediate
re-closure of a circuit interrupter, in
case it should open automatically
even though its closing circuit is
maintained closed.
95 Used only for
specific
applications on
individual
Installations
where none of
the assigned
numbered
functions from 1
to 94 is suitable.

8.2 Devices Performing More Than One Function

If one device performs two relatively important functions in an equipment
so that it is desirable to identify both of these functions, this may be done
by using a double function number and name such as:

50/51 - Instantaneous and Time Overcurrent Relay.

8.3 Suffix Numbers

If two or more devices with the same function number and suffix letter (if
used) are present in the same equipment, they may be distinguished by
numbered suffixes as for example, 52X-1, 52X-2 and 52X-3, when
necessary.

8.4 Suffix Letters

Suffix letters are used with device function numbers for various purposes. In
order to prevent possible conflict each suffix letter should have only one
meaning in an individual equipment. All other words should use the
abbreviations as contained in ANSI Y1.1 latest revision, or should use some
other distinctive abbreviation, or be written out in full each time they are

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used. The meaning of each single suffix letter, or combination of letters,

should be clearly designated in the legend on the drawings or
publications applying to the equipment.

Lower case (small) suffix letters are used in practically all instances on
electrical diagrams for the auxiliary, position, and limit switches. Capital
letters are generally used for all other suffix letters. The letters should
generally form part of the device function designation, are usually written
directly after the device function number, as for example, 52CS, 71W, or
49D. When it is necessary to use two types of suffix letters in connection
with one function number, it is often desirable for clarity to separate them
by a slanted line or dash, as for example, 20D/CS or 20D-CS.

The suffix letters which denote parts of the main device, and those which
cannot or need not form part of the device function designation, are
generally written directly below the device function number on drawings,
as for example, 52/CC or 43/A.

8.9 Standard reference positions of some typical devices

Device Standard Reference Position

Power Circuit Breaker Main Contacts Open
Disconnecting Switch Main Contacts Open
Load-break switch Main Contacts Open
Valve Closed Position
Gate Closed Position
Clutch Disengaged Position
Turning Gear Disengaged Position
Power Electrodes Maximum Gap Position
Rheostat Maximum resistance Position
Adjusting Means (1) Low or Down Position
Relay (2) De-energised Position
Contactor (2) De-energised Position
Contactor (latched-in-type) Main Contacts Open
Temperature Relay (3) Lowest Temperature
Level Detector (3) Lowest Level
Flow Detector (3) Lowest Flow
Speed Switch (3) Lowest Speed

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Vibration Detector (3) Minimum Vibration

Pressure Switch (3) Lowest Pressure
Vacuum Switch (3) Lowest Pressure i.e., Highest Vacuum
Note : If several similar auxiliary switches are present on the same device, they should be
designated numerically 1,2,3 etc, when necessary.

(1) These may be speed, voltage, current, load, or similar adjusting devices comprising
rheostats, springs, levers, or other components for the purpose.

(2) These electrically operated devices are of the non-latched-in type, whose contact
position is dependent only upon the degree of energisation of the operating or
restraining or holding coil or coils which may or may not be suitable for continuous
energisation. The de-energised position of the device is that with all coils de-
energised.

(3) The energising influences for these devices are considered to be, respectively, rising
temperature, rising level, increasing flow, rising speed, increasing vibration, and
increasing pressure.

The simple designation “a” or “b” is used in all cases where there is no
need to adjust the contacts to change position at any particular point in
the travel of the main device or where the part of the travel, where the
contacts change position is of no significance in the control or operating
scheme. Hence the ”a” or “b” designations usually are sufficient for
circuit breaker auxiliary switches.
9.0 CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS ON TECHNOLOGY

Protective relays can be classified into two main categories on the

technology of their design,

1. Electromechanical
2. Static.

In practice these terms are used loosely and ends up being wrongly
interpreted and understood. Though the reason for these different types
of relays is the continuous change in electronic technology, each of these
types have their own distinct advantage over the other.

9.1 Electromechanical Relays

Electromechanical relays are defined as “Protective relays using magneto
motive force for their operation. Their measuring elements have moving

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parts”. Hinged armature, Disc relays are very good examples of

Electromechanical technology.

9.2 Static Relays

Static relays are defined as “Protective relays without any moving parts in
the measuring element”. Relays designed using electronics is a typical
example for relays under such category. It should be understood here
that static relays can also have its output elements with moving parts (like
miniature relays).

The static relays, as said above are mainly relays designed using
electronics, thus due to the evolution of electronics, the static relays also
used different techniques in their design as listed below,

¾ Static Analogue Relays

¾ Static Digital Relays
¾ Static Numerical Relays

9.21 Static Analogue Relays

Static relays designed using analogue electronic components fall under
this category. In such relays, the input signal after conditioning are directly
fed to analogue measuring elements, like comparators, for e.g.,
operational amplifiers. These devices compare the input analogue signal
with the reference signal and generate an output signal depending on
the value of the input signal.

9.22 Static Digital Relays

Static Relays designed using digital electronic components are classified
under this category. In these relays, the input analogue signals after
conditioning are converted into digital signals using Analogue to Digital
(A/D) converters.. Then these digital signals are fed to digital comparators,
which compare these signals with their reference signals and produce an
output. Depending on the number of elements and phases required,
these hardware comparators are provided.

9.23 Static Numerical Relays

Numerical relays are also digital relays. In these relays the input signal after
conditioning is digitised using A/D converters. These digitised signals are
then fed into the microprocessor directly. The entire protection element in

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numeric relays is realised using software programs. These software called

as application software are stored in non-volatile memory in the relay. The
input signals are continuously sampled and stored in the memory. Then
these values are compared against the set threshold values (stored in the
memory). The software statements perform these operations and
generate the output. In numeric relays, the software statements do the
job done by hardware comparators or measuring elements in analogue
and digital relays.

Thus in numerical relays, multiple elements or phases of protection are

realised by appropriately writing the software statements. This does not
involve any physical addition in space. This is the reason why numerical
relays are developed with more than one protection integrated in them,
as the cost involved in integration of more funcitons is very less.

Additionally, in numerical relays since the data is stored in the memory it

can give lot of other information and features like, fault recording, event
recording, measurements, etc. The presence of microprocessors in the
relay enables it to communicate with computers and provide self
diagnostics function.

One more advantage of numerical relays is its capability to adapt itself to

change. This at times is seen as a nuisance since a numerical relay
undergoes lot of addition in functions and features in its life time.

The following Chart gives a birds-eye view of the relay classifications

based on technology.

Relays

Electromechanical Static

Analogue Digital

Numerical
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