UNIT 4.

RELATIONS
Learning Objectives

At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:

1. define relations and their properties; and
2. identify equivalence relations.

Relations
Relations are fundamental in mathematics and computer science for describing
connections or associations between elements of sets. Understanding relations involves
exploring their definitions, properties, and specific types such as equivalence relations and
orderings.
 A relation R from set A to set B is a subset of the Cartesian product A × B. The cartesian
product A x B is a set of all possible ordered pairs (a, b) where a is from set A and b is

(a, b) ∈ R denotes that element a in set A is related to element b in set B.

from set B.


Properties of Relations
a. Reflexive Relation: A relation R on set A is reflexive if (a, a) ∈ R for every a ∈ A.
Reflexive also means “arrow to itself” for all elements of the domain to
the codomain.

 Problem 1: Determine if R1 is reflexive or not.

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (4, 4)}

(1, 1) ∈ R1
(2, 2) ∈ R1
(3, 3) ∈ R1
(4, 4) ∈ R1

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 every element a ∈ A. R1 has (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), and (4, 4).
Relation R1 is refelexive because it contains all ordered pairs of the form (a, a) for

 Problem 2: Determine if R2 is reflexive or not.

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 1), (4, 4)}

(1, 1) ∈ R1
(2, 2) ∈ R1
(3, 3) ∉ R1
(4, 4) ∈ R1

Relation R2 is not refelexive because the ordered pair (3, 3) is not in R2.

b. Symmetric Relation: A relation R on a set A is symmetric if (a, b) ∈ R implies (b, a) ∈ R.

Symmetric also means “arrows back” for an element of the domain to
the codomain. Every arrow should have a partner arrow.

 Problem 1: Determine if R3 is symmetric or not.

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
R3 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)}

(1, 1) → (1, 1) ∈ R3
(2, 2) → (2, 2) ∈ R3
(1, 2) → (2, 1) ∈ R3
(2, 1) → (1, 2) ∈ R3

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 Relation R3 is symmetric because for all pairs has its reverse in R3.

 Problem 2: Determine if R4 is symmetric or not.

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
R4 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4)}

(1, 1) → (1, 1) ∈ R4
(1, 2) → (2, 1) ∉ R4
(1, 3) → (3, 1) ∉ R4
(1, 4) → (4, 1) ∉ R4
Relation R4 is not symmetric because for (1, 2), there is no (2, 1) in R4. Same is true
for (1, 3) and (1, 4).

c. Antisymmetric Relation: A relation R on set A is antisymmetric if and only if for all (a, b) ∈ R
where a ≠ b, we must have (b, a) ∉ R.

Examples:
 Problem 1: Determine if R5 is symmetric or not.
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
R5 = {(2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 4)}

o For (2, 1), check if (1, 2) is present in R5. (NO)

o For (3, 1), check if (3, 1) is present in R5. (NO)
o For (3, 2), check if (2, 3) is present in R5. (NO)
o For (4, 4), there is no need to check because 4 = 4.

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 Therefore, in all cases where (a, b) exists with a ≠ b in relation R5, the
reverse pair (b, a) does not also exist, it is an antisymmetric relation.

 Problem 2: Determine if R6 is antisymmetric or not.

Let A = {1, 2, 3}
R6 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 1)}
o Solution:

o For (1, 2), check if (2, 1) is present in R5. (YES)

o No need to check for the others since it violates the a ≠ b principle in the
antisymmetric relation.

Therefore, in all cases where (a, b) exists with a ≠ b in relation R5, the
reverse pair (b, a) does not also exist, it is NOT an antisymmetric relation.

d. Transitive Relation: A relation R on set A is transitive ((a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R) implies that
(a, c) ∈ R. Transitive means “shortcuts” for any element in the domain
to the codomain.
Examples:
 Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
R5 = {(2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 4)}

o For (2, 1), there is no pair where the first element is 1. Therefore, there is no
transivity check needed for (2, 1).

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 o For (3, 1), there is no pair where the first element is 1. Therefore, there is also no
transivity check needed for (3, 1).
o For (3, 2), there is a pair whose first element is 2 which is (2, 1). Therefore, there
is a need to check if (3, 1) is in R5.
o For (4, 4), there is a pair whose first element is 4 which is (4, 4). Therefore, there
is a need to check if (4, 4) is in R5.

Relation R5 is transitive since all applicable pairs has their corresponding

shortcuts.
(3, 1) for ordered pairs (3, 2) and (2, 1)

(4, 4) for ordered pairs (4, 4) and (4, 4)

 Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

R6 = {(2, 1), (1, 3)}

o For (2, 1), there is a pair where the first element is 1 which is (1, 3). However (2, 3) is not
in R6.
No (2, 3) for ordered pairs (2, 1) and (1, 3)

Relation R6 is not transitive because for (2, 1) and (1, 3) are there in R6 but there is
no (2, 3).

e. Equivalence Relation: A relation R on set A is said to have an equivalence relation if R is

reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
Examples:
 Problem: Define if relation S on {1, 2, 3} such that S = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 1)} is
an equivalence relation or not.

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o Solution:

(1, 1) ∈ S
Reflexive:

(2, 2) ∈ S
(3, 3) ∈ S
Relation S is reflexive since every element in S is related to itself as
depicted by the red arrows (arrow to itself).

Symmetric:
(1, 1) → (1, 1) ∈ S
(2, 2) → (2, 2) ∈ S
(3, 3) → (3, 3) ∈ S
(1, 2) → (2, 1) ∈ S
(2, 1) → (1, 2) ∈ S
Relation S is symmetric since as depicted by the green arrows (arrows
back), (1, 2) and (2, 1) are present in relation S together with (1, 1), (2, 2), and (3,
3).

 For (1, 1) ∈ S and (1, 1) ∈ S, we should have (1, 1) ∈

Transitive:

 For (2, 2) ∈ S and (2, 2) ∈ S, we should have (2, 2) ∈

S. (TRUE)

 For (3, 3) ∈ S and (3, 3) ∈ S, we should have (3, 3) ∈

S. (TRUE)

 For (1, 2) ∈ S and (2, 1) ∈ S, we should have (1, 1) ∈

S. (TRUE)

 For (1, 2) ∈ S and (2, 2) ∈ S, we should have (1, 2) ∈

S. (TRUE)

 For (2, 1) ∈ S and (1, 1) ∈ S, we should have (2, 1) ∈

S. (TRUE)

 For (2, 1) ∈ S and (1, 2) ∈ S, we should have (2, 2) ∈

S. (TRUE)
S. (TRUE)

Relation S is transitive since there are shortcuts available in S for every

applicable combination.

Since S is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive, S has an equivalence

relation.

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  Problem: Determine if relation R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 3)} on set A = {1, 2, 3} is an
equivalence relation or not.
o Solution:

(1, 1) ∈ R
Reflexive:

(2, 2) ∈ R
(3, 3) ∈ R

Relation R is reflexive since every element in R is related to itself.

Symmetric:
(1, 1) → (1, 1) ∈R
(2, 2) → (2, 2) ∈R
(3, 3) → (3, 3) ∈R
(1, 2) → (2, 1) ∉R

Relation R is not symmetric since (2, 1) is not in R.

 For (1, 1) ∈ S and (1, 1) ∈ R, we should have (1, 1) ∈

Transitive:

 For (2, 2) ∈ S and (2, 2) ∈ R, we should have (2, 2) ∈

R. (TRUE)

 For (3, 3) ∈ S and (3, 3) ∈ R, we should have (3, 3) ∈

R. (TRUE)

 For (1, 2) ∈ S and (2, 2) ∈ R, we should have (1, 2) ∈

R. (TRUE)
R. (TRUE)

Relation R is transitive since there are shortcuts available in S for every

applicable combination.

Since R is reflexive and transitive but not symmetric, it is NOT an

equivalence relation.

Partial and Total Orderings

Partial Orderings:
A relation R is a partial ordering on set A if R is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive.

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 Problem: Verify if relation R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4),
(4, 4)} on set A = {1, 2, 3, 4} is a partial order or not.
o Solution:

Check if reflexive:
o (1, 1) ∈ R (TRUE)
o (2, 2) ∈ R (TRUE)
o (3, 3) ∈ R (TRUE)
o (4, 4) ∈ R (TRUE)

Therefore, R is reflexive.

Check if antisymmetric:
o For (1, 2), (2, 1) ∉ R (TRUE)
o For (1, 3), (3, 1) ∉ R (TRUE)
o For (1, 4), (4, 1) ∉ R (TRUE)
o For (2, 3), (3, 2) ∉ R (TRUE)
o For (2, 4), (4, 2) ∉ R (TRUE)
o For (3, 4), (4, 3) ∉ R (TRUE)
o No need to check for (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), and (4, 4) since a =b.

Therefore, R is antisymmetric.

Check if transitive:
o For (1, 2) ∈R and (2, 3) ∈R implies (1, 3) ∈R (TRUE)
o For (1, 2) ∈R and (2, 4) ∈R implies (1, 4) ∈R (TRUE)
o For (1, 3) ∈R and (3, 4) ∈R implies (1, 4) ∈R (TRUE)
o For (2, 3) ∈R and (3, 4) ∈R implies (2, 4) ∈R (TRUE)
o No need to check for (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), and (4, 4) since all will result to true.

Therefore, R is transitive.

o Conclusion: Since R is reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive, relation R is a partial order of set
A.

Examples:

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 Subset inclusion ⊆ on sets: A ⊆ B.
Divisibility ∣ on integers: a ∣ b.



Problem Solving:
Problem: Determine if ⊆ is a partial ordering on the set of all sets.
Solution: Yes, ⊆ is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive.



b. Total Orderings:
 R is a total ordering if R is a partial ordering and for any two elements a, b ∈ A, either
a R b or b R a.
Examples:
 ≤ on integers: a ≤ b.
 Alphabetical order ≤ on words: "apple" ≤ "banana".
Problem Solving:
 Problem: Is alphabetical order ≤ on words a total ordering?
 Solution: Yes, because for any two words, one will precede the other alphabetically.
Real-Life Applications
a. Network Security:
 Application: Verifying access permissions where users (elements in set A) have specific
rights (elements in set B) can be modeled using relations.
b. Social Networks:
 Application: Friendship relations (symmetric) on social media platforms help in
suggesting new connections based on existing friendships.
c. Academic Grading:
 Application: Partial ordering on grades (A > B > C) helps in ranking student performance
across different courses.
d. Task Scheduling:
 Application: Total ordering on tasks by priority (e.g., urgent > important > normal)
ensures optimal task management in project scheduling.

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Name: _____________________________________________
Date: ______________________________________________
SCORE
UNIT 4 Assessment
Direction: Carefully read and understand each problem. Write down your solution for each
problem on the corresponding space on the right.
1. Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5}. Define a
relation R from A to B and list all
possible pairs in R.

2. Given the relation S = {(1,1), (3,2), (3,3),

(4,4), (1,2), (2,1)} on the set {1, 2, 3, 4},
determine if S is reflexive, symmetric,
and/or transitive.
3. Determine if the relation T = {(1,1),
(2,2), (3,3)} on the set {1, 2, 3} is
transitive.

4. Determine if the relation U = {(1,2),

(2,1), (3,3)} on the set {1, 2, 3} is
symmetric.

3. Determine if the relation V = {(1,2),

(2,3), (1,3)} on the set {1, 2, 3} is
reflexive.

4. Verify if the relation W = {(1,1), (2,2),

(3,3), (1,2), (2,1), (2,3), (3,2)} is an
equivalence relation on {1, 2, 3}.

5. Determine if the relation ⊆ (subset

inclusion) is a partial ordering on the
set of all sets.

6. Is the alphabetical order ≤ on words a

total ordering?

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