MODULE – VI QUANTUM COMPUTING

Quantum system for information processing - quantum states – classical bits – quantum bits or qubits
– multiple qubits – Bloch sphere - Superposition - Entanglement - quantum gates - CNOT gate -
Types of Quantum Computer: Quantum Annealer- Analog Quantum- Universal Quantum.

Quantum Computing is the area of study focused on developing computing

methods based on the principle of quantum theory. Quantum Physics explains the nature and
behaviour of energy and matter on the quantum (atomic and subatomic) scale. Elementary
particles such as protons, neutrons and electrons can exist in two or more states at a time. This
fundamental behaviour is utilized in designing the quantum computation processing units.
Quantum computing uses a combination of bits of 1’s, 0’s and both 1 and 0 at a time to
perform computational tasks with greater efficiency.

A quantum computer is a machine that performs calculations based on the laws

of quantum mechanics, which is the behavior of particles at the sub-atomic level.

Quantum system for information processing

A quantum system for information processing refers to the use of quantum mechanics to perform
computation and manage data. This is the basis of quantum computing, which differs fundamentally
from classical computing in several key ways.
Core Concepts of Quantum Information Processing
a. Qubit (Quantum Bit)
 The basic unit of quantum information.
 Unlike classical bits (which are 0 or 1), a qubit can exist in a superposition of states, meaning
it can be both 0 and 1 at the same time (with certain probabilities).
b. Superposition
 A principle that allows quantum systems to be in multiple states simultaneously.
 Enables parallel computation.
c. Entanglement
 A unique quantum correlation between qubits.
 Measurement of one entangled qubit instantaneously affects its partner, regardless of distance.
 Crucial for quantum teleportation and quantum error correction.
d. Quantum Gates and Circuits
 Logical operations are performed using quantum gates (like Hadamard, CNOT, Pauli-X).
 Quantum circuits are sequences of these gates acting on qubits.

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Quantum Systems Process Information

Step Description

Initialization Qubits are initialized to a known state (usually |0⟩).

Superposition Creation Gates like Hadamard are applied to create superpositions.

Entanglement Generation Multi-qubit gates (e.g., CNOT) generate entangled states.

Quantum Operations Quantum gates manipulate the state of qubits as per the algorithm.

Measurement

Quantum and Classical Information Processing

Feature Classical Computing Quantum Computing

Basis of Large scale multipurpose computer High speed computer based on quantum
computing based on classical physics. mechanics.
Basic Unit Bit Qubit
Information Bit-based information storage using Qubit-based information storage using
storage voltage/charge. electron spin or polarization.
Bits having a value of either 0 or 1 can Qubits have a value of 0, 1 or sometimes
Bit values
have a single value at any instant. linear combination of both.
The number of possible states is infinite
Number of The number of possible states is 2
since it can hold combinations of 0 or 1
possible states which is either 0 or 1.
along with some complex information.
Gates used for
Logic gates (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) Quantum gates (X, Y, Z, H, CNOT etc.)
processing
Operations use linear algebra and are
Operations Operations use Boolean Algebra.
represented with unitary matrices
Circuit Circuit implemented in macroscopic Circuits implemented in microscopic
implementation technologies technologies.
Data processing is carried out by logic Data processing is carried out by quantum
Data processing
and in sequential order. logic at parallel instances.
Communication Classical channels Quantum channels
Security Encryption-based Quantum cryptography

Applications of Quantum Information Processing

 Cryptography: Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) for ultra-secure communication.
 Optimization: Solving complex optimization problems more efficiently.
 Quantum Simulation: Modeling molecules and materials.
 Machine Learning: Speeding up learning algorithms (Quantum ML).
 Search: Grover's algorithm provides quadratic speed-up for unstructured search.

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Concept of bit and qubit
1. Classical Bits
 A bit is the basic unit of classical information.
 It can be in one of two states: 0 or 1
 All classical computing is based on processing strings of 0s and 1s using logic gates.
 Physically, a bit can be anything that has two distinct configurations: one represented by “0”,
and the other represented by “1”.
2. Quantum Bits (Qubits)
 A qubit is the basic unit of quantum information.
 It is the quantum version of a bit, and its quantum state can be written in terms of two levels,
labeled |0⟩ and |1⟩.
 | ⟩ this notation is known as ‘ket’ notation and  | is known as ‘brac’ notation.
 Both are together called as Dirac notations ‘Ket’ are analogous to a column vector. They are
also called basis vectors and represented by two-dimensional column vectors as follows:

 The qubit can be in any one of the two states as well as in the superposed state simultaneously.
 In quantum computation two distinguishable states of a system are needed to represent a bit of
data.
 For example, two states of an electron orbiting a single atom. Spin up is taken as |1⟩ and spin
down is taken as |0⟩. Similarly ground state energy level is |0⟩ and excited state level is |1⟩
 It can exist in a superposition of both 0 and 1: ∣ψ⟩=α∣0⟩+β∣1⟩
Where:
∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩ are basis states (like 0 and 1),
α and β are complex numbers such that ∣α∣2+∣β∣2=1
The probabilities of measuring 0 or 1 are ∣α∣2 and ∣β∣2 respectively.
3. Multiple Qubits
 When you combine n qubits, the system's state exists in a 2n dimensional space.
Examples:
 2 Qubits:
∣ψ⟩=α∣00⟩+β∣01⟩+γ∣10⟩+δ∣11⟩
 3 Qubits:
8 possible basis states — ∣000⟩, ∣001⟩, ∣010⟩, ∣011⟩, ∣100⟩, ∣101⟩, ∣110⟩, ∣111⟩
 The power of quantum computing comes from this exponential scaling:
n qubits can represent 2n possible states simultaneously in superposition

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4. Quantum States
 A quantum state refers to the full description of a quantum system.
 For a single qubit: it's the superposition above.
 For multiple qubits, the quantum state can be entangled and described by a tensor product
of individual qubit states.
Properties of qubits:
1. Qubits make use of discrete energy state particles such as electrons and photons.
2. Qubits exists in two quantum state |0⟩ and |1⟩ or in a linear combination of both states. This is
known as superposition.
3. Unlike classical bits, qubit can work with the overlap of both 0 & 1 states. For ex, a 4-bit register
can store one number from 0 to 15 (because of 2 n = 24 =16), but 4-qubit register can store all 16
numbers.
4. When the qubit is measured, it collapses to one of the two basis states |0⟩ or |1⟩
5. Quantum entanglement and quantum tunnelling are two exclusive properties of qubit.
6. State of the qubits is represented using Bloch sphere.

Quantum Mechanical Phenomena

Quantum Computers use three quantum mechanical phenomena-
 Superposition
 Entanglement
 Interference
Superposition
• Qubits exhibit superposition, allowing them to exist in multiple states simultaneously.
• A qubit can exist in a linear combination of the 0 and 1 states. This is represented as |0⟩ and
|1⟩.
• Mathematically, the wavefunction of a qubit in superposition is represented as,
|ψ⟩ = α|0⟩ + β|1⟩
where α and β are coefficients of both the states.
The probability of the state is directly proportional to the square of the magnitude of its coefficient.
|α|2 is the probability of identifying the qubit state 0 and |β|2 is the probability of identifying the qubit
state 1. These probabilities when summed up must give a total of 1 or say 100% mathematically, i.e.
|α|2 + |β|2 = 1.
Measurement:
• When a qubit in superposition is measured, it collapses into one of the basis states |0⟩ or |1⟩.
• The outcome of the measurement is probabilistic, with the probabilities determined by the
squared magnitudes of the two coefficients.
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In many quantum computing schemes, the qubit is represented by the spin state of a particle.
Spin, a quantum property of particles is typically in any of two directions, up or down. But it can be
put into a superposition state so it is up and down at the same time.
Significance of Superposition:
Superposition enables qubits to explore multiple possibilities simultaneously.
This allows quantum computers to process vast amounts of information in parallel, potentially solving
complex problems much faster than classical computers.
Entanglement
Entanglement is an extremely strong correlation that exists between quantum particles — so strong,
that two or more quantum particles can be linked in perfect unison, even if separated by great
distances.

 Two qubits are entangled through the action of a laser.

 Once they have been entangled, they are in an indeterminate state.
 The qubits can then be separated by any distance, but they will remain linked.
 When one of the qubits is manipulated-say, to perform a step in a quantum computer
program-the manipulation happens instantly to its entangled twin as well.
 If the manipulation includes reading the state of one of the qubits, the entanglement ends,
and both qubits' states are revealed.
Interference
 Quantum states can undergo interference due to a phenomenon known as phase.
 Quantum interference can be understood similarly to wave interference; when two waves are
in phase, their amplitudes add, and when they are out of phase, their amplitudes cancel.

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  The root cause of quantum interference is wave-particle duality. At the subatomic scale,
particles have wavelike properties. Interference is a result of the wave-like nature of quantum
states.
 When qubits in superposition interact with each other, they can experience interference.
Constructive and Destructive Interference
• Constructive interference:
When the phases of the superposed states align, their amplitudes add up, increasing the
probability of measuring a specific outcome.
• Destructive interference:
When the phases of the superposed states are opposite, they can cancel each other out,
decreasing the probability of measuring a particular outcome.
This can be used to suppress unwanted states in quantum algorithms.
Significance of Interference
 Interference helps to improve qubit stability by cancelling out the effects of external noise that
interfere with the qubits.
 Interference enables faster computation, improved error correction and the processing of
highly complex data.

Bloch Sphere Representation of a Qubit

The Bloch sphere is a geometric representation that provides a visual depiction of the state of a qubit.
It is a useful tool for understanding and visualizing the concept of superposition, which is one of the
fundamental properties of qubits.
The Bloch sphere represents a single qubit in a three-dimensional space. The state of a qubit can be
described by a quantum state vector, typically denoted as |ψ⟩, and it can be expressed as,
|ψ⟩ = α|0⟩ + β|1⟩
Here, |0⟩ and |1⟩ are the basis states, 0 and 1. and α and β are complex numbers.
The Bloch sphere has the following properties:
1. The north pole of the sphere represents the |0⟩ state.
2. The south pole of the sphere represents the |1⟩ state.
3. Any point on the surface of the sphere represents a valid qubit state.
4. The Bloch vector, which starts at the origin of the sphere (the centre) and ends on the surface of the
sphere, represents the state of the qubit. The direction and length of this vector determine the state
of the qubit.
5. The angle θ (polar angle) represents the probability of measuring the state |0⟩, and the angle φ
(azimuthal angle) represents the phase relationship between |0⟩ and |1⟩.

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Let us consider the qubit description of the Bloch sphere.
Any pure state ψ can be written as a complex superposition of the ket vectors ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩.
The state of a qubit can be written in terms of the two parameters θ and ϕ as follows:
|ψ⟩ = cos θ/2|0⟩ + ejφsin θ/2 |1⟩.
The range of values for θ and φ such that they cover the whole sphere (without “repetitions”) is θ ∈
[0,π) and φ ∈ [0,2π). Angle θ corresponds to lattitude and angle φ corresponds to longitude.
Examples:
 Assume that θ = 0.
This means that: |ψ⟩ = 1⋅|0⟩ + ejφ⋅0⋅|1⟩ = |0⟩.
 Now assume that θ = π;
Similarly we get: |ψ⟩ = 0⋅|0⟩ + ejφ⋅1⋅|1⟩=ejφ⋅|1⟩= |1⟩
 Assume that θ = π/2 and φ = 0.
Then, |ψ⟩ = 1/√⋅|0⟩ + ej0/√2⋅|1⟩ = |0+|1⟩/√2 while for φ = π,
we get |ψ⟩ = 1/√2⋅|0⟩ + ejπ/√2⋅|1⟩ = |0⟩−|1⟩/√2

The Bloch sphere provides the following interpretation:

 When the qubit is measured, it collapses to one of the two poles. If the arrow is closer to the
north pole, there is larger probability to collapse to that pole; similarly for the south pole. If the
arrow happens to point exactly at the equator, there is 50-50 chance to collapse to any of the
two poles.This introduces the probability in the Bloch sphere.The angle θ of the arrow with the
vertical axes corresponds to that probability.
 Quantum bits cover the whole sphere. i.e, rotating a vector w.r.t. the z-axis results into a phase
change, and does not affect which state the arrow will collapse to, when we measure it. This
rotation is achieved by changing the φ variable.

Quantum Gates
A quantum gate is a very simple computing device that performs quantum operation on qubits.
Quantum gates are one of the essential parts of a quantum computer and are the building blocks of all
quantum algorithms. Quantum gates are mathematically represented as transformation matrices which

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operate on inputs to give outputs. There are different types of quantum gates. They are single-qubit
gates and multiple qubit gates. These gates can flip a qubit from 0 to 1 as well as allowing
superposition states to be created.
Single-Qubit Gates:
Single-qubit gates are fundamental quantum gates that operate on individual qubits, modifying
their quantum states. A single-qubit has two basis states ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩.
Single qubit inputs are |0⟩ to |1⟩ and can be represented by matrix forms as

Single Qubit Gates are X- gate, Y-gate, Z- gate, H –gate, S-gate, T-gate.
Commonly used single-qubit gates are:
1. Identity Gate (I-gate):
 The identity gate does nothing. The qubit stays in the same state.
 It is represented as:

2. Pauli - X Gate ( "NOT" gate):

 The Pauli-X gate is equivalent to the classical NOT gate and performs a bit-flip operation on
the qubit's state.
 Mathematically, it is represented by the following matrix:

 The circuit representation of Pauli-X Gate:

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3. Pauli - Y Gate:
 The Pauli-Y gate is a combination of a bit-flip and a phase-flip operation.
 Mathematically, it is represented as follows:

 The circuit representation of Pauli-Y Gate:

4. Pauli - Z Gate:
 The Pauli-Z gate introduces a phase flip without changing the qubit's basis states.
Mathematically, it is represented as follows:
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  The circuit representation of Pauli-Z Gate:

5. Hadamard Gate (H-gate):

 It is a single qubit gate and is also gate to superposition.
 H gate acts on single qubit input and produce superposition state output.
 Mathematically, it is represented as:

 The circuit representation of Hadamard Gate:

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Difference between X, Y, Z and H gates is that in X, Y and Z gates, output is in single state whereas in
H gate output is superposed state.

6. Phase Shift S - gate:

 The Phase gate or S gate is a gate that transfers |0⟩ into |0⟩ and |1⟩ into i|1⟩.
 The S-gate introduces a π/2 phase shift. It is represented as:

The circuit representation of S-gate:

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7. Phase Shift T- gate:
 The T-gate introduces a π/4 phase shift. It is represented as:

 The circuit representation of T-gate:

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 Circuit
Gate Matrix Representation Description
Representation

I (Identity) Leaves the qubit unchanged

X (Pauli - X) Quantum NOT gate; flips

Y (Pauli-Y) Phase and bit flip

Z (Pauli-Z) Flips the phase

H (Hadamard) Creates superposition

S (Phase) Phase shift of π/2

T (π/8) Phase shift of π/4

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Multiple Qubit gates:
Quantum gates operating on multiple qubits are called as multiple qubit gates. Multiple Qubit
Gates operate on two or more input Qubits. Multiple qubit consists of control gate and target gate.
The action of gate as follows;
i) The Target qubit is altered only when the control qubit is |1⟩, and
ii) The control qubit remains unaltered during the transformations.
For two qubits, inputs qubits are |00⟩,|01⟩,|10⟩ and |11⟩
For three qubits, inputs qubits are |000⟩, |001⟩, |010⟩, |011⟩, |100⟩, |101⟩, |110⟩ and |111⟩
In multiple qubit gate, the input qubit applied in the form like |AB⟩, first term |A⟩ goes to
control qubit and the second term |B⟩ goes to target qubit.
Controlled Gate (CNOT)
The CNOT gate is a two-qubit operation, where the first qubit is referred as the control qubit |A⟩ and
the second qubit as the target qubit |B⟩.
If the control qubit is |1⟩ then it will flip the target qubit state from|0⟩ to |1⟩ or from |1⟩ to |0⟩.
When the control qubit is in state |0⟩ then the target qubit remains unchanged.
The symbolic representation is as follows.

The upper line represents control qubit and bottom line represents target qubit.

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Types of Quantum Computers

Quantum computers come in three main types: Quantum Annealers, Analog Quantum Computers, and
Universal Quantum Computers. Quantum Annealers are specialized for optimization problems,
Analog Quantum Computers simulate quantum systems, and Universal Quantum Computers aim to
perform a wide range of computations.

1. Quantum Annealer

A type of quantum computer designed specifically to solve optimization problems using the

principle of quantum annealing.

Focus: Solving optimization problems by finding the most stable state of a quantum system.

Features:

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  Uses quantum tunneling to find the lowest-energy configuration (optimal solution).
 Not a general-purpose quantum computer.
 Good for combinatorial optimization, machine learning, and material science problems.
Example Use-Cases:
 Route optimization (e.g., logistics).
 Portfolio optimization in finance.
 Drug discovery.
Example System:
 D-Wave Systems (commercially available).

2. Analog Quantum Computer

Computes using continuous quantum states and simulates quantum systems through quantum

analog processes.

Focus: Simulating quantum systems to understand their behavior and potentially discover new
materials or develop new drugs.
Features:
 Designed to simulate specific quantum systems directly.
 Less flexible than digital quantum computers.
 Not error-corrected; prone to decoherence.
Good For:
 Quantum chemistry simulations.
 Understanding physical quantum systems (e.g., lattice models, spin chains).
Example:
 Quantum simulators built using trapped ions or cold atoms.

3. Universal Quantum Computer (Digital Quantum Computer)

A general-purpose quantum computer that can execute any quantum algorithm using quantum

gates.

Focus:
Performing a broad range of quantum computations, potentially revolutionizing fields like artificial
intelligence, cryptography, and drug discovery.
Mechanism:
Uses quantum mechanics to process information and perform complex calculations, similar to how
a classical computer uses bits.

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 Features:
 Uses quantum circuits and qubits with logic gates (like classical digital circuits).
 Capable of error correction (with fault-tolerant architectures).
 Still in the early stages of development.
Capabilities:
 Factor large numbers (Shor’s algorithm).
 Speed up search problems (Grover’s algorithm).
 Quantum simulations, cryptography, machine learning.
Examples:
 IBM Q, Google Sycamore, IonQ

Type Purpose Flexibility Status Example

Quantum Annealer Optimization problems Low Commercial use D-Wave

Analog Quantum Quantum system simulation Medium Experimental Cold atom systems

Universal Quantum General-purpose computation High Early stage IBM Q, Google QCS

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