MALAWI SCHOOL CERTIFICATE OF EDUCATION

SENIOR
SECONDARY

BIOLOGY
SYLLABUS BASED REVISION NOTES AND EXERCISES
FOR
FORM

3
EASY UNDERSTAND WELL EXPLANATION
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic Contents Page
1. Organisms and their ecosystem 1

2. Plant structure and functions 19

3. Vertebrates and invertebrates 31

4. Human digestive system 41

5. Human circulatory system 51

6. Human reproductive system 61

7. Genetics 71

Bibliography 85

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 1. ORGANISMS AND THEIR ECOSYSTEM

Success criteria
After studying this topic, students must be able to:
 Explain how populations of living things can be estimated using samples
 Estimate plant and animal populations
 Explain how energy flow in an ecosystem
 Describe the components of an ecosystem
 Explain the effects of selected physical factors on living things
 Describe plant and animal communities in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.

Introduction total population. This is because a larger sample

The organisms and their physical surrounding of covers a larger part of the population.
biotic and abiotic factor make up an ecosystem.
The surrounding in which an organism lives is 1.2. Methods used to estimate plant and
called habitat. In an ecosystem, organisms play animal populations
different roles. The role played by an organism is Various methods are used to obtain samples and
called a niche. The biotic and an abiotic part of estimate populations of animals in different
the environment interact and influence each habitats. Some of the methods include:
other. The study of interaction between the biotic
1.2.1. Quadrat method
and abiotic part of the environment is called
Quadrat is a framework that uses grids or circular
ecology. This study was founded by an ecologist
plots to get a representative sample of organisms
called Earnest Heckel.
over a larger area being studied. The plots are
The total number of organisms of the same
placed randomly over the area of study. All the
species living in a given habitat is known as
organisms enclosed in the quadrat are sampled. It
population. The number of all organisms of
can also be used to study the distribution of
different species in a given ecosystem is called
organisms in the area. If the quadrat is not
community.
completely covered, it is said to be 50% cover. If
1.1. Sampling the whole grid or plot is covered, is it said to be
100% cover.
One would like to estimate the biomass of all the
miombo woodlands in a given forest, only Advantages of the quadrat method
representative group of trees can be used. This  It is easy to make a quadrat.
representative group of organisms studied to  It is also used to determine percent ground
represent the whole population is called a cover or distribution of organisms in the
sample. The method used to obtain this area.
representative group is called sampling. A
sample does not provide an actual value of the Disadvantages of the quadrat method
total population. It provides an estimate of the  It can only be used to sample small plants.
total population. However, as the size of the  Moving animals cannot be sampled using
sample increases, the estimated value from the this method.
sample comes closer to the actual value of the  It depends on the terrain elevation

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1.2.2. Transect method found. The transect lines are placed at intervals
There are two types of transect walk methods. of 1 – 3 metres apart. Each of the quadrat is
called a station. The quadrat of the constant size
i. Line transect is used in the stations. Only organisms of interest
These are regular straight lines cutting across an found in quadrats are sampled
area in which the organisms to be sampled are
Making simple transect line.
Materials
 Rope/string 25 – 35 m
 Pegs
 Quadrat
 Note book
Procedure
1. Select an area in which the organisms to be studied are found.
2. Estimate the size the area of interest in square metres. Use the formula applicable to the shape
of the area of interest.
3. using pegs, hold the string/rope to form a straight line across the area of study
4. Select the points along the line transect (stations). The quadrats of the same size should be at
regular intervals e.g. 1 – 3 metres part.

5. Place a quadrat at the first station of the transect line.

6. Count and record the number of plants of the selected species.
7. Take the quadrat and place it in another station. Count the number of plants and record.
Repeat the same procedure in all the other stations and record the findings in a table like the
one below. The table below gives the data collected by students from Newhope Academy.
Stations Number of organisms
1st 31
nd
2 40
3rd 83
th
4 61
5th 49
th
6 66
Calculate the average population density by adding number of all organisms and divide by the
number of stations.

32 + 40 + 83 + 61 + 50 + 66 330
= = 55
6 6

There are 55 organisms in one square metre.

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 ii. Belt transect 4. After 48 hours, go back to the same field and
This method involves the use of two parallel capture as many animals as possible. Count
lines, one metre apart. The lines cut across an them and record the number collected and
area in which the organisms to be studied are code them as SC.
area. Organisms found in between the belt are 5. Among the animals captured in the second
counted and record. The area between the two trip in step 4, identify and count the number
lines is calculated. of animals with marks (animals that were
For example, if you count 120 Bidens pilosa in a caught and marked in the first visit). Code
belt which is 12 m long by 1 m wide, them as SCAM.
the area; 6. Then use the following formula to estimate
1 𝑚 𝑋 12 𝑚 = 12 𝑚2 the population of animals in the selected
If there are 120 bidens pilosa in 12 𝑚2 small study field.
Number of Bidens pilosa in 1 m2 = Estimated number of animals (e.g. fish)
120 𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑠 𝑋 1 𝑚2 𝐹𝐶𝑀 𝑋 𝑆𝐶
= 10 𝐵𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑎 /𝑚2 =
12 𝑚2 𝑋 1 𝑚2 𝑆𝐶𝐴𝑀
Where:
The estimated number of organisms in 1 m2 is used
FCM – First Capture and Marked
to estimate the total number of organisms in the SC – Second Capture
whole area. This is done by multiplying the SCAM – Second Capture Already
number of organisms in 1 m2 by the total area. Marked
This method assumes that organisms are
uniformly distributed on the entire study area. Assumptions made during capture–recapture
method.
1.2.3. Capture – recapture method When using this technique, the researcher
This method is used to estimate the number of assumes that:
moving animals such as grasshoppers, fish,  No animals migrated in or out of the study
beetles, crabs, birds etc.
field where animals are captured, released
The number of moving animals such as fish can and recaptured.
be estimated using the following materials and  The capture and released animals mixed up
procedure in what is called capture – recapture randomly and evenly with animals not
technique. captured.
 Markings do not interfere with the activities
Materials of animals nor are they toxic.
 Sweep net
 Nail varnish or mark pen Advantages of the capture – recapture method
 Very easy and suitable for estimating
 Container with lid
populations of moving animals over a given
 Glass jar
area.
Procedure  It can show the distribution of organisms in
1. Use the sweep net to capture as many an area.
animals (e.g. fish) as possible in the study
Limitations of the capture – recapture method
field.
 This method cannot be used to estimate the
2. Mark all the animals captured. Record their
population of plants.
number and code them as FCM.
 It interferes with the environment of the
3. Release the animals back into the field.
animals.

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  Some methods of trapping animals scare the b. Consumers
animals leading to migration of animals These are animal that get chemical energy stored
from one area to another. in plants when they feed on plants either directly
or indirectly. Some of this energy is used up in
1.2.4. Direct count method the body cells while the rest is stored in the body
Individual organisms in a given area are structures. Some energy is lost into an ecosystem
physically counted. This provides the as heat.
approximate population of the organisms in an
area. It is used in estimating the number of large c. Decomposers
sized organisms such as elephants in the game If any of the organisms mentioned above dies,
park, baobab trees in the forest etc. the saprophytic bacteria and fungi decompose it
to obtain food nutrients. The decomposers are
1.3. Energy flow in a food chain saprophytic organisms that act on dead remains
Plants use the light energy from the sun to make of organisms at all levels. They also get energy
their own organic food. There are three main from the food chain.
levels that energy must pass through in a food
chain. These levels are known as trophic levels Food chain is simply defined as the feeding
and include. relationship where energy is transferred from
producers to the first consumers.. The arrows in
a. Producers the food chain mean ‘energy transferred to.’
They are capable of making their own food by Those arrows indicate the flow of energy.
trapping sun light energy from the sun in the Consider the following food chain below.
processes of photosynthesis.
Grass Grasshoppers Chicken Dog Hyena

In the food chain above, grasshoppers feed on grass. Energy from the grasshopper is transferred to chicken
and so on. The grass is the producers because it makes its own food.

Extremes of consumers in the food chain nutrients in the environment and through
Grasshoppers are the primary consumers because organisms.
they obtain chemical energy directly from the
plants. Then chicken feed on grasshoppers to 1.4.1. Nitrogen cycles
obtain stored chemical energy. The chicken is the Nitrogen exists in the atmosphere in gaseous form
secondary consumers. The dog that feeds on the (N2). Organisms such as plants rarely absorb
chicken is the tertiary consumers. The hyena nitrogen in this gaseous state because the bond
then feeds on the dog. The hyena is a quaternary between two nitrogen atoms is very strong making
consumer. The food chain can also be presented it inert under normal conditions. Once the bond is
using pictures. Consider the figure below. broken down, the nitrogen atom can combine with
other atoms so that plants can take it up. The
1.4. Nutrient cycles in an ecosystem circulation of nitrogen in the ecosystem and
Nutrients found in a given ecosystem circulate through organisms either when combined with
from the ecosystem to organisms through food and different compounds or free is known as nitrogen
then back to the ecosystem. In the process, cycle.
nutrients undergo changes from one form to
another with the aid of radiant energy from the Nitrogen is used by plants in two forms;
sun. Nutrient cycle is defined as the flow of  Ammonium ions (NH4+)
 Nitrates (NO3-)

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Usually, nitrates are the major source of nitrogen a. Symbiotic bacteria
in the soil. Nitrogen in the air can be converted to This is found in the root nodules of leguminous
nitrate (NO3-). This is known as nitrogen fixation. plants. Examples of symbiotic bacteria are
Rhizobium species.
Fixation of nitrogen occurs in two ways as
follows; b. Non symbiotic bacteria
 Fixation by nitrogen fixing bacteria found in This is free living bacteria found in the soil.
root nodules of leguminous plants in the soil. Examples are Azotobacter and Clostridium
 Fixation by lightning (this occurs through bacteria found in the soils. Some non – symbiotic
oxidation of nitrogen). bacteria are found in algae such as Nostoc and
Anabaena found in water logged soils. The
Types of nitrogen fixing bacteria diagram below summarizes the circulation of
Nitrogen fixing bacteria is classified into two nitrogen in an ecosystem.
based on habitat.

Fig 1.7: The nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen in the atmosphere is absorbed by  Nitrogen dioxide dissolves in raindrops

bacteria and use it to make proteins. The forming nitrous acid and then nitric acid.
following process recycles nitrogen back into the Nitric acid enters the soil and combines with
atmosphere; metallic ions of salts to form nitrites and
 The symbiotic bacteria in the root nodules nitrates.
pass the nitrates directly to plants. The free  Plants absorb the nitrates and use nitrogen to
living bacteria releases nitrates into the soil form amino acid, which build up into plant
when they die. proteins. When these proteins are eaten by
 During heavy rains with lightning and animals, they are first broken down into
thunderstorms, energy of lightning causes amino acids and then assimilated to form
some oxygen to react with nitrogen and splits animal proteins.
nitrogen molecule to form nitrogen dioxide  After the process of excretion in animals,
(NO2). excess amino acids eventually form ammonia
and urea.

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 When ammonia gets into the soil, it combines 1.4.2. The Carbon cycle
with water and other elements to form This is the flow of carbon through the
ammonium salts. These ammonium salts are atmosphere, oceans, soil and in the communities
then converted to nitrates by bacteria. of living organisms. Carbon exists in form of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The
When plants and animals die, they undergo a
atmosphere contains 0.03% carbon dioxide.
process known as putrefaction. This is a
Carbon dioxide is also found dissolved in water.
decomposition of plant and animal remains with
 Carbon enters the bodies of plants as
the aid of saprophytic bacteria and fungi. This
producers through the process of
process breaks down complex proteins into
photosynthesis. Glucose which contains
simpler compounds like ammonia. The proteins
carbon atoms is used to make other complex
are used for repair and formation of body
organic substances.
tissues. The process of converting ammonium
 Movement of food substances from one
compounds to nitrates is called nitrification.
consumer to another result in movement of
Bacteria called nitrifying bacteria carry out the
carbon. Carbon is taken in glucose from one
process. These bacteria include:
trophic level to another. The figure below
 Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus (nitrate summarises carbon cycle.
bacteria)
They convert ammonium compounds to nitrates.

 Nitrobacter
These are ammonium bacteria that convert
nitrites to nitrates.

The nitrogen removed from the atmosphere is

recycled back into the atmosphere through the
following ways;

 Some soil bacteria called denitrifying

Carbon is recycled back into the atmosphere in
bacteria found in poorly aerated soils and
the following ways:
swamps, convert nitrates, ammonia and
ammonium salts to nitrogen gas. Such a. Respiration
bacteria deplete nitrates in the soil making it In animals, glucose is burned up to release
less fertile. Examples of denitrifying carbon dioxide as a by-product. This releases
bacteria include Theobacillus denitrificans carbon dioxide which carries carbon back into
and Pseudomonas denitrificans. the atmosphere.
 When the plants are burned, some nitrogen
from ammonia escapes into the atmosphere b. Decomposition
through the process called volatilization. All living organisms die, as they decompose,
 Volcanic activities release trapped nitrogen carbon dioxide is released back into the
back into the atmosphere. atmosphere.
 When plants and animals die, they release
c. Combustion
nitrogen back into the atmosphere in form of
Combustion is the burning of fuels either in
ammonium compounds.
presence of oxygen or in absence of oxygen. All
these processes release carbon in form of carbon

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dioxide, carbon monoxide or carbon. The Liquid water from bodies of living organisms,
activities that release carbon dioxide into the the earth’s surface and to large extent, from
atmosphere include: water bodies heats up and vaporizes (gaseous
 Fires state).
 Use of fuels in homes for cooking.
 Heating and burning fossil fuels e.g. in b. Condensation
In the atmosphere, the water in gaseous state
vehicles engines.
cools and changes into solid state forming
 Use of limestone in industries. Limestone is
clouds.
formed in seas and oceans where carbon
dioxide combines with calcium to form c. Precipitation
limestone (calcium carbonate) When the temperature rises, condensed water is
 Gases of carbon locked up below earth’s released to fall back to the earth in form of
surface are released into atmosphere rainfall. This is called precipitation. Rainfall
through volcanic eruptions. returns large amount of water to the earth
surface.
1.4.3. Water cycle
This is the continuous flow of water from the d. Infiltration
atmosphere in form of precipitation to the earth This is penetration of water into the soil. Water
surface, to water bodies and then released back flows in the soil in the process called
into the atmosphere in form of vapour. The percolation. When the conditions underground
whole process is called hydrological cycle. The are saturated with water, some water comes out
cycle involves the following processes: to form rivers, springs and wells. Water from
rivers, surface runoff and springs is directed to
a. Evaporation
large water bodies such as lakes and seas. The
figure below illustrates a water cycle.

Fig 1.8: The hydrological cycle

These are abiotic (non–living) factors such as

1.5. Components of an ecosystem soil, water, temperature, light, atmospheric
An ecosystem is a self – sustaining unit in nature, pressure and others. They influence how
where all communities interact with each other. organisms live.
An ecosystem is made up of three components,
which include: b) Plant communities
This includes all organisms that make their own
a) Physical factors food through the process of photosynthesis and
they are called autotrophs. Plant communities

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use light energy and simple compounds such as c) Oxygen concentration
carbon dioxide, water and mineral salts to make The concentration of oxygen in water determines
food. the distribution of organisms in water. On the
mountains, increase in height results in reduced
c) Animal communities availability of oxygen hence variation in the
They include all organisms (animals) that cannot organisms found in those areas.
carry out the process of photosynthesis. They
obtain food from plants and other organisms. d) Temperature
They are called heterotrophs. Animal In hot areas such as deserts, the organisms are
communities can be divided into groups based on very few due to high temperature. The organisms
how they obtain food and these include; are many where temperatures are moderate since
i. Herbivores – They obtain food by feeding enzymes in the bodies are more active than under
on plants directly. Examples include high or low temperature.
caterpillars, grasshoppers, mice, cattle,
goats etc. e) Light
ii. Carnivores – These are animals that Autotrophs use light from the sun which is
obtain food by feeding on flesh from other necessary to split water molecule in the process
of photosynthesis. Light energy converted to
animals directly. Examples include
chemical energy is transferred to heterotrophs.
spiders, sharks, leopards, chameleon, lions
Light intensity affects the type and distribution of
and many others.
organisms in an ecosystem.
iii. Omnivores – Animals that obtain food
from both plants and animal flesh. They f) Atmospheric pressure
include humans, pigs, ducks, fish, Atmospheric pressure affects the amount of
chickens and many others. oxygen in the air. At sea level, air pressure is
iv. Parasites – They obtain both food and high. Air is compressed and has more oxygen
shelter from the body of the host and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. In high
organism. Examples are ticks, fleas, altitudes such as mountains, air pressure is low.
tapeworms etc. The air is compressed and less oxygen and
carbon dioxide available for respiration and
1.6. Effects of physical factors on
photosynthesis respectively.
organisms
g) Wind
a) Soil Wind affects environmental factors such as
It is the natural covering of the earth’s surface. It temperature and humidity. It is important in fruit
is also known as edaphic factor. It affects an and seed dispersal. Wind speed and direction
ecosystem in the following ways: influences migration of insects and birds. Moist
i. Habitat for animals wind bring rainfall to terrestrial habitants hence
ii. Site for plant growth encourages growth of plants.
iii. Food
h) Salinity
b) Water This is degree of salt concentration in water.
Availability of water determines the type, Aquatic habitats are divided into three according
distribution and abundance of organisms in a to their degree of salinity.
given area. This is because, water availability i. Fresh water habitats – They have very
affects the type and amount of food produced by low salt concentration. They are mainly
an ecosystem. fresh water rivers, ponds and wells.

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ii. Marine habitats – They have high salt This includes the physical appearance of the area
concentration. They include seas, oceans such as slope, mountain ranges and water bodies.
and salty water lakes. The steepness of the land affects the plant
iii. Estuarine habitants – They are found at growth, wind velocity, and soil type. Steep slope
the points where fresh water rivers join makes the soil susceptible to erosion which
salty water bodies. Salt concentration varies causes land degradation. Flat land supports many
depending on tides. During high tides, lives due to alluvial soils that can support plant
dilution by rivers is less and so high growth.
salinity. During low tides, dilution is high
hence low salinity. Terrain also affects the type and distribution of
Salinity determines the type of organisms found animals in a given area. Some animals stay in
high lands while others stay in low lands.
in an ecosystem. For instance, tilapia fish is
found in fresh water habitats only while shark is
found in salty water habitats such as oceans.
Mangrove trees are found in estuarine habitats 1.7. Plant and animal communities in
only, while the Slavonia grows in fresh water aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems
environment.
1.7.1. Plant and animal communities in
i) Humidity aquatic ecosystem
This is amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. Lake Malawi is an example of an aquatic
Humidity affects the type and distribution of ecosystem. Lake Malawi is the 8th largest
organisms in an ecosystem. For example, freshwater lake in the world.
organisms like mosses and liverworts grow well
Physical factors in a freshwater ecosystem
in areas with high humidity. Other organisms
 Fresh water – water with very low salt
like termites and millipedes are also found in
concentration and relatively neutral pH
humid habitats.
(water in Lake Malawi is slightly alkaline).
j) pH  PH.
The pH is the measure of acidity or alkalinity of  Temperature.
an environment. Most living organisms can only  Light intensity depending on depth of light
survive within a narrow PH. If the soil is too penetration.
acidic, plants cannot utilize N, P, K and other  Oxygen concentration.
nutrients they need. When the pH of freshwater  Nutrient concentration depending on depth.
becomes highly alkaline, it leads to death of fish, Plant and animal communities in an aquatic
damage to outer surfaces like gills, eyes and the ecosystem inhabit a specific location. These
skin. High pH also increases toxicity of other include:
substances such as ammonia.
a) Communities in the shores and water
k) Mineral salts surface
Mineral salts determine the types of plants that The shores of the fresh water lake have deep
grow in a given area. This in turn determines fertile soils due to deposits. Light and oxygen are
type of animals to be supported by plants abundant. The shores of fresh water ecosystem
growing in a given area. attract plant communities such as;
 Sedges and reeds
l) Terrain elevation  Floating plants such as water hyacinth,
water relies and Slavonia among others.

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Animal communities on the shores of fresh Plant communities in savannah woodland
water ecosystem include: Earthworm, Leeches,  Different varieties of grasses, shrubs and
and Crustaceans, insect larva, water snakes, herbs that cover entire ground surface.
turltles, frogs and flat worms.  Variety of woody tropical trees such as
acacia, baobab and miombo woodland (e.g.
b) Communities in shallow waters Brachystegia floribunda, Dalbegia
In shallow waters, light and oxygen are readily melanoxylon, Khaya anthotheca etc.).
available but there is no soil for anchorage. Plant
and animal communities found here include: Animal communities in terrestrial ecosystems
 Planktons.  Animals such as snakes, desert mice,
 Water insects. camels, spiders and tortoise favor dry
 Fish. terrestrial habitats.
 Crustaceans.  Animals such as antelopes, zebras, hares,
 Water mammals such as whale and warthogs, elephants, wild beasts, among
hippopotamus. others are found in savannah grasslands.
c) Communities in deep waters  Elephants, baboons, chimpanzees,
Availability of light and oxygen diminishes. monkeys, great variety of birds such as
Very few species such as blue green algae, robin, cinnamon dove and other reptiles
crustaceans and some algae thrive. These waters are found in tropical forests. A variety of
are mainly visited by fish and saprophytic insects are also found in these
organisms that survive on the decomposing communities.
debris at the bottom of the lake. Deep waters are Animals can survive in more than one habitat
breeding grounds of aquatic animals such as fish. and often migrate based on the seasons of the
Some types of fish in Lake Malawi are Mpasa year.
and Cichlid.
Adaptation of plants to various habitats
1.7.2. Plant and animal communities in (adaptive features)
terrestrial ecosystem Adaptive features are the body structures of
Terrestrial ecosystems are composed of all organisms that enable them to survive in various
environments on land. They include the savannah ecosystems. Plants are grouped according to the
grasslands, the tropical forests, highlands and ecosystem they are found in.
bush lands. Savannah is any area that is covered
by grass, shrubs and woody trees. Hydrophytes
These are plants that grow and exist in water or
Physical factors in tropical savannah in very wet places e.g. water hyacinth,
woodland Vallisneria and Salvinia. There are three types of
 Presence of rainy seasons and dry seasons. water plants:
 Presence of fertile soils. 1. Emergent plants – The roots and part of
 Moderate temperature depending on terrain stem is under water while the leaves are
elevation. above water e.g. reeds.
 Humid conditions during the rainy season. 2. Floating plants – They float on the water
 Presence of rivers, lakes and streams. surface with roots in water e.g. water
 Adequate sunshine. hyacinth.
3. Submerged plants – The whole body is
completely submerged in water e.g.
spirogyra.

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 Adaptive features of hydrophytes to Fig 1.9: Hydrophyte plant showing aereynchyma
survive in their habitat tissue.
i. They have thin cuticle. They make v. Submerged leaves do not have stomata
absorption of water and mineral salts very and floating types have many on their
easy. upper surface.
ii. The roots are not well developed. These
Halophytes
roots are able to absorb water.
They are plants that grow in salty places such as
iii. Have special tissues called Aereynchyma
rocky shores, seas and sand dunes which occur
tissues with many air spaces in the stem
along coastal regions.
and leaf tissues. This provides large
 They have cells that absorb salt. They
surface area for gaseous exchange and the
create a higher osmotic pressure which
ability of plants to float (buoyant of
enables them to absorb water. Because of
water).
taking a lot of salt, they excrete excess salts
iv. They contain little xylem and support
from salt glands.
tissues. Aereynchyma tissues and the
buoyancy of water support them. Xerophytes
These are plants that grow in dry ecosystems.

Adaptive features of xerophytes to

survive in their dry habitats
i. The roots are more developed and go deep
into the soil. They have a high ability to
absorb water from the soil.
ii. Many xerophytes have large stems for water
storage.

Spines

Flattened sides
of stem
Fig 1.10: Succulent stem of Euphobia showing spines
iii. Some xerophytes have very small leaves
(spines) that reduce surface area for
transpiration.
iv. Some xerophytes fold their leaves to reduce
surface exposed to air. This reduces rate of
transpiration. See the figure on the right
side.

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 Fig 1.11: Rolled leaf of Murram grass iii. Light skin. This helps to reflect back light
(Ammophila) rays and prevent absorption of much heat to
v. Some xerophytes have hairy bodies to the body.
protect themselves from grazing animals e.g. iv. They store fat in their bodies. The fat is
Tridax procumbens. broken down to release metabolic water in
vi. Some have very few stomata located on the times of water scarcity.
lower epidermis away from direct heat from v. Desert animals have kidneys with long
the sun. Loop of Henle. This allows more water to
vii. Some xerophytes have life cycle that enable be reabsorbed hence less water is lost
them evade dry seasons. through urine.
viii. Some xerophytes have seeds that remain vi. Some animals burrow themselves into the
dormant in dry periods. soil during extremely hot seasons to
prevent loss of water. This is called
Mesophytes aestivation.
They grow under moderate conditions of water
supply and temperature. They develop into Adaptations of some selected animals to their
forests and grasslands. ecosystems

Adaptations of Mesophytes to their habitats a. Adaptations of camels

i. They have thin leaf cuticle. i. They can take water up to 120 litres
ii. They have broad flat leaf blades to during one drinking session. Therefore,
provide large surface area for absorption can stay longer without taking water.
of light and carbon dioxide. ii. They store fat in the hump. This can
iii. Mosaic arrangement of leaves exposes metabolize during drought to release
each leaf to sunlight. energy and water.
iv. Even distribution of stomata on both iii. Camel’s body temperature varies much
lower and upper leaf epidermis for throughout the day (34oC to 41.7oC). This
efficient gaseous exchange. prevents water loss when temperatures
v. They have thick transparent cuticles to are high.
prevent water loss. iv. They have wide feet so that they can
vi. They have a well-developed root system move on sand without sinking.
with long tap or fibrous root and root hair v. They have thick lips that are adapted to
cells for absorption of water. feed on desert thorny plants.
vi. They have ears covered with hairs even
Adaptation of animals to various habitats on the inside to prevent entry of sand
Aquatic animals are adapted to carry out gaseous when the winds blow.
exchange and move or swim in water while vii. Their nostrils can be closed to keep out
terrestrial animals are adapted to survive under blowing sand.
different terrestrial conditions. viii. They thick fur to provide warmth during
cold desert nights and insulation against
Adaptations of animals to terrestrial
daytime heat.
ecosystems
ix. They have thick leathery patches on the
i. Birds have feathers and wings for flying.
skin of their knees.
ii. Animals such as mammals living in cold
x. They have long strong legs that help carry
climates have bodies covered with thick fur
heavy loads over long distances. This also
for insulation.

12
 helps to raise the rest of the body away such as whales and birds. The following are their
from the heat on the ground. adaptations;
i. Their bodies are streamlined to minimize
Adaptations of polar bears drug.
Bears are mammals that live in very cold areas ii. Respiratory structures are modified for
under freezing temperature. These animals have gaseous exchange in water.
the following adaptations; iii. They have structures such as fins in fish that
i. They have long, stiff hair between pads aid locomotion. Aquatic mammals and birds
of their feet. This protects bear’s feet have limbs modified for swimming.
from slipping when walking on ice. iv. They have slimy bodies that make them
ii. The fur is hollow. This traps air inside slippery as they move through water and to
making bears buoyant in water when escape from their enemies.
swimming. v. Some fish have swim bladders that help them
iii. They have small and rounded ear lobes change their positions in water when either
that prevent water from entering into the sinking deep or rising nearer to water surface.
ears and freeze their eardrum. vi. Ducks have strainers in their mouth that filter
iv. They have a layer of fat under their foreign particles in food from water.
bodies for insulation during cold vii. Their eyelids are covered by transparent
temperatures. substance that protects them from damage
v. The body under the fur is black. This when fully submerged in water.
ensures better heat retention rate.
Adaptations of sharks to live in water
Adaptations of goats i. They have streamlined shape.
i. They have hooves with soft spongy inner ii. The body is covered with sharp scales
pad that enable them to climb high cliffs called denticles that provide protection.
with greater speed. iii. Sharks have cartilage not bones. The
ii. Their hooves are flexible like rubber to cartilage is flexible and lighter to provide
assist balance on steep surfaces. flexibility during movement.
iii. Hind legs have strong muscle to assist in iv. Their snouts are covered with sensory
jumping over greater distances. cells that detect electrical signals from
iv. They have four chambered stomachs that potential prey.
assist in regurgitation of fibres since they
rely on grass. Practice exercise
v. They are browsers hence can get feed 1. (a). Define sampling
from twigs and shrubs. This help (b). How are sharks adapted to aquatic
overcome grazing completion with other ecosystems
herbivores. 2. Figure 4 shows a diagram of a section of
vi. They have excellent night vision due to an aquatic ecosystem
rectangular pupil in their eyes.

Adaptations of animals to aquatic

habitats
These are animals that have features suited to
live in water. Examples include fish, mammals a. Construct a possible food chain from figure
4 above.

13
b. How is Tridax Procumbens adapted to Types of pollution
survive in dry areas? Give two points.
c. Differentiate aestivation from hibernation. 1.8.2.1. Air pollution
This is the addition of waste gaseous substances
1.8. Human interaction with the from human activities into the atmosphere.
environment
Organisms living in different areas interact with Causes of air pollution
each other and the non-living part of an  Industrial gaseous waste like carbon
ecosystem. When the population of organisms dioxide, Sulphur dioxide and carbon
increases rapidly, there is an impact on monoxide.
distribution of resources. There is competition  Combustion of fossil fuels such as oil,
for space either for settlement or cultivation, this petrol and wood that produce carbon
as a result lead to; dioxide and carbon monoxide.
 Land degradation  Leaded petrol that produce car exhausts
 Pollution fumes and carbon dioxide.
 Climate change  Soot released into the air from burning
fossil fuel.
1.8.1. Land degradation  Use of pesticides in controlling pests.
This is temporary or permanent lowing of the
productivity of land due to natural causes or Effects of air pollution
through human activities. a. Causes acid rain
This happens when gases such as carbon dioxide,
Human activities that cause land degradation nitrogen dioxide and Sulphur dioxide are
 Deforestation. The trees are cut down and released into the atmosphere. These gases react
the land is converted and used for other with water droplets from rain water to form
purposes. acidic rainfall of carbonic acid, sulphurous acid
 Poor farming practices e.g. use of heavy and nitric acid.
machines The acid rain damages plants, kills fish together
 Overstocking and overgrazing with their eggs. It also causes corrosion of
 Soil contamination with toxic and non- buildings made of limestone.
biodegradable.
 Mining b. Problems in animal respiratory
systems
1.8.2. Pollution Air pollution especially among people working
Pollution is the addition of substances to the in the mines fields, grain handlers and cigarette
environment in quantities that are harmful to smoke causes bronchitis and emphysema. Higher
organisms and destructive to an ecosystem. The concentration of sulfur dioxide causes problems
substances that cause pollution are called in breathing such as wheezing sound when
pollutants. Examples include toxic chemicals, breathing and shortness of breath. Bronchitis
noise from factories and vehicle engines, leads to the production of thick sputum which is
untreated sewage from homes, fertilizers from either green or yellow in colour due to pus from
farms and heat from nuclear plants. respiratory surfaces.

c. Causes greenhouse effect

The heat from the sun that reaches the earth
surface is has to be reflected back to outer space.

14
The gases such as carbon dioxide, water vapour into the outer space. This trapped heat causes
and methane are good heat absorbers. When their warming up of the earth. This is why these gases
concentration is higher in the atmosphere, they are called greenhouse gases because they act as
trap the layer of heat that could be reflected back a greenhouse. See the figure below.

Fig 1.12: Greenhouse effect

d. Depletion of the ozone (O3) layer  Lead poisoning in adults is due to
The ozone layer is made up of atmospheric gas inhalation of lead dust or fumes.
called ozone that surrounds the earth. Ozone is a Lead pollution can be controlled by use of
gas that has three oxygen atoms in its molecule. unleaded fuel for motor vehicles.
Ozone filters out harmful radioactive rays, which
are destructive to life. Air pollution by gases f. Photochemical smog
from aerosols such as form plastics called This is a mixture of air pollutants. Photochemical
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) react with and smog destroys chlorophyll in plants, injures lung
deplete ozone layer. This creates holes in the tissue and causes eye irritation in humans.
ozone.
Control of air pollution
When ozone layer is depleted, harmful UV
 Use of sprays that do not have CFCs.
radiation penetrates to the earth. This increases
 Fitting acid scrubbers on factory chimneys
the rate of skin cancer in humans, damage to
that release smoke to filter out acid gases.
crops and causes eye defects where the eye lens
 Fitting vehicle exhausts with catalytic
becomes opaque.
converters to screen any polluting gases
e. Causes lead poisoning from the engines.
Lead compounds added to petroleum to improve  Planting trees for carbon sequestration.
efficiency are released into the air and are  Use of biogas.
inhaled either directly or indirectly. Crops grown
1.8.2.2. Water pollution
along busy roads and highways have a high level
This is the addition of harmful substances such
of lead.
as toxic metals, pesticides and excess fertilizers
 Exposure to high lead levels for short
into water as a result of human activities.
period of time can cause permanent brain
damage in children. Sources of water pollution
 Exposure to low lead levels for a long a. Wastes and sewages from homes.
period results in weight loss, weakness and Decomposition of organic wastes such as
anaemia in children sewage into water bodies such as rivers
causes pollution.

15
  Decomposition of these wastes by Causes of soil pollution
microorganisms uses up oxygen in water.  Agricultural chemicals such as artificial
Aquatic species die due to lack of oxygen. fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides.
 Decomposition of these wastes release  Solid wastes. Examples include non-
nutrients into water. These nutrients cause biodegradable wastes such as plastic
rapid growth of algae referred to as algal containers and scrap metals
blooms.
Effects of soil pollution
Algal bloom has two problems;
i. Algae float on water and reduce penetration  Loss in soil productivity. The soil
of light for photosynthesis of organisms becomes unbearable for crops.
below water. Hence photosynthetic  Some of non-biodegradable wastes such
organisms are unable to carry out as tins can be breeding ground for
photosynthesis hence die. mosquitoes which spread malaria.
 Death of wild birds and other wild
ii. Decomposition of dead organisms uses up
animals that consume seeds from fields
oxygen. The enrichment of water bodies
contaminated with pesticides and
(e.g. lakes) with nutrients and its effects is
herbicides.
called eutrophication.
b. Wastes from industries e.g. breweries, Control of soil pollution
turneries, paper making industries. a. Using pesticides that break down into
c. Poor agricultural practices. harmless substances within a few days.
d. Spillage of toxic spills from tankers into b. Devise biological control measures of pests.
water. This method uses other organisms to reduce
e. Detergents from washing in homes and or to some extent eradicate the population of
hospitals. pests.
f. Hot water used to cool engines in factories. These biological control methods include;
i. Use of natural enemies of the pests e.g. use
Control of water pollution
ladybird to control spread of aphid.
 Treatment of sewers before discharging
ii. Use of genetic engineering. For example, the
them into water systems such as lakes and
rivers. production of pest resistant cotton to reduce
 Use of biological pest control. pest attack in cotton using genes from soil
 Encourage the use of farmyard manure to bacteria Bacillus thuringiesis. Bacillus
replace artificial fertilizers. thuringiesis secretes a protein toxic to
 Pit latrines should be constructed away caterpillars.
iii. Use of viruses and bacteria. For example,
from water sources to avoid water
moth, caterpillar and mosquito larvae can be
contamination.
destroyed by infecting them with a particular
 Avoid spillage of oils into oceans.
 Proper legislation to be put in place by type of bacteria.
government to avoid irresponsible dumping iv. Crop rotation. Planting different crops in the
of industrial wastes into water bodies. same filed in succeeding years.
c. Using biodegradable wastes for manure
1.8.2.3. Soil pollution making.
Soil pollution is the addition of harmful d. Recycling and re-use. This works as follows:
substances into the soil. Soil pollution is mainly i. Recycling. This is the re-use of the material
caused by agricultural chemicals and dumping of to make the similar new product or
solid waste into the environment.
16
 something different. Materials that can be b. Droughts
recycled include PVC bottles. The change in weather pattern and increased
ii. Re-use. The product or packaging material temperature has led to massive loss of water
is used for more than once in the same from soil, making crops to fail. Unreliable
system. For example, re-use of chips papers rainfall pattern has even made it difficult to
in packaging of purchased goods. Never predict time for planting crops.
throw them away.
iii. Incineration. This is controlled burning of c. Storm winds
some types of non-biodegradable wastes The loss of vegetative cover has led to the
such as plastic papers for soya pieces. occurrence of strong winds called storm winds.
This destroys houses, leads to soil loss due to
Other forms of pollution
a. Noise pollution wind erosion and increased rate of evaporation of
water from the soil.
b. Pollution by radioactive materials such as
nuclear wastes, nuclear bomb etc. d. Global warming
Greenhouse effect has resulted to warming up of
1.9. Climate Change
the earth called global warming. Warming up of
Climate change is the gradual change of weather
the earth has resulted in melting of ice caps
conditions in a given area experienced over a
leading to rise in water levels in seas and oceans.
minimum period of 30 years. The change of
This causes flooding in low lands. This also
weather patterns in a given area over a period of
affects the growth and development of plant and
less than 30 years is called climate variability.
animal communities.
Characteristics of climate change
 Rise in temperature of a given area above
1.10. How to mitigate climate
what has been experienced for years before. change
 Changes in seasonal patterns or the months a. Reafforestation and afforestation
when a certain season starts. Reafforestation is the planting of trees in areas
 Increased wind velocity and changes in wind that once had trees. The leaves of trees help in
direction for a given area. trapping carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
 Increased volume of water in water bodies at Afforestation is the planting of trees in areas
certain times. that had never have trees before. Tree species
that can match some inhospitable sites are
Causes of climate change selected.
1. Increased emission of greenhouse gases
such as carbon dioxide and water vapour b. Use of renewable energy
into the atmosphere. Renewable energy should be used to replace the
2. Clearing of forests to open up land for use of fossil fuel that emits greenhouse gas.
farming, establishing urban centres, mining
activities and construction.
How to adapt to the changes in climate
a. Use of improved crop varieties
Impact of climate change i. Use of drought resistant crop varieties
a. Floods such as cassava and sweet potatoes.
Increased temperature has led to increased rain ii. Use of early maturing varieties. These are
intensity causing heavy rains within a short crops that mature earlier and can escape
period of time. This leads to speedy runoff that the problem of water shortages at the end
causes loss of top alluvial soils. of growing season. Early maturity maize

17
 varieties widely used in Malawi include
SC 403 (Kanyani).

Topic review exercise

1. State two methods that can be used to
estimate plant populations.
2. Name three components of an ecosystem.
3. Students caught 64 grasshoppers in a school a) How many trophic levels are represented in
garden of area 32 m2 and marked them with the figure above?
nail varnish. They released them into the b) Sketch and label a horizontal bar diagram
same garden. After 48 hours, the students showing the numerical relationship in the
captured 60 grasshoppers in the same area of populations of the organisms in the food
which 12 had marks of the nail varnish. chain in the figure above.
a. Name the sampling technique used. c) State two changes, which could occur in the
b. Calculate the total number of food chain if all aphids were killed by the
grasshoppers for this area. pesticide.
c. Calculate the population density of the d) Suppose the amount of pesticide in birds and
grasshoppers. beetles were measured. What would be the
d. Apart from the technique used by the results? Give reason for your answer.
students above, name any other two 6. Below is a diagram showing one of the
sampling techniques. relationships that exist among organisms in
4. The figure below shows the recycling of an ecosystem. Use it to answer the questions
materials in an ecosystem. Use it to answer that follow.
the questions that follow.

a) Name the type of relationship shown in

figure above.
a) What do the letters E and F represent? b) State two adaptations of organism K to
b) Explain how the consumer would be survive in the ecosystem
affected if E was absent in the cycle. c) Explain briefly how organism K would
c) How would a worm using the soil as a be affected if the population of organism
habitat benefit the producer? M was reduced.
5. The figure below shows a food chain in d) Apart from pesticide application, mention
Newhope school garden where a pesticide one way of reducing the population of
was applied to control the spread of aphids. organism M.
7. Identify three ways through which Lake
Malawi can be polluted.
8. Explain how human activities have:
i. Led to climate change
ii. Contributed to land degradation.

18
2. PLANT STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Success criteria
After studying this topic, students must be able to:
 Describe plant structure and function.
 Describe the process of photosynthesis.
 Describe transport systems in plants.
 Describe transpiration in plants.

2.1.1.2. Distribution of vascular tissues in

2.1. Structure and function of plants the stems
All plants are composed of main three parts Dicotyledonous stem
namely; roots, stems and the leaves. These parts  The vascular bundles in dicot are arranged
are modified into structures that enable them to to form a ring. This is shown in the figure
carry out their functions. below.
2.1.1. Transport systems in plants
Plants need transport system to carry materials
from one part of the plant to another. Water and
mineral salts are transported from the roots to the
leaves and other parts of the plant. Manufactured
food is also transported from the leaves to other
parts of the plant. The plant structure is made up Fig 2.1. Transverse section of a dicot stem
of a vascular system that carries out this function.  There is definite boundary between the
This vascular system is composed of specialized cortex and the vascular tissues.
tissues called vascular bundles.  They have a cambium ring.
2.1.1.1. Distribution of vascular tissues in Monocotyledonous stem
roots  In monocot stem, the vascular bundles
There is a difference in distribution of tissues in appear scattered in the stem. This is shown
the transverse section of monocot and dicot in the figure below.
roots.
 In dicot root, the xylem (upper part of the
vascular bundle) occupies the centre where
it forms a star shape. The phloem (the outer
part of the vascular system) is found in
between the rays of the star. They are
arranged in a ring.
 In monocot root, the xylem and phloem are Fig 2.2.Transverse section of a dicot stem
arranged to a ring in which xylem tissue  They have no cambium
alternates with the phloem tissue.  There is no distinct boundary between the
vascular tissues and the cortex.
The common tissues to both the roots and the
stem are the epidermis, xylem and phloem.

19
 Vascular tissues in roots do not have pith while leaves while phloem is a tube that
those of stems do have. transports manufactured food from the
leaves to various parts where food is to be
Functional differences between the xylem and used.
the phloem
 The xylem is a vessel that transports water
and mineral salts from the soil to the
The internal parts of the leaf
When the leaf is examined under the light microscope, the following parts must be visible.

Upper epidermis

Cuticle Palisade cells

Xylem
Vascular bundles
Phloem
Spongy mesophyll cells
Lower epidermis

Guard cells Stomata Air spaces

Fig 2.4: The transverse section of a leaf

Adaptations of the leaf for photosynthesis vi. They have stomates. These are small pores
The leaf is suited to carry out its functions due to for gaseous exchange. The figure below
the following adaptations. shows the guard cells enclosing stoma.
i. The leaf has green pigment called
chlorophyll. Chlorophyll traps sun light
energy that breaks down water molecule to
release hydrogen ion and oxygen gas during
the process of photosynthesis.
ii. The leaf has broad surface. This increases
surface area for absorption of light and
carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
iii. They have a network of veins. The veins Fig 2.5: Guard cell
have vascular bundles (xylem and phloem) Gaseous exchange in a leaf through stomates
that transport water and mineral salts to the
During day time
leaf cells and distribute manufactured food
Two processes take place in the leaf during the
from leaves to other parts.
day. These are photosynthesis and respiration.
iv. Leaves have thin and transparent cuticle.
 The rate of photosynthesis is at higher rate
Thin cuticle reduces the distance across
than the rate of respiration. Due to higher
which the gases have to diffuse in and out of
concentration of carbon dioxide in the
the leaf cells. Transparent cuticle allows
atmosphere, carbon dioxide diffuses into the
light to penetrate easily into the leaf.
leaf through the stomates to be used for
v. They have air spaces. This ensures efficient
photosynthesis during the day. Once the
flow of gases within the leaf cells.

20
 carbon dioxide enters the leaf, it is Fig 2.6: The structure of plant cell
immediately used by the leaf mesophyll The parts of the cell and their functions
cells for photosynthesis. This immediate use a) Protoplasm
of carbon dioxide maintains the This includes all cell contents and material that is
concentration gradient for carbon dioxide released or taken by the cell. Different cell
between the mesophyll leaf cells and the contents perform different functions in the cell.
atmosphere. b) The cell wall
 During the process of photosynthesis, It is the outer most part of the cell. It is made of
oxygen is produced as a by-product. This tough cellulose. The cell wall has pores called
creates higher concentration of oxygen plasmodesmata.
within the leaf cells than outside the leaf. The cell wall is fully permeable and performs the
Therefore, oxygen moves out of the leaf by following functions.
diffusion into the atmosphere. i. Resists stretching of the cell.
ii. It provides firmness and fixed shape to the
During the night cell due to the presence of cellulose.
 There is no photosynthesis taking place
iii. Exchange of materials with the
during this time due to absence of sunlight environment due to the presence of
energy. Only respiration takes place in the plasmodesmata.
leaf. Respiration uses up oxygen to release iv. Protects the cell from bursting
carbon dioxide, water and energy. This
creates higher concentration of carbon c) The cell membrane
dioxide in the leaf cells than in the i. Cell membrane holds all the cell contents.
atmosphere and low concentration of ii. It normalizes movement of materials in and
oxygen in the leaf cells than in the out of the cell.
atmosphere. iii. It is semipermeable. It allows some
 Therefore, oxygen diffuses from the substances to pass through it and prevents
atmosphere into the leaf cells while carbon others.
dioxide (the product from respiration) d) Cytoplasm
diffuses from the leaf cells into the It is composed of all the cell contents except the
atmosphere. nucleus. The fluid and semi-fluid part of the
nucleus is called cytosol. Its functions are as
Mesophyll cell under electron microscope
follows;
The following are the parts of a mesophyll cell
i. It stores many dissolved substances like
examined under an electron microscope.
food nutrients, dissolved gases and
vitamins.
ii. Medium for chemical processes performed
by different organelles suspended in it.
iii. Organelles and insoluble granules of
various kinds are suspended in the cytosol.
e) Nucleus
This is large and oval shaped organelle made up
of nucleoplasm. It is enclosed by nuclear
membrane.
i. It controls all cell activities.

21
ii. It controls inheritance because it stores 2. Suggest the adaptation of mitochondria to
genetic material. its function.

f) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) i) Vacuoles

It is the network of membranes throughout the They are large in plants and centrally placed.
cytoplasm of the cell. The membranes have They are filled with cell sap. They are very tiny
canals or channels. in animals and located at the periphery. Their
There are two types of Endoplasmic Reticulum. functions include;
 Rough ER. Ribosomes attached to their i. Holding the plant up right
surface. ii. Storage of amino acids, salts and waste
 Smooth ER. Ribosomes not attached to products.
their surface iii. Elimination of excess water and waste
ER membranes are in continuous with the outer products.
nuclear membrane. j) Golgi body (Golgi complex)
The functions of ER include: i. It is responsible for sorting and correctly
i. Protein synthesis by rough ER. distributes the proteins produced by ER.
ii. Transportation of proteins by rough ER Each protein is sent to specific site for formation
iii. Lipid synthesis by smooth ER. of tissues of that particular site. If the Golgi
iv. Detoxification of harmful substances by complex makes a mistake in shipping a protein to
smooth ER. the right address, certain functions in the body
may stop.
g) Ribosomes Just like postal packages which should have a
They are small, spherical organelles. Some correct postal address, the proteins produced in
ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm, but most ER should be correctly sent to their respective
are attached to endoplasmic reticulum. addresses.
i. Ribosomes synthesize proteins.
k) Chloroplast
h) Mitochondria
Chloroplast is found in plant cells only. They
These are oval shaped organelles. They have
contain green pigment called chlorophyll. Inside
fluid-filled matrix. Between two membranes is
each chloroplast are discs pilled on each other
the intermembrane space. The inner membrane
like a pile of coins. One granum is connected to
is elaborately folded with shell-like cristae
another granum by intergranal lamellae. The
projecting into the matrix. These folds increase
remaining part is filled with fluid called stroma.
the surface area for the process of respiration.
Stroma contains enzymes that adapt chloroplast
to its function of photosynthesis. See the figure
below.

Fig 2.7: The structure of the mitochondrion

i. Mitochondria are the site for respiration.
The process releases energy for the
cellular activities.
Activity
1. In the figure above, identify and label
Fig 2.8: Internal structure of a chloroplast
matrix, cristae, intermembrane space, outer
membrane and inner membrane.
22
 2.2. Photosynthesis as a by-product. Water and carbon dioxide are
Photosynthesis is defined as the chemical process the raw materials while sunlight energy and
where water combines with carbon dioxide in the chlorophyll are the necessary conditions. This
presence of sunlight energy and chlorophyll to can be summarized in form of word and
produce glucose as the main product and oxygen chemical equations as follows:
Word equation
Sunlight
Carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen
Chlorophyll
Chemical equation
Sunlight
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll
The process of photosynthesis takes place in two stages; the light stage and the dark stage.

The light stage (photochemical stage)

It takes place in the grana of the chloroplast. This stage uses energy from the sun. Light energy is used in
two ways;
i. Splitting water molecule into hydrogen ions and oxygen. This is known as photolysis. Some of
the oxygen produced is used for respiration within the leaf and excess oxygen is released into the
atmosphere. The hydrogen ion is used in the dark stage.
Sunlight
2H2O 4H+ + O2
Water hydrogen ion oxygen
ii. Some trapped sunlight energy is converted to Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for storage. The ATP
is used in the dark stage.

The dark stage (carbon stage)

The dark stage of photosynthesis takes place in the stroma of chloroplast. The dark stage also takes place
as the light stage is taking place only that dark stage does not need light.

The hydrogen ion produced in light stage combines with carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to produce
glucose. This manufacture of glucose from carbon dioxide is called carbon dioxide fixation. This process
uses energy stored as ATP during light stage. Dark stage can be summarized in form of equation as
follows;
ATP
CO2 + 4 H+ (CH2O) 6 + H2O
Carbon dioxide hydrogen ion glucose water

Functions of glucose produced from the 1. Respiration

process of photosynthesis Glucose is burned up in body cells during the
Glucose is the basic organic food substance. process of respiration to release energy.
After the process of photosynthesis, the glucose
2. Formation of cellulose
produced is utilized by the plant in the following
Some glucose is converted into hard and
ways.
complex material called cellulose. Cellulose is
used in cell wall formation.
23
 3. Formation of proteins 5. Converted into lipids
Glucose combines with nitrates to form proteins. Lipids are stored in plant tissues like the
Proteins are essential for repair and formation of endosperm of seeds.
tissues.
The functions of mineral elements in
4. Storage plant growth and photosynthesis
Excess glucose produced in the leaf is converted Functions of the minerals in plants during the
to starch and stored in plant tissues for future process of photosynthesis are summarized in the
use. Some glucose combines with fructose to table below.
form sucrose. Sucrose is stored in stems such as
sugarcane.
Table 2.1. The summary of mineral elements to plants during photosynthesis
Mineral Element Functions
Nitrogen  Combines with glucose to form amino acids, which form proteins.
Proteins are the building blocks of plant tissues during growth.
 It is a component of chlorophyll molecule.
 It is also a component of nucleic acids that forms hereditary material in
the nucleus.
Magnesium  Forms the structure of chlorophyll molecule.
 Involved in the formation of ribosomes.
 Activates numerous enzymes.
Iron  Involved in the formation of chlorophyll.
 Activates chemical reactions in plants.
Carbon  It is the backbone of organic compounds.
Oxygen  Involved in the process of respiration that releases energy.
 It is a component of organic compounds e.g. Carbohydrates.
Hydrogen  Combines with carbon dioxide to form glucose.
 It is a component of organic compounds e.g. Carbohydrates.
Potassium  Regulates water absorption in plants.
 Activates enzymes that speed up the rate of chemical reactions in the cell.
Sulphur  Component of amino acids that form proteins.
Copper  Activates enzymes.
 Involved in energy transfer during the process of photosynthesis.

Leaf pigments Requirements

A pigment is any coloured substance found in  Green leaves, alcohol, filter paper, cellotape,
cells. Leaves have three types of pigments. Leaf beakers, water bath, mortar and pestle, glass
pigments are found in chloroplast of the cell. rod

EXPERIMENT Procedure
INVESTIGATING TYPES OF PIGMENTS IN 1. Collect green leaves from plants in the school
PLANT LEAVES compound.
Aim: To investigate the types of pigments found 2. Chop the leaves into small pieces and then
in green leaves crush them using pestle and mortar.
3. Place the crushed leaves into a small glass
beaker.
4. Add alcohol to half-fill the beaker.

24
5. Place the beaker into the water bath half- Then three other colours such as orange (yellow),
filled with water and boil the contents in the yellow and light yellow.
water bath.  The green colour represents chlorophyll.
6. Boil contents of water bath until the alcohol  Yellow, orange or red represents
turns green. This shows that pigments in the Carotene.
leaves have dissolved into the alcohol.  Light yellow represents Xanthophyll.

Importance of photosynthesis
i. Production of food (glucose) that
provides energy to living things.
ii. Production of oxygen which is also used
by organisms in the process of
respiration.
7. Remove the alcohol mixture from the beaker.
iii. Removal of carbon dioxide from the
Filter it into another small beaker.
atmosphere.
8. Cut the small long strip of filter paper about 3
iv. Energy stored in fossils of dead plants
cm wide and 10 cm long. Stick it onto the
that existed long time ago and those
glass rod using the Cellotape as shown
plants stored chemical energy obtained
below.
through photosynthesis.

2.3. Transport in plants

Transport is the process whereby substances
move from one part of a plant to another part.
Examples of these substances are water, mineral
9. Suspend a filter paper strip into a container salts and dissolved food substances. Transport
with the coloured alcohol such that the tip of system in plants is composed of structures called
the paper touches the mixture. vascular bundles. These vascular bundles are
10. Allow the strip to absorb the coloured alcohol xylem vessels and phloem tubes.
for about 30 minutes. Observe the colours
Structures of xylem and its functions
formed on the strip from the bottom to the
Xylem vessels are specialized tissues. The figure
top.
below shows micrograph of xylem vessels.
Questions
1. Which colour was first visible as the alcohol
was absorbed by filter paper?
2. How many shades of colour can be
observed on the strip?
3. Suggest the pigments that were represented Fig 2.9: Micrograph of xylem tissues
by each of the colours. Xylem is specialized to carry out the following
Discussion two functions.
The filter paper strip absorbs the coloured i. To transport water and mineral salts.
alcohol. The absorbed substances rose up the ii. To provide support to the plant.
paper forming different shades of colours. The
first and prominent colour to appear was green.

25
Types of cells in the xylem vessels  They have pits (pores) through which water
a) Tracheids passes from one tracheid to another
They are empty dead cells. They are well
elongated with tapering end walls. They have no Structures of phloem tube and their
cellular contents that make it easier for water to functions
move through them. They have lignin that Phloem tube transports manufactured food from
strengthens their bodies. They have pits in their leaves to the rest of the plant. The figure below
walls. The figure below shows a tracheid. shows the structure of phloem.

Fig 2.10: Tracheid cell of the xylem

b) Vessel elements
These are long tubes that run from roots to the
leaves of a plant. Several vessels are found side Fig 2.12: Structure of the phloem
by side. They are dead and do not have cell
contents as well. Lignin re-enforces their walls. Types of phloem tissues
See the figure below.
a) Sieve tubes
 They are made up of cells called sieve
elements arranged end to end with each
other.
 They are separated from each other by
sieve plates. Sieve plates have perforations
in them.
 Sieve tubes in phloem are made up of
living tissues.
 They have fine cytoplasmic strands that run
through from one element to another.
 The cytoplasm of sieve elements has no
nucleus and several other organelles.
Fig 2.11: Vessel element b) Companion cells
 Sieve elements are accompanied by a cell
Adaptations of xylem vessels to its functions
 Have cavities with no cell contents. This called a companion cell.
ensures that water and mineral salts flow  Companion cell has dense cytoplasm,
through them easily. prominent nucleus and many other
 They are lignified. This ensures that plant is organelles.
well supported and do not collapse even if
they do not contain water.
26
Adaptations of phloem to perform its function above the cut ring is noted. The swelling is due
i. They have sieve tubes with fine to accumulation of food substances that fail to
cytoplasm and absence of other pass from the leaves across the debarked part of
organelles. This ensures efficient flow of the stem to the lower parts of the tree. The
dissolved food substances. debarked tree eventually dies. This method is
ii. They have companion cell with dense used to kill unwanted trees in the forest
cytoplasm into which food substances can
be dissolved and easily transported in
solution form.
iii. The sieve plates are perforated allowing
sieve tubes to pass through them.

Bark ringing
This is the process where the part of the bark
around the tree trunk is removed. It is also called
debarking. When the bark is removed, the Fig 2.13: Swollen tissue above the cut part of the
phloem beneath the bark is also removed. This tree.
removes the part through which food passes
through. After 4 – 5 several weeks, a swelling Structural and functional differences between
xylem and phloem

Structural differences
Xylem Phloem

They are made of dead tissues. They are made of living tissues.
They have no cross walls. They have cross walls perforated into pores.
Walls are lignified. Walls are not lignified.
Made of hollow tubes. Made of sieve elements with cellular contents.

Functional differences

Xylem Phloem
i. Transports manufactured food substances
i. Transports water and mineral salts from the leaves to all other of parts plant

ii. It also provides support to the plant

manufactured food substrates from one sieve
Translocation tube to another through the sieve pores. Food
Translocation is the process whereby molecules stream over the cytoplasmic streaming
manufactured food substances are transported by from one sieve tube to the next. Companion cell
phloem from the leaf cells and the storage tissues of the phloem has mitochondria that provide
to all other parts of the plant. Food substances energy for the process of active transport.
move from the leaf cells into the sieve tubes by
active transport. As the substrates accumulate Physiological processes by which substances
in the sieve tubes of the phloem in the veins of move in and out the cells
leaves, water is drawn from adjacent cells. This a) Diffusion
water increases the hydraulic pressure in the Diffusion is the movement of particles of a
tubes. This results in movement of the substance from a region of high concentration to

27
a region of low concentration. This process takes 2. Evaporation of water from the plant during
place only if there is a difference in transpiration.
concentration between two regions. The b) Osmosis
difference in concentration between the two Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules from
regions is called concentration gradient. When the region of higher water concentration to the
the concentration is of the particles of a region of low water concentration across a
substance, it is called diffusion gradient. This is semipermeable membrane. This is an example of
an example of passive transport because passive transport because particles move along
particles move along their concentration their concentration gradient. Carry out the
gradient. For instance atoms, of oxygen move following activity to learn about osmosis.
from leaves into the atmosphere during the day.
EXPERIMENT
Factors affecting the rate of diffusion DEMONSTRATING OSMOSIS IN A LIVING
i. Temperature TISSUE USING POTATO TUBER
The rate of diffusion increase when the
surrounding temperature increases. This is Aim: To demonstrate osmosis in a living tissue
because, the increase in temperature causes an using potato tuber
increase in the kinetic energy of particles, and Materials:
hence particles move faster. Fresh Irish potatoes, strong salt solution, distilled
ii. Concentration gradient water, scalpel and large beaker or small basin
A greater difference in concentration of particles
Procedure
between two regions results in steeper
1. Take four pieces of large Irish potatoes. Boil
concentration gradient and vice versa. Diffusion
two potatoes and leave the other two raw.
is faster when the concentration gradient is
Peel all the four potatoes. You can also use
higher.
sweet potatoes.
iii. Size of particles
2. Cut off pieces so that they stand at least 6
Small particles diffuse faster than large particles.
cm high.
This is because small particles are lighter and
3. Cut and scoop out a deep hollow portion in
hence move faster than heavier particles.
their middle.
iv. Surface area to volume ratio
4. Pour the strong salt solution halfway up the
Lower organisms have higher surface area to
hollow portion in the first potato.
volume ratio. Volume ratio is directly proportion
5. Add distilled water in the hollow portion of
to the rate of diffusion.
the second potato.
v. Distance a particle has to travel 6. Add strong salt solution in the hollow
Particles are evenly distributed by diffusion with portion of the third boiled potato.
a short period of time when the distance travelled 7. Add distilled water to the hollow portion of
by those particles is small. the other boiled potato.
8. Mark the level of the salt solution using a
Significance of diffusion scalpel.
1. Movement of gases into and out of the Place the potato in the beaker or basin containing
plant tissues. distilled water and let it stand for several hours
then. Note the level of solution in potatoes.

28
Questions 2. Hypotonic solution: Is a solution with a low
1. Is the level of the strong salt solution still concentration.
the same at the end of the experiment? 3. Hypertonic solution: It is a solution of
2. Explain what happened to cause the change higher concentration.
in levels of the salt solution.
3. Compare these results with those obtained Significance of osmosis
when boiled Irish potato is used. i. Losing and gaining of water by guard cells.
This helps opening and closing of stomates.
Discussion ii. Involved in absorption of water and mineral
If the concentrated solution is separated by salts by plant roots from the soil.
semipermeable membrane from distilled water, a iii. Keeps plants upright. Plants become turgid
pressure develops. This force (osmotic pressure) when they gain water.
draws water molecules from the distilled water
into concentrated solution until an equally c) Active transport
(isotonic) concentrated solution is attained This involves the movement of particles from the
between those two regions. This will cause a rise region of low concentration to the region of
in the level of water in concentrated solutions higher concentration against their concentration
and a fall in dilute solution. In boiled potatoes, gradient. In this process, molecules and ions
the membrane has been broken, so no osmosis is move from the region of low concentration to the
taking place. .this means that there is hidden region of higher concentration. This process
pressure between two regions separated by requires the use of energy.
semipermeable membrane. This hidden pressure
Significance of active transport
is called osmotic potential.
i. Active uptake of mineral salts by roots
Types of solutions from the soil.
1. Isotonic solution: This refers to two ii. Transportation of manufactured food.
solutions that have attained the same iii. Storage of substances in tissues such as
concentration. tubers, seeds and fruits.
Difference between passive transport (diffusion and osmosis) and active transport
Passive transport (diffusion and osmosis) Active transport
i. Particles move from the region of higher i. Particles move from the region of lower
concentration to the region of lower concentration to the region of higher
concentration concentration
ii. Energy is not required ii. Energy is required to move the particles.

29
 2.4. Transpiration
Transpiration is the loss of water from the plant mainly through leaf surface as water vapour. Water is
produced in the leaf during the process of respiration. The figure below can be used to show that water is
lost during the process of transpiration.

SUN
Transparent
plastic bag
Potted plant
Anhydrous cobalt
chloride paper
Pot

Fig 2.14: A plant with leaves showing transpiration taking place

The anhydrous cobalt chloride paper is used to The continuous flow of water from the xylem
confirm that the liquid collected in the inside through the mesophyll cells and out of the
surface of the bag is water. If the anhydrous stomates is called transpiration stream. Water
cobalt chloride paper which is blue turns pink, moves by osmosis from low solute concentration
then the liquid collected is water. in the soil to high concentration in the root hair
vacuole. When root hair is dilute water moves
When water vapour in the atmosphere is at lower further into more solute concentrated cells of the
concentration than vapour in the air spaces of the cortex. This creates high osmotic pressure in the
leaf, the water molecules will evaporate and cortex cells; hence, xylem in the root draws
move out of the leaf through stomates. When water from the adjacent cortex cells. This results
water is lost from the surface of spongy in absorption of water from the soil through the
mesophyll cells, water is then drawn from the root hair cells forming a continuous stream of
adjacent cells by osmosis. This creates a sucking water from the soil to the leaves as shown below.
effect of water from the xylem. This effect is
known as suction.
Leaf

Fig 2.15: Transpiration stream

Forces that move water in the xylem to great cling to the surfaces of the tube. Water rises
heights faster in plant stems that have small diameters
a) Capillarity than large diameters. However, this force is not
This is a tendency of water to rise inside a enough to raise water up to great heights in tall
narrow tube. This is due to the ability of water to trees.

30
 b) Cohesion and adhesion Factors affecting the rate of transpiration
Cohesion is the ability of water molecules to a) Temperature
attract each other. This prevents the column of On a hot day, the temperature is higher causing
water from breaking. Adhesion is the attraction water molecules to heat up and become lighter.
between unlike molecules. Water molecules are This causes faster evaporation of water from the
able to be attracted to the walls of the xylem. leaf; this increases the rate of transpiration.
However, these forces are not enough to raise
water up to great heights in tall trees. b) Humidity
Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the
c) Root pressure atmosphere. If the amount of water vapour is
Water moves up the column opposing the pull of higher in the atmosphere, the air becomes
gravity due to the pressure that holds it. The saturated with water vapour. This increases the
pressure that holds up water column against the concentration of water in the atmosphere. This
pull of gravity is called root pressure. This retards the process of osmosis that moves water
pressure is caused by accumulation of solutes in from the leaf. This reduces the rate of
the xylem of roots. Root pressure alone is not transpiration. On the other hand, when humidity
enough as well to raise water to the heights of is very low, higher water concentration is in the
more than one meter. leaf than the atmosphere, this facilitates the faster
evaporation of water from the leaf into the air by
d) Transpiration pull diffusion.
This process begins in the leaf and creates
conditions that cause water to be drawn all the c) Air movement
way from the roots in continuous stream. As In windy conditions, the rate of transpiration is
water evaporates from mesophyll cells, the cells higher than in still air. In a windy environment,
that lose water (cell B in fig 2.16) are more increased movement of air immediately blows
solute concentrated than the cells further away off any water drop that comes on the leaf surface
from air spaces (cell A in fig 2.16). As a result, from the leaf itself. This maintains concentration
water moves by osmosis from cell A to cell B. gradient between the leaf cells and the leaf
The concentration in cell A increases and water surface. The rate of transpiration increases with
moves by osmosis from xylem vessel to cell B. the increase in wind speed.
Water from cell B is drawn into the air spaces.
d) Light intensity
Light intensity is the strength of light received by
the earth’s surface. Light intensity affects
transpiration because it has an effect on the
closing and opening of stomates. Stomates open
when there is light. The rate of transpiration is
high when there is high light intensity since the
stomates open more. The rate of transpiration is
low when there is low light intensity. Stomates
Fig 2.16: movement of water from xylem through close in darkness, so at night very small amount
cells to air spaces in the leaf. of water is lost through transpiration.
Importance of transpiration
Generally, the rate of transpiration is highest in
i. Cooling of plants.
hot, windy, dry and when light intensity is high.
ii. Distribute mineral salts throughout the plant.
The instrument called potometer is used to
iii. Uptake of water

31
measure the uptake of water by the plant. The formula:
rate of water uptake is calculated using the
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑒 (𝑐𝑚)
Rate of water uptake =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠

Topic review exercise b. State the function of the part labeled A

1. Define the term transpiration stream. c. During day time, oxygen gas diffuses out of
2. The following organelle is found in plant the leaf, and carbon dioxide diffuses into the
cells only. Use it to answer the questions leaf.
that follow. i. Name the process in the leaf that lead to
the production of oxygen gas.
ii. Name any two conditions that are
needed for the production of oxygen gas
in the leaf.
iii. Explain why not all the oxygen produced
in the process named in 1(c).i. above
a) Name the organelle comes out of the leaf.
b) State one function of the organelle. iv. Explain why the diffusion gradient for
c) Identify structures labeled J, K and M. carbon dioxide exists between the
d) Describe the processes that take place atmosphere and the intercellular spaces
in structures K and M. of the mesophyll cells.
3. Figure below is a diagram representing 4. Seven equal pieces of potatoes were each
the cross section of the dicotyledonous weighing 2.0 grams were placed into six
leaf. different salt solutions. After 10 hours, they
were removed and then weighed. The results
are shown in the table below.

a. Name the parts labeled B, C and D.

Concentration of salt solution(g/l) Mass of potato after 10 hours (g)
In distilled water 2.25
40 2.10
80 2.00
120 1.95
160 1.85
200 1.75
240 1.75
a) Use the information above to plot a graph of concentration and the weight had
mass of potato pieces against concentration decreased by 10%. Use your graph to find
of salt solution.(4 marks) the concentration of the salt solution. Show
a. Use your graph to determine: your calculations.
i. The mass of potato pieces if the 5. Nitrogen is important element in the
concentration of the solution was 100 g/l synthesis of proteins which are essential for
ii. The concentration at which the two growth. Starting with atmospheric nitrogen,
solutions were isotonic? describe how this element is recycled in
b. Assuming another potato piece weighing nature.
2.0g was put in salt solution of unknown

32
3. VERTEBRATES AND INVERTEBRATES

Success criteria
After studying this topic, students must be able to:
 Identify the most abundant animals in a given area.
 Compare and contrast locomotory structures of birds, mammals and fish

3.1. Identification of most abundant animals

Invertebrates are animals that do not have a backbone. Generally, they are small in size and constitute the
greatest part of animals on earth. Examples of invertebrate animals include insects, annelids and
crustaceans among others.

Vertebrates are larger animals and less numerous compared to invertebrates. They include animals like;
mammals, reptiles, birds, fish and amphibians.

Examples of invertebrate animals

Characteristics of vertebrates
Vertebrates are animals with backbones. They have a common body structure modified for life in all kinds
of ecosystems. Vertebrates are modified into the following groups.

33
 Fig 3.5: A tilapia fish

(Copied from Excel and Succeed, pages 88 to 90)

34
 Flying squirrel
Phalanger flying

Tasmanian wolf Wolf

Fig 3.11: Examples of mammals

genus “Panthera” and its species name is “leo”.

3.2. Classification and dichotomous key Therefore, the scientific name for the lion is
Classification Panthera leo. The genus name should always
Classification means putting organisms in groups start with the capital letter. When the name is in
according to their similarities, differences, hand written, the scientific name should always
feeding methods and habitat. Grouping helps in be underlined separately (the lines used to
identification, makes is easy to study organisms underline the genus and the species names should
of the same group. Grouping uses devices called not be joined) for example Phaseolus vulgaris
identification or biological key. not Phaseolus vulgaris. If the name is typed, it
has to be in italics.
Biological classification
 Organisms are first grouped into very large Activity
groups called Kingdoms such as kingdom 1) Identify the genus and species name in the
plantae and kingdom animalia. following organisms
 Kingdoms are further divided into phylum a) Zea mays (Maize)
such as Spermatophyta. b) Homo sapiens (Human being)
c) Panthera pardus (Leopard)
 Each phylum is divided into classes e.g. d) Dalbegia melanoxylon (Phingo)
Angiospermae. The classes are classified e) Anzaza garkeana (Matowo)
further into orders such as f) Mondia whytei (Gondolosi)
monocotyledonous, dicotyledonous and
Rubiales. Dichotomous key
 The orders are divided into families e.g. It is a biological key used to identify organisms.
The key is arranged in steps. It is made up of a
mimosoidae family such as Acacia
pair of statements which are numbered using
polyacantha. Arabic numerals i.e. 1, 2, 3… Each pair of
 Each family is divided into genus such as statements in a step describes one feature of the
panthera and the genus is divided into organism.
species.
A dichotomous key divide a set of organisms
In biology, organisms are named using scientific into two groups depending on whether they do or
names that are agreed internationally. The do not have certain feature in common. For
example, a group of chickens, ducks, goats,
scientific name consists of two parts. The first sheep and cattle can be separated into two groups
part is the genus name and the second part is the using a feature such as feathers. Thus, animals
species name. For example, a lion belongs to the with feathers can be put in one group and
35
 animals without feathers would be in another iv. Postpone the organisms to the next paired
group. Then, animals with feathers can also be step using the word ……. see 2, or ……. go
put into two groups using a feature such as to 2 if the feature is present in more than one
webbed feet. Likewise, animals without feathers organism. This means that organisms with
will also be grouped using a feature such as those features will be differentiated in a pair
length of a tail. The process then continues until in step 2.
each animal is identified individually using a v. Read the first pair of descriptive sentence
specific feature or characteristic. and choose another feature that best
Guidelines in the use or constructing a differentiates specimen grouped in step one.
dichotomous key vi. At each step, one organism may be
i. Look at the specimen, photograph or eliminated and divides the organisms into
drawings carefully. two groups.
ii. Identify characteristics or features among If the key is already constructed;
organisms given in the diagrams or i. Read the first pair of descriptive sentence
drawings. and choose the one that fits organisms
iii. Describe one characteristic in a pair of given.
statement. If there is only one organism with ii. This sentence will have a number which
the feature described, identify it using its tells you which pair of descriptive
name or letter given sentence to read next.

Characteristics of different animals that can be used when constructing a dichotomous key
i. Wings viii. Scales
ii. Legs ix. Thorax
iii. Antennae x. Tail
iv. Body hairs xi. Tail like structures
v. Mouthparts xii. Body cylindrical (tubula)
vi. Eyes
vii. Feathers
Some features depend on the size of the structures named in the list above e.g. size of the tail.
An example of a dichotomous key

The dichotomous key

1) (a). Animals with wings .see 2.
(b). Animals without wings see 3
2) (a). Animal with antennae ………………………………….. ….Bee
(b). Animal without antennae ……………………………….. Housefly
3) (a). Animals with feathers ……………………………………….see 4
(b). Animals without feathers ………………………………... see 5

36
4) (a). Animal with webbed feet …………………………………….Duck
(b). Anima without webbed feet ………………………………Geinea-fowl
5) (a). Animal with a shell ………………………………………….Tortoise
(b). Animals without a shell ……………………………………see 6
6) (a). animal with a tail ………………………………………….. …Salamander
(b). Animal without a tail ………………………………………Toad

3.3. Locomotion in vertebrates Locomotion in fish

Locomotory structures in fish Locomotion of fish in water is by swimming
From figure 3.5, you may have noted that the fish which involves forward movement and control of
has fins. The fins help in controlling movement the body position in water as the fish moves.
of the fish in water. There are several types of Water is much denser therefore more difficult to
fins. Some of these fins are found singly move through. However, water provides a better
(unpaired) while others are found in pairs. Fish support for locomotory structures to push
use fins are structures for locomotion. against. When a fish moves in water, it is slowed
by two forces:
a) Unpaired fins i. Water resistance; this is the friction
 Tail fin – it is also known as caudal fin. It between water and the body of the fish itself
is located at the end of the tail. ii. Turbulence; formation of eddies and
 Dorsal fin – it is found along the back or irregular pattern of flow in the water.
the dorsal part of the fish. Water resistance and turbulence create slowing
 Ventral fin – it is also called anal fin. It is down movement in fish experienced in water
also found on the lower part of the fish. called drag. Locomotion in fish involves the
This side is also known a ventral side. following types of movement.
The dorsal fin and the ventral fin are sometimes 1. Propulsion
referred to as median fins. This is movement that pushes water backward
b) Paired fins and in so doing the fish pushes forward. This is
 Pectoral fins – these are found on the sides done by powerful muscles of the tail. The
of the fish near the operculum. muscles of fish that are arranged in blocks work
 Pelvic fins – they are found on the sides of antagonistically.
the body below the pectoral fins near the 2. Rolling
ventral line. The fish is kept stable and upright by the paired
fins such as pectoral and pelvic fins and median
The fish has also air filled sacs called swim fins such as dorsal fins and ventral fins.
bladder that are also used for buoyancy. In most 3. Pitching
fish, the tail of the fish constitutes about 50% of This is the change of the level of the fish in
the total mass of the fish. The size of the tail water. That is, ascend or descend. It is done by
helps the fish to displace more water as the fish paired fins (pelvic and pectoral fins).
moves in water. Its vertebral column is flexible 4. Braking
to allow efficient movement. The fish has also The movement involves the stop in forward
muscles called myotomes. These muscles on the movement. To achieve this, the fish spreads out
side of the fish contract alternately making the the pectoral and pelvic fins at 90o to the body.
fish to move side by side. The body of the fish is
5. Steering
streamlined shape.
Page 37 of 84
This involves the change in direction of the v. The body of the fish is covered with
movement. The fish uses the paired fins (pectoral mucus. This reduces friction between its
and pelvic fins). body and water.
vi. The fish has muscles called myotomes.
6. Yawing These muscles contract and relax to bring
It is the jumped movement in fish controlled by
about forward movement.
the paired fins (pelvic and pectoral fins).
Locomotory structures in birds
Swim bladder can also be used by fish to change Birds have four limbs. The forelimbs are
its depth in water. When the swim bladder fills modified into wings that are used for flying. The
up with air, the fish becomes lighter, i.e. more hind limbs are modified into legs. The legs of
buoyant. As a result, the fish rises in water. birds have scales and claws. The legs are used
When the swim bladder is deflated, the fish for hopping or walking. The body of the bird is
becomes heavier or less buoyant. As a result, the covered with feathers.
fish sinks deeper in the near ventral edge.
Types of feathers
Adaptations for locomotion in fish The feathers are external features found in birds
i. The fish has the streamlined shape. This only. There are four types of feathers that
helps the fish to cut through water include; down feather, flight feather, covert
rapidly. feather and filoplume feather. The first two
ii. The fish has swim bladders. These assist types of feathers will be discussed.
the fish to change its depth of movement
when need arises. 1. Flight feather
iii. The scales overlap facing backwards. They are broad, long and flat feathers. They
This arrangement allows the fish to move prevent air from passing through them. They are
through water easily. also used by birds in flight. Flight feathers are
iv. It has fins. The fins help in controlling also used as sex differentiator.
movements of fish in water.

Quill/Calamus After shaft Shaft Vane Barb

Fig 3.12: Flight feather
These are small fluffy feathers close to the body
of the bird. They trap a layer of air that provides
Adaptations of flight feather for its functions warmth near the body of the bird. They also
 It has a hollow quill. This makes the feather provide a cover to a bird.
to be lighter.
 It is broad and flat. This increases the
surface area for trapping air.
 It has a strong quill. This provides strong
attachment of feathers to the body.
2. Down feather

Page 38 of 84
 Fig 3.13: Down feather bird allowing it to gain height without moving its
Locomotion in birds wings.
Locomotion in birds involves four types of flight
movement; flapping, gliding, and soaring flight.

1. Flapping flight
This involves flapping of wings up and down.
The downward movement of wings is called Fig 3.16: Soaring movement
downward stroke or downward beat. The
upward movement of wings is called upstroke or Adaptation of birds for locomotion
upward beat. The downward beat is also called i. They have hollow bones. This provides
recovery stroke. Flapping of wings is controlled them with light weight for flight.
by muscles that hold the bones of the wings to ii. They have wings.
the pectoral girdle. The muscles are pectoralis iii. Birds have big muscles called pectoral
minor and pectoralis major. muscles. These muscles attach the wings
to the body of the bird for efficient
During upstroke, the pectoralis minor contracts. movement of the wing.
The wings are raised. At this time, pectoralis iv. The skeleton is rigid and firm for the
major is relaxed. attachment of flight muscles. Most bones
During down stroke, the pectoralis major are fused together.
contracts, the wings are lowered. Air resistance v. The birds have a keel. This is the sternum
to downward movement of the wings produces or breastbone of the rib cage. It is for the
an upward force that pushes the body of the bird attachment of the pectoral muscles.
upwards. At this time, the pectoralis minor is vi. Birds have streamlined body shape. This
relaxed. The figure below shows flapping flight. makes is easy for the bird to fly through
air with low resistance to air currents.
vii. Birds do lay eggs. This prevents them
from increasing their weight during
gestation period.
viii. Birds have no earlobes. This helps them
Fig 3.14: Flapping flight in birds to reduce air resistance during flight.
2. Gliding flight Adaptation of a bird’s skeleton to flight
The wings are out-spread and used as aerofoils. i. The skeleton is rigid. This forms a
The flight is used when the bird slides down a framework which is firm.
steep, narrow gully on a mountainside losing
ii. The bones are hollow. This reduces the
height and gaining forward momentum. The
weight of the bird.
figure below shows aerofoils in birds.
iii. The sternum or breastbone forms an
extension called the keel.
iv. The coracoid or collar bone is well
developed to transmit forces between left
Fig 3.15: Gliding flight
and right wings.
3. Soaring flight
Locomotory structures in mammals
The bird spreads out its wings to allow upwards
thermal air current or gusts of wind to lift the
Page 39 of 84
 Mammals are capable of movement by the use of
locomotory structures. These structures include;
a) Legs are found in most mammals. They
support the weight of the body as an animal
moves.
b) Flippers are modified limbs of aquatic a) Name the parts labeled A and B.
mammals such as the whale and the b) What type of feather is shown in
dolphin. These limbs are used for figure above?
swimming in water. c) Give two ways in which a bird’s wing
c) Wings are the forelimbs of some mammals is adapted for flying.
that are modified into wings for flying. The d) One of the forces which a bird
bat and flying squirrel is an example of a experiences during flight is drag.
mammal that flies. i. Explain how drag is caused.
Adaptations of mammals to locomotion ii. State how a bird overcomes
i. Presence of skeleton. The bones of the fore the drag during flight.
limb, hind limb or both are adapted to 3. The figure below is a fish showing some
locomotion. The bones of hind limb are external parts. Use it to answer the questions
always longer than those of the forelimb. that follow.
This enables creation of greater force to
propel the body forward.
ii. Mammals have muscles. The muscles are
strong and they are able to generate a great
force to move the bones during contraction.
iii. Presence of movable joints. Locomotion is
possible due to the presence of the hinge a) Name the fins labeled V, W, X, Y and Z.
joints and ball and socket joints. These joints b) Among the fins labeled, name the fins
allow bones to move freely to enhance faster that does the following:
movement. i. Causes the fish to brake
iv. Presence of tendons. These are tough ii. Changing direction of movement.
connective tissues that join the muscle to a iii. Produces propulsion forces
bone. iv. Prevents pitching
v. Presence of ligaments. These are tissues that 4. State four adaptations of birds to locomotion.
join a bone to a bone at the joint. This 5. What does Flying phalanger use their
ensures that the two bones do not separate. forelimbs for?
a) Mammals and birds. Some features
Topic review exercise belong to more than on group.
1. Give one example of each of the following: i. State the name of one vertebrate
i. Insect group which has the distinguishing
ii. Mollusca feature of:
2. The figure below is a diagram of a feather. Scales
Gills
Smooth moist skin

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4. HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Success criteria
After studying this topic, students must be able to:
 Discuss how enzymes influence the process of digestion.
 Describe structures that are involved in food absorption.
 Explain the role of the liver in relation to digestion.
 Discuss abnormal conditions associated with the digestive system

4.1. Digestive enzymes

An enzyme is any chemical substance that speeds up or slows down the rate of a chemical reaction.
Digestive enzymes are therefore chemical substance produced in the alimentary canal to speed up the
breakdown of complex food substances into simpler food substances that can easily be absorbed into the
bloodstream. The figure below shows the digestive tract.

Enzymes act on larger food substances such as 1. Saliva

proteins, starch and lipids causing them to break Saliva is a mixture of water, mucus, some salts
into simpler soluble substances that can easily be and the enzyme called salivary amylase which is
absorbed by villi through the walls of alimentary also known as ptyalin. The saliva has the
canal into bloodstream. They are then transported following functions
to all body tissues. i. Contains enzyme salivary amylase
(ptyalin) which breaks down cooked
Effects of enzymes on the end product starch to maltose.
of digestion ii. Contains mucus which lubricates and
Enzymes are specific in that they act on a moistens the food for easy swallowing.
particular food substrate to produce a particular iii. Contains salts which provide an alkaline
product. The digestive enzymes are found in the environment where salivary amylase
digestive juices that include; saliva, gastric work best.
juices, pancreatic juices and intestinal juices. Saliva is produced by the salivary glands such as
sublingal gland, submandibular and parotid gland
in the mouth. Saliva produce an enzyme called

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ptyalin that breaks down cooked starch in the iii. Softens or dissolves any bone that might
mouth to the disaccharide sugar, maltose. have been taken together with food.
Maltose is a disaccharide sugar that breaks down The walls of the stomach also secrete mucus that
further by other enzymes along the alimentary protects the stomach from being damaged by the
canal for end product of digestion to be absorbed. hydrochloric acid. Therefore, gastric juice,
2. Gastric juice hydrochloric acid and mucus are three secretions
It is produced by gastric glands in the stomach of the stomach.
walls. Gastric juice contains pepsin and renin.
Pepsin breaks down proteins to peptides that will 3. Pancreatic juice
further break down along the alimentary canal to This juice is secreted by the pancreatic glands.
produce the end product. Renin breaks down Pancreatic juice has the following enzymes.
milk protein called casein in children to i. Pancreatic amylase that breaks down any
caseinogen that will break down further along undigested starch into maltose.
ii. Trypsin that breaks down proteins to
the alimentary canal. The figure below shows the
peptides. It is released in an inactive form
stomach.
called trypsinogen and activated to trypsin.
iii. Chymotrypsin breaks down proteins to
peptides. Its inactive form is
chymotrypsinogen. Trypsinogen and
chymotrypsinogen are both activated by an
enzyme called enterokinase found in the
duodenum.

4. Intestinal juices
Fig 4.2: The stomach and the position of These juices or succus entericus are secreted by
pancreas and the liver the intestinal cell walls. The intestinal juice
The gastric juice also contains hydrochloric acid contains the following enzymes: peptidase,
which: sucrase, lactase, maltase and lipase.
i. Kills microbes in the food such as bacteria. The following table gives summary of activities
ii. Provides acidic medium for the action of in digestion in an adult human being.
pepsin. This enzyme works best under
acidic conditions.

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Special names of enzymes  Thermometer
Digestive enzymes are named according to the  Heat source
food substrates whose breakdown they catalyze.
Procedure
 Proteases – Enzymes that catalyse
1. Place 2 cm3 of each of starch solution into
breakdown of proteins e.g. pepsin.
three different test tubes labeled A, B and
 Carbohydrases – Enzymes that catalyse
C.
the breakdown of carbohydrates e.g.
2. To each test tube, add 1 cm3 of ptyalin
ptyalin.
enzyme
 Lipases – Enzymes that catalyse lipid
3. Immerse test tube A into a beaker with
break down.
cold water with ice cubes.
Properties of enzymes 4. Put a test tube B in a water bath
maintained at 37oC.
1. They are protein in nature
5. Boil the contents of test tube C to
Enzymes are made up of proteins.
temperatures much higher than 37oC.
2. Specific in nature 6. Test the contents of each test tube with
Each enzyme speeds up a particular chemical iodine and Benedict’s solutions. Observe
reaction. This is because, each enzyme has a and record the results.
binding site on its surface on which a particular
food substrate molecule which has a particular Discussion
In test tubes A and C, the solutions turned blue
shape can attach and fit completely. For
black with iodine solution confirming the
example, pepsin can only act on proteins and on
presence of starch but no change was observed
proteins only not other food substrates.
with Benedict’s solution. This indicates that
3. Enzymes work best within narrow starch was not digested in test tubes A and C.
temperature ranges This is because, in test tube A, the enzyme
Enzymes work best at a particular temperature. ptyalin was inactivated due to very low
Very high temperatures denature the enzymes temperature while in test tube C, the enzyme
while very low temperature inactivates the ptyalin was denatured.
enzymes. For example, enzymes work best at an
In test tube B, the solution turned from clear
optimum temperature of 37 oC in human beings.
blue to brick-red precipitate with Benedict’s
Carry out an investigation below to determine
the effect of temperature on enzyme activity. solution but no colour change with iodine
solution. The enzyme ptyalin was able to
Experiment 4.1 catalyze the breakdown of starch to reducing
Aim: To investigate the effect of temperature on sugar. In this test tube, the temperature was
enzyme activity suitable for the activity of the enzyme so
Materials: reaction took place. This shows that enzymes
 Starch solution work best at a particular temperature.
 1% ptyalin enzyme
4. Enzymes are catalysts
 Iodine solution
Enzymes are biological catalysts since their
 Benedict’s solution
presence speeds up the rate of the chemical
 Two beakers reaction in digestion.
 Test tubes

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 5. Specific PH are solids at room temperature while fats are
PH is a measure of acidity or alkalinity of the liquid at room temperature.
environment. Enzymes work best under a
particular PH. For example, pepsin work best 4.2. Food absorption in the small intestines
under acidic environment (PH 2.0. i.e. low PH Food absorption is the imbibing of digested
food substances from the alimentary canal into
values) provided by hydrochloric acid in the
the blood stream through the walls of the
stomach while ptyalin works best under alkaline
alimentary canal. Most food substances are
environment (high PH values) provided by the
salts in the mouth. absorbed in the small intestines. Some few food
substances and water are absorbed in the colon.
6. Substrate size
By the time food reaches the small intestine,
Very small particles break down faster in the
digestion reaction than larger particles. This is most carbohydrates have been digested to
because very small particles provide higher simpler sugars (mainly glucose), proteins to
surface area to volume ratio. The enzymes are amino acids and fats to fatty acids and glycerols.
able to move faster from within the particles. Most of these molecules are small enough to
For example, small pieces of liver can be broken pass through the walls of small intestines
through absorption which occurs by diffusion
down easily to release the end products than the
and active transport.
large particles of the same liver.
Adaptations of small intestines for absorption
End products of digestion
i. They are very long to increase the surface
Complex food substances are digested by the
area for absorption.
action of enzymes into simpler food substances
ii. They are highly folded which also
that an easily be absorbed by the body. These
increases the surface area for food
end products are the ones discussed below.
absorption.
a) Monosaccharides iii. They have thin epithelium which is one
Monosaccharides are the final and simplest form cell thick. This reduces the distance across
of digestion of carbohydrates. The following which digested molecules have to diffuse
monosaccharides are obtained from from the lumen into the blood stream.
carbohydrate digestion; glucose, fructose and iv. Epithelial cells have numerous
galactose. mitochondria that provide energy for
active transport of digested food
b) Amino acids substances.
Proteins are made up of long chains of amino v. They have muscles that contract and relax.
acids. The proteins are broken down into amino These movements help to mix up the food
acids. The amino acids are the soluble form of substances and the enzymes and expose
protein digestion. the food to the walls of the stomach.
vi. They have many finger-like projections
c) Fatty acid and glycerol
called villi. These projections are main site
Fatty acid and glycerol are the simplest and final
for food absorption. The figure below
product of lipid digestion. When one lipid
shows the structure of the villi.
molecule is digested, it produces three fatty acid
molecules and a glycerol molecule. The lipids

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 The rectum stores these faeces until powerful
peristaltic waves causes the sphincter muscles in
the rectum to relax and the faeces are released in
the process called defaecation.

Fig 4.3: Structure of a villus

The villus has a number of adaptations for
food absorption.
i. It has thin epithelium which is one cell
thick. This facilities diffusion and active Fig 4.4: The large intestine
transport. Two sphincter muscles control elimination of
ii. It has dense network of blood capillaries. faeces. When the rectum is inflated with faeces,
This ensures continuous supply of blood its muscles contract and the inner anal sphincter
which carries digested food substances to relaxes. The relaxation of the inner anal
the tissues. sphincter is not under our control. The
iii. It has lacteal into which large molecules of relaxation of outer anal sphincter is under our
food such as fatty acids and glycerols control. It remains in contracted condition until
diffuse. we decide to relax it defaecation.

Functions of the large intestine Assimilation of food substances

Large intestine is also called colon. It is 1.5 m Assimilation refers to the use of digestion
long. It is composed of caecum with the products for building new parts of the body. The
appendix, the colon and the rectum. They have following are the uses of each food substance:
no villi but contain mucus secreting glands. a) Glucose
The main functions of the large intestine are: i. Used in the process of respiration to
i. Absorption of water. This makes the release energy.
contents of large intestines to be more ii. Some glucose molecules combine with
solid. This is faeces. nitrogen containing compounds to form
ii. The mucus secreting cells produce proteins in the body.
mucus that lubricates the passage for iii. Excess glucose is converted into
easy movement of faeces. glycogen and some is converted to fats
for future use.
Faeces is composed of undigested roughage
b) Amino acids
material, dead cells from the lining of
 They assemble to form proteins. The
alimentary canal, unwanted mineral salts, bile
proteins are used by the body for the
pigments, living and dead bacteria. Some of the
following functions:
bacteria produce vitamin K which is useful to
i. Used to make chemical substances
our bodies.
such as hormones, pigments and
enzymes.
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 ii. They form various body tissues
iii. Some proteins such as globulin are
stored in the blood.
c) Fatty acids and glycerols
 Fatty acids and glycerols combine to form
fats. The fats perform the following
Fig 4.5: The process of deamination in glycine
functions:
molecule
i. Fats are stored in adipose tissue
beneath the skin. The amino group combines with carbon dioxide
ii. Fats break down in absence of sugar to to form urea. The resulting urea is taken to the
provide energy. kidneys via the blood and is excreted from the
iii. Some fats are deposited in membranes body in urine. An acid is converted into
surrounding internal body organs to carbohydrates that are stored for future body
provide support and absorb shock. use.
d) Vitamins
a) Combine with proteins and mineral salts to b) Transamination
form complex compounds required by the There are 20 amino acids that combine in
body. different ways to form long chains of proteins.
b) Fat soluble vitamins are stored in the liver. Some amino acids can be synthesized by the
c) Water soluble vitamins are excreted if body but most amino acids are obtained from
considered in excess. the diet. The process whereby the liver makes
e) Mineral salts amino acids that are deficient in the diet by
a) Minerals are used in formation of transferring an amino group from one amino
pigments. For example, iron combines acid to another substance to form another amino
with proteins to form haemoglobin. acid is called transamination.
This is done by transferring amino groups from
4.3. Functions of a liver in relation one available amino acid to an organic molecule
to digestion like sugar or an acid to form the required amino
The liver is the second largest organ in the body. acid. For example, amino group from alamine
It has several functions related to digestion. The can be removed and combine it with an organic
following are the functions. sugar to make glutamic acid.

a) Deamination
Amino acid is made up of amino group (NH2)
and acid group (COOH). From each amino acid,
the amino group is removed and converted to
ammonia (NH3). The removal of amino group
from an amino acid is called deamination. The
ammonia that is produced from amino group is Fig 4.6: Transamination
very toxic so it is quickly converted to less toxic c) Control of glucose levels
substance, which is usually an excretory product Under the influence of insulin, the liver converts
excess glucose to glycogen for storage when
called urea. The atructural formula below
blood sugar levels are above normal. Under the
illustrates the process
influence of glucagon, it converts the stored

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 glycogen to glucose when the blood sugar levels  Stress that result to over production of
are below normal stomach acids
Ulcers cause pains after eating hard meals.
d) Production of bile Contact between open tissues and stomach acids
The liver produces bile. Bile is passed to the causes burning effect. They also cause bloating,
duodenum through the bile duct. Bile is greenish nausea and loss of appetite.
liquid. It contains bile salts like sodium
bicarbonate and bile pigments. Bile salts do not Control of ulcers
contain an enzyme. They however, physically i. Taking diets with less acids and spices.
break down large fat droplet into smaller ii. Using anti-acid drugs to neutralize the
droplets making it easier for enzyme lipase in acid.
the pancreatic juice to digest them. The physical iii. Managing emotional stress.
break down of large drops of fats into smaller iv. Avoiding excessive use of strong
droplets by bile salts is called emulsification. painkillers.
b) Constipation
e) Storage organ This is a condition where an individual takes too
The liver stores; long before emptying the bowels. In severe
i. Fat soluble vitamins like vitamin A, D, E, K. cases, one may take up to a week before
ii. Water soluble vitamins such as vitamin B, defaecating. The faeces stay longer in the
C. alimentary canal making faeces to harden. It is
iii. Minerals like iron and potassium as a result as result of reduced peristaltic movements in the
of breakdown of old blood cells. alimentary canal.
iv. Stores blood. There are numerous blood
vessels in the liver as an adaptation of a liver Causes of constipation
to this function. i. Eating food with less fibre. For example
eating processed food for a long time.
4.4. Abnormal conditions associated ii. Lack of water in diet.
with the digestive system iii. Eating too much dairy products.
Human beings are faced with problems in their Symptoms of constipation
digestive system due to various reasons. These  Taking too long before defaecation.
problems are discussed in this section.  Difficulties when passing out faeces.
a) Ulcers  Pain during defaecation.
These are small wounds found on the inner  Swollen abdomen.
lining of the walls of the alimentary canal called Control of constipation
epithelial walls. Ulcers can also be found in the  Eat food rich in fibres such as vegetables,
gullet, the stomach and the small intestines. fruits and whole grains.
 Increase water intake.
Causes of ulcers  Do exercise to induce movement of bowels.
 Infections by bacteria that attack the
intestinal lining. c) Diarrhoea
 Over production of acids in the stomach. This is a disorder where an individual passes
 Use of some drugs such as painkillers. loose or watery faeces.
 Eating spicy foods that increase acidity in
the stomach. Causes of diarrhoea
 Food poisoning.
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  Allergy to certain food substances. Causes of nausea and vomiting
 Drug abuse such as the use of alcohol.  Some diseases such as typhoid and cholera
 Diseases such as diabetes, cholera and  Reaction to bad smells such as the smell of
typhoid. human waste.
 Motion sickness when travelling in the fast
Control of diarrhoea moving cars.
i. Treatment of disease infections using  Stress
appropriate antibiotics.  Food poisoning.
ii. Oral rehydration solution taken  Allergy to some food products.
frequently to replace lost fluids.  Coughing and cold.
d) Heart burn
This is the burning feeling on the lower part of Control of nausea and vomiting
the chest followed by a sour or bitter taste on the  Avoid heavy meals.
throat. It is due to the passage of acidic  Take drinks between the meals not after
materials from the stomach to the gullet when the meals.
the sphincter muscle at the entrance of the  Take sweet, non-acidic drink when having
stomach opens. a feeling of nausea.
f) Indigestion
Causes of heart burns The digestive system disorder where the food
 Over eating eaten takes long to be digested thereby making
 Eating too fast the abdomen to be overly full.
 Eating while lying down or bending
 Pregnancy Symptoms of indigestion
 Stress  Abdomen often over full.
 Eating and drink of alcohol  Accumulation of gases in the abdomen
 Drinking coffee and other carbonated hence causing inflating.
drinks.  Discomfort or pain in the abdomen.
 Eating acidic foods such as citrus, tomatoes
and onions. Control of indigestion
 Use food with low fat content.
Control of heartburn  Doing exercise.
 Avoid taking alcohol and smoking.  Use of anti-acids.
 Avoid eating too salty or spicy food.
 Eat when seated at an upright posture. Topic review exercise
 Avoid tress. 1. (a). Define the term digestion.
 Avoid carbonated and acidic drinks. (b). what is the role of hydrochloric acid in
the stomach?
e) Nausea and vomiting (c). what prevents this acid in 1b above
Nausea is uncomfortable feeling that comes from corroding the stomach?
before vomiting. Vomiting is a reaction (d). Name the enzymes produced in the
whereby muscles at the joints between gullet stomach and give their functions.
and stomach open resulting to food in the 2. (a). How does chemical digestion differ
stomach being forced violently back to the from physical digestion?
mouth. (b). i. State one feature that increases the
internal surface area of the ileum.

Page 48 of 84
 ii. What is the advantage of having a pepsin mixture
large internal surface area in the ileum? C
Egg white + 9 Cloudy
(c). state two functions of bile in digestion.
pepsin mixture
3. The table below shows the results of an a) What is the use of egg white in this
experiment on protein digestion at experiment?
different pH. The test tubes were set in b) If in setting up this experiment, 1 cm3 of
water bath at 37oC for 30 minutes. pepsin were added to test tube A, how
Observation much would be added to test tube B and
Test Tube pH After 30
minutes C? Give a reason for your answer.
A c) In which tube was the egg white
Egg white + 2 Clear mixture digested?
pepsin d) Describe an experiment that you would
B
Egg white + 7 Cloud
do to find out the optimal pH of the
enzyme in the table above.

7. Figure below is a diagram showing part of the alimentary canal and associated organs. Use it to
answer questions that follow.

B
Y

i. Which structures secrete enzymes that digest proteins?

ii. Name any two roles of the part labelled A.
iii. What role does the part marked Y play when the levels of glucose concentration in blood are
very low?
8. The figure below is a diagram of the apparatus that can be used to demostrate how nutrients are
absorbed in the wall of a mammalian small intestine.

a) After the apparatus was left for 30 minutes, starch and sugar tests were carried out on the water in
the test tube.
i. State the results of the starch test.
ii. State the results of the sugar test.
b) Give an explanation of the results in (a) ii above.
Page 49 of 84
 c) In what way is the visking tubing like the wall of the small intestine?
d) Explain why diffusion through the walls of the small intestine is more efficient than through the
wall of the visking tubing.
9. The figure below are graphs showing how enzyme activity varies with pH for three digestive
enzymes labeled A, B and C. use it to answer questions that follow.

a) i. What is the optimum pH for enzyme A?

ii. Under what pH range does enzyme B work?
b) Which enzyme A, B, or C is likely to work in the stomach? Give a reason for your answer.
c) In an experiment to investigate the effect of pH on enzyme activity.
i. State what factors should be changed.
ii. Name two factors which should be controlled.
d) Apart from digestion, name any two processes in the human body that are controlled by enzymes.

Page 50 of 84
 5. HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Success criteria
After studying this topic, students must be able to:
 Describe the human circulatory system.
 Explain the role of blood cells.
 Discuss the role of the heart in blood circulation.

Human circulatory system is the system that

moves useful substances like nutrients, water and
oxygen to reach all cells of the human body and 5. Defense against infections
White blood cells transported to sites of
also through which all waste substances in the
infections fight against the pathogens.
body can be moved from where they are to their
excretory organs. This system is composed of the 6. Transport of hormones
body fluids such as blood circulatory system, Hormones are transported by the blood from the
lymphatic system and the tissue fluid. glands where they are produced to the parts of
the body where they influence a particular
5.1 Functions of the human
response.
circulatory system
1. Transport of oxygen 5.2. Structure of the heart
Oxygen required for the process of respiration is The main function of the heart is to pump blood
brought into tissues by blood circulatory system. around the body. It is made up of special type of
muscles called cardiac muscles. Unlike other
2. Transport of carbon dioxide
muscles, heart muscle contracts and relaxes
The process of tissue respiration releases carbon
regularly throughout life because it never tires.
dioxide as a waste product. This waste product is
Cardiac muscles are also called myogenic, which
transported from all the cells by the blood plasma
means that contraction and relaxation are started
in form of weak carbonic acid to the lungs for
by muscles itself and not by nerves.
excretion.
The following are the facts about the heart
3. Distribution of heat
 Coronary artery is seen on the surface of the
Blood distributes heat throughout the body from
heart. This supplies the muscle of the heart
organs such as the liver where most heat is
with blood. This blood contains oxygen and
produced.
nutrients such as glucose for the heart
4. Transport of soluble substances muscle.
Soluble substances such as glucose, amino acids,  The heart is surrounded by the pericardial
vitamins and mineral salts are required for body cavity, which is filled with a cushioning fluid
processes and growth. These substances are called pericardial fluid. The function of this
transported from small intestines where they are fluid is to prevent friction between the heart
absorbed to all cells of the body where they are and chest cavity. Inner surface is surrounded
used by the blood. by a tough membrane called pericardium.
 The heart of a mammal has two upper
chambers called atria or auricles and two
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 lower chambers called ventricles. One contraction of heart muscle is called
atrium and one ventricle on the right hand systolic pressure.
side are completely separated from one iv. The ventricles relax to receive blood
atrium and one ventricle on the left hand side from the lungs. The volume of the heart
by a septum. Septum prevents the mixing of inside increases thereby reducing
blood from the right side and the left side of pressure inside. The blood is pumped
the heart. into the heart by sucking pressure
i. The function of auricles/atria is to created called diastolic pressure.
receive blood. Therefore, they have thin  The left hand side of the heart carries
walls because they do not need to exert oxygenated blood while the right hand side
pressure on the blood. carries de-oxygenated blood.
ii. The left ventricle walls are thicker than  Four flap-like valves prevent back flow of
the right ventricle walls because left blood inside the heart. Two of these valves
ventricles pump blood from the heart to are called atrio-ventricular valves. The one
all parts of the body; they need to exert in the right side is called tricuspid valve
pressure on the blood while right because it has three flaps. Inside the left side
ventricles pump blood to the lungs only. of the heart is the bicuspid valve or mitral
iii. Blood is pushed away from the heart valve. Aorta and the pulmonary artery have
when the heart muscle contracts. This other two valves called semi-lunar valves.
time, the volume of the heart is reduced. They allow blood to flow from the ventricles
The pressure inside the heart increases. into arteries and away from the rest of the
The pressure exerted on blood due to body. Below is a diagram showing the
structure of human heart.

Fig 5.1: Vertical section of the human heart

deoxygenated blood. It has high concentration

5.3. Role of the heart in blood of carbon dioxide and appears dull red in colour.
circulation This blood is then pumped into the right ventricle
The right atrium receives blood coming from the via tricuspid valve. When the right ventricle is
body tissues through the vena cava. This blood full, the deoxygenated blood is pumped into the
has very little oxygen and is described as pulmonary artery. Semi-lunar valves at the

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opening of this artery prevent back flow of blood
into the right ventricle. Tendons hold the valves
in a closed position preventing them from turning
into the atrium. The pulmonary artery carries
blood to the lungs. Fig 5.2: Cross section of an artery

In the lungs, blood is oxygenated and is bright iv. They have no valves.
red in colour. It goes to the left atrium of the v. Blood flows in arteries with high pressure
heart via pulmonary vein. The circulation of because of the force exerted by the
blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the pumping action of the heart. Pumping of
heart is called pulmonary circulation. blood can be felt on an artery if pressure
is put on it with a finger.
The left atrium pumps blood into the left vi. They carry oxygenated blood, except the
ventricle via the bicuspid valve. The left pulmonary artery. Blood in arteries is
ventricle pumps blood to all parts of the body bright red in colour since it is
except lungs. The blood leaves left ventricle oxygenated.
through aorta. Semi-lunar valves that open into vii. Arteries branch out to form narrower
aorta prevents back flow of blood. Circulation of vessels called arterioles. The arterioles
blood from the heart to the tissues and back is branch further within the tissues into finer
called systemic circulation. vessels called capillaries.
viii. Aorta is the largest artery.
Pulse rate
Pulse rate is the average number of heartbeats of
2. Capillaries
a person per minute. Normal average heartbeat of
i. They are numerous, smallest blood
an adult at rest is 72 beats per minute. Pulse rate
vessels with narrowest lumens. The
increases during a vigorous activity. Pulse rate
volume of blood in them is the smallest at
can be felt by putting a finger at the wrist, side of
any time.
neck, and on top of your foot.
ii. They are shortest blood vessels.
Structure and function of arteries, iii. Have very thin walls consisting of a
single layer of flattened cells. This
veins and capillaries
facilitates diffusion of useful substances
1. Arteries such as glucose, oxygen, and waste
These are blood vessels that carry blood away substances such as carbon dioxide. The
from the heart to rest of the body. Arteries have figure below shows the capillary.
the following properties:
i. Have thick elastic muscular walls to
withstand and maintain high pressure of
blood from the heart. They receive blood
from the heart.
ii. They have outer fibrous coat for strength
Fig 5.3: Structure of a capillary
and protection.
iii. They have narrow lumen (cavities) to iv. Form bridge between veins and arteries.
allow blood to flow with higher pressure.

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 bones. Figure 5.7 shows the shape of red blood
cells.

Fig 5.4: A capillary bed

3. Veins
These are blood vessels that carry blood from the Fig 5.7: The red blood cells
rest of the body to the heart. The following are
the properties of the veins. Functions of the red blood cells
i. They have thin walls since blood flow in i. Transport oxygen from the lungs to body
them with low pressure. tissues
ii. They have wide lumens (cavities). ii. Transport carbon dioxide in form of
hydrogen ions and hydrogen carbonate
ions. Carbon dioxide dissociates in blood
with the help of an enzyme called
carbonic anhydrase.
Fig 5.5: Structure of a vein
Structure and function of white blood cells
iii. They have valves at intervals. Valves White blood cells are larger, colourless and
prevent blood from slipping back so that fewer in number. White blood cells have a
it always moves forward. Exercises also nucleus. Their function is to fight against disease
help the blood to flow in veins since the causing organisms in the body.
contraction of the skeletal muscles
squeezes the blood along the veins. Types of white blood cells
Phagocytes
They have large lobed nucleus and a cytoplasm
containing granules. They are able to change
shape as they actively seek, engulf and digest
disease causing germs. They can squeeze through
capillary walls in order to reach infected tissues.
Fig 5.6: Valves in a vein
They are made in the bone marrow of long
5.4. Roles of blood cells bones. See the figure below.
Structure and function of red blood Cytoplasm
cells Lobed
Red blood cells are numerous tiny, disc-shaped, nucleus
biconcave and appear as discs which are thinner
in the centre than around the edges. Their Fig 5.8: A phagocyte
cytoplasm contains a red iron-containing pigment Lymphocytes
called haemoglobin. They have no nucleus. This They have large rounded nuclei and non-granular
provides large space for cytoplasm hence more cytoplasm. They are formed in the lymph nodes.
haemoglobin to be packed in them. Red blood They protect the body from disease by
cells are produced in the bone marrow of short recognizing foreign proteins and any chemical

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produced by germs in disease causing pathogens Take home message. Do not stay in poorly
that invade the cells. Lymphocytes respond by ventilated rooms because even small quantities
producing chemical substances called antibodies of carbon monoxide from burning charcoal can
to destroy the antigens. Figure 5.9 is the diagram cause death or suffocation!!
showing a lymphocyte cell.
The process of blood clotting
Blood clotting is the hardening of blood at the
site of damaged blood vessels. In the process of
blood clotting;
 The damaged tissues such as skin and the
Fig 5.9: A lymphocyte
platelets release a chemical called
Properties of haemoglobin thromboplastin (thrombokinase).
 It is protein in nature.  Thromboplastin converts a blood protein
 Contains iron in its structure and gives red called prothrombin to an enzyme
blood cells its colour. thrombin in presence of calcium ions and
The role of haemoglobin in oxygen transport vitamin K.
 It combines with oxygen from the lungs to  Thrombin once released changes soluble
form oxyhaemoglobin. blood protein fibrinogen into insoluble
 It leaves the oxygen to the tissues when the fibrin, a mesh of fibres which traps red
blood reaches tissues. blood cells.
Haemoglobin can also combine with carbon  Then the wound dries up to form a scab
monoxide gas to form carboxyhaemoglobin. which protects the wound, giving the tissue
However, carboxyhaemoglobin does not split time to heal. Vitamin K is needed for
readily to release haemoglobin. This prevents prothrombin to be formed in the liver. The
adequate supply of oxygen to the tissues. This figure below summarizes the process.
makes carbon monoxide a dangerous gas.

Fig 5.10: The process of blood clotting

a) Heart attack (coronary heart attack)
5.5. Abnormal conditions associated This occurs when blood clotting occurs in the
with the circulatory system coronary artery. It can be due to deposition of
This section will discuss some diseases and insoluble fat called cholesterol and calcium in
conditions which may interfere with the their walls. This hardens and thickens the arteries
functioning of the heart and blood vessels. as they age. They become less elastic forcing the
heart to work harder in order to pump blood

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efficiently throughout the body. This causes an e) Fainting
increase in blood pressure and consequently This is temporary loss of consciousness and
leading to heart attack. posture. It is known as syncope or passing out.
It occurs due to low blood pressure which cuts
b) Cardiac arrest off blood supply to the brain.
Cardiac arrest occurs when the heart’s electrical
system malfunctions. It happens when the heart Causes of fainting
stops pumping blood around the body. It occurs  Emotional stress, pain, overheating,
when the heart’s lower chambers suddenly start dehydration, heavy sweating or exhaustion.
beating chaotically without pumping blood.  Low blood sugar level.
Death occurs within minutes when the heart  Occur during violent coughing due to rapid
abruptly stops working completely. changes in blood pressure.
 Pooling blood into the legs due to sudden
Control of cardiac arrest changes in body position.
The person should be resting flat on the bed or  Panic.
ground with face upwards and by the use of both  Fainting by side effects of medicines.
hands to press the chest region hard and fast.  It may also be due to heart, metabolic and
This activity is called Cardiopulmonary lung disorders.
resuscitation (CPR). Push the chest until the
normal blood pumping resumes. First aid for fainting
 Laying the person flat on his/her back.
Symptoms of cardiac arrest Elevate the person’s legs to restore blood
 A person experiences sudden loss of flow to the brain and loosen tight clothing.
response.  Revive the person by shaking the person
 Difficulties in breathing leading to vigorously, tap briskly, or yell. If the
gasping for breath. person does not respond, call an
c) High blood pressure ambulance.
The pressure of blood flow in blood vessels is  If the person is alert, give fruit juice,
higher than normal. It occurs due to smoking, especially if the person has not eaten for
overweight, anxiety, stress, alcohol, diabetes and more than six hours or is diabetic. Stay
excess salt in food. It is caused by narrowing of with the person until s/he is fully recovered.
the lumen of arteries. As a result, blood flow
with high pressure causing bursting of blood
f) Heart failure
capillaries in the brain, a condition known as Heart failure is a condition in which the heart
stroke. Normal blood pressure is 120/70 mm of muscle is unable to pump enough blood to meet
mercury. the body’s requirement.
d) Varicose veins Symptoms of heart failure
These are enlarged veins and their branches  Fatigue and shortness in breath.
found near the surface of the skin in the lower
parts of the leg. The valves in these veins do not Treatment, prevention and control of heart
work properly. Their walls lose elasticity and are failure
unable to regain their normal size. Retention of i. Visit a doctor for recommended prescription
tissue fluid in them causes swelling. of drugs.
ii. Stop smoking,
iii. Losing or maintaining weight.

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 iv. Track daily fluid intake; excess fluid i. Reduce salt intake to prevent high blood
retention accelerates problems of heart pressure.
failure. ii. Regular exercise to strengthen the heart
v. Avoiding alcohol as it increases heart and improve the circulation of blood.
problems. iii. Learn to be organized to avoid stress.
vi. Reduce intake of caffeine to minimize heart iv. Avoid cigarettes smoking because it
activity. contains nicotine which makes arteries to
vii. Healthy diet, and limit food rich in constrict.
cholesterol and salts such a sodium. v. Taking less fatty and cholesterol foods or
viii. Being active to enhance blood flow to all red meat.
tissues. vi. Avoid drugs that have no medical value.
ix. Managing stress and anxiety. vii. Avoid alcohol consumption
x. Having adequate rest and sleep well with
feet raised a bit to enhance flow of blood to 5.6. Lymphatic system
the heart. This is a system of tiny, tin walled vessels called
lymphatic vessels. It transports excess tissue
g) Arteriosclerosis fluid back to the blood after exchange of
This occurs when the fat and/or cholesterol and substances between cells and tissue fluid.
other substances build up along the walls of the
Components of the lymphatic system
arteries. This form a substance called plaque. If
1. Lymph
the coronary artery is affected, the heart lacks
It is clear fluid without red blood cells and
enough oxygen that can lead to a heart attack. A
contains fewer proteins. It travels in the tissues
condition called coronary thrombosis.
through lymphatic vessels. It drains back to the
Ways of preventing problems associated with blood at the vena cava. It contains white blood
the circulatory system cells called lymphocytes. The figure below
shows lymphatic system.

Fig 5.11: Formation of tissue fluid

2. Lymphatic vessels have valves. They are numerous and pass
They carry fluid away from the tissues. The between cells in the body tissues.
smallest of them are lymph capillaries that are Excess water and the tissue fluid move into the
found in all body regions except bone marrow, lymphatic vessels, where it is called lymph. The
CNS, and tissues that lack blood vessels. They figure below shows lymphatic vessels and
capillary.

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 tonsils provide defense against pathogens in the
nose and mouth.
c) Spleen
It is located in the upper left abdominal cavity
just beneath the diaphragm, and posterior to the
stomach. It is similar to a lymph node in shape
and structure but is the largest lymphatic organ in
Lymph flow the body. It consists of lymphocytes and
Lymph pushes along the lymphatic vessels macrophages. The spleen also filters blood.
because of the following factors; d) Thymus
i. Force of gravity It is the soft organ with two lobes located just
ii. Contraction of skeletal muscles below the sternum on the chest region. It
iii. Valves that prevent back flow of lymph. decreases in size with age. The function of
iv. Breathing system thymus is the formation and maturation of
special lymphocytes called T-lymphocytes or T-
3. Lymphatic organs cells. These cells stimulate the production of
a) Lymph nodes antibodies that fight against disease causing
These are small bean-shaped structures organisms.
distributed throughout the body along the
lymphatic vessels. They filter the lymph before it Plasma, tissue fluid and lymph
is returned to the blood. They contain dense Tissue fluid or interstitial fluid is the plasma that
lymphocytes and macrophages. leaves the capillaries and enters into the spaces
b) Tonsils between tissues. Tissue fluid allows exchange of
These are clusters of lymphatic tissue under substances such as oxygen and carbon dioxide
mucous membranes that line the nose, mouth and between the cells and the tissue fluid. Tissue
throat. Lymphocytes and macrophages in the fluid is different from blood.
Table 5.1: Differences between blood and tissue fluid
Blood Tissue fluid
Red blood cells No red blood cells
Fibrinogen No fibrinogen
More oxygen Less oxygen
More glucose Less glucose
Less carbon dioxide More carbon dioxide
Red in colour Colourless
Less water More water

Table 5.2: Differences between the plasma, tissue fluid and lymph

Plasma Tissue fluid Lymph

Liquid part of blood Fluid formed in the tissues Part of the tissue fluid that
when blood plasma leaves enters the lymphatic vessels
blood capillaries due to after exchange of materials in
ultrafiltration the tissues.

It has red/white blood cells It has no blood cells It has white blood cell called
and platelets. lymphocytes.

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 Contains dissolved food
substances.

Found inside blood Found between tissues Found in the lymphatic

vessels
the tissue fluid enters the lymph vessels and is
Formation of lymph then termed as lymph.
Lymph is formed by the process of
ultrafiltration that occurs in the capillaries. Importance of lymphatic system
Materials such as nutrients, oxygen and other a) Lymph vessels have lymph nodes that help in
useful substances like hormones are squeezed out defense against diseases in the following
of blood capillaries due to high pressure except ways:
blood cells and proteins because they are large in i. Trap bacteria by the fine network of fibres.
sizes. The fluid that comes out is called tissue ii. Produce antibodies and lymphocytes
fluid or intracellular fluid. which fight pathogens.
iii. Transports excess tissue fluid back to the
Some of the tissue fluid enters the venules by blood.
diffusion and is drained into the veins. The rest of
The table below summarises the differences between the lymphatic system and the blood circulatory
system.
Lymphatic system Blood circulatory system
1. Involves one circuit where tissue fluid flows 1. It involves complete circulation of blood from
from intracellular spaces into lymphatic vessels the heart to all body organs of the body and
only. back to the heart.
2. The system has no pumping mechanism as it is 2. Has heart to provide the pumping mechanism.
not connected to the heart.
3. Involves transport of substances in lymph that 3. Involves blood that is red in colour.
is slightly yellow in colour.
4. Uses lymphatic vessels 4. Uses blood vessels
5. Does not have red blood cells and plasma 5. Have red blood cells and plasma proteins.
proteins.
6. They are involved in defense mechanism 6. Transport agents of substances required by
against pathogens. tissues of the body.
Topic review exercise a) State two differences in composition
between blood and tissue fluid.
1. Define the following terms b) Explain how water from tissue fluid returns
a) Thymus to the venous end of the capillary.
b) Diastolic pressure c) In what two ways do lymphatic vessels
c) Pulse rate resemble most veins in their structures?
2. With a labeled diagram, describe the process d) In addition to the lymphatic vessels, lymph
of blood clotting. is also found in the pleural cavity and in the
3. Where are T-lymphocytes formed? cavity enclosed by the pericardium. State
4. State any three functions of the human two functions of lymph in these places.
circulatory system. 6. The figure below is a diagram representing
5. As blood circulates in the capillaries, some of blood as seen under a microscope. Use it to
the plasma filters through the capillary walls answer questions that follow.
to form tissue fluid.

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 chambers.

a) Name the parts labeled A and C.

b) In what one way are the cells labeled A
different from those cells labeled B in their
function? a. Name the structures labeled A, B and C
c) Where in the body would you expect b. What difference do you see between the
haemoglobin to combine with oxygen to wall muscle of the left ventricle and that of
form oxyhaemoglobin? the right ventricle? State the reason why
d) Under what condition would this formation these muscles are different
of oxyhaemoglobin take place? c. What is the function of the coronary artery?
7. Figure below is a diagram of the human heart If the coronary artery is blocked by a clot,
which has been cut open to show the four heart failure occurs. Why?
8. The figure below is a diagram showing blood, tissue fluid and lymph. Use it to answer the questions
that follow

a)
b) (i). Label parts A and B. b) On the diagram itself draw arrows to
(ii). State the function of C and D. show the direction of blood flow in A, B,
c) State any two functions of tissue fluid. and C.
d) How does the lymph move along the c) (i). What will be the difference in sugar
lymph vessel? levels between the blood in vessel A and
e) State two difference between lymph and the blood in vessel B soon after a meal?
blood plasma. (ii). Explain your answer to (c)i.
9. The figure below is a diagram of the liver and d) What is deamination?
its related structures. e) Besides deamination, name one other
function of the liver
a) Name the blood vessels labeled A, B and
C.

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6. HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Success criteria
After studying this topic, students must be able to:
 Discuss parts and function of the human reproductive system.
 Explain the menstrual cycle.
 Describe the process of fertilization and conception.
 Explain the role of the placenta.
 Describe the process of birth.
 Explain the basis of various contraceptive methods.
 Describe the abnormal conditions associated with reproduction.

Introduction
Human reproductive system is the system 6.1. Parts and functions of the
composed of the organs and hormones that are human reproductive system
involved in the process of producing new
individuals of their species. Animals have special 1. Female reproductive system
organs that are specialized for formation of The main structures that make up this system are
gametes; such organs are called reproductive the ovaries, oviducts or fallopian tubes, uterus,
organs or gonads. There are two types of cervix and the vagina. The figure below is the
gametes, male and female gametes. The fusion of female reproductive system.
male and female gametes to form a zygote is
called fertilization.

Fig 6.1: The female reproductive system

Table 6.1: Parts and functions of human reproductive system

PART FUNCTIONS SOME IMPORTANT NOTES
Vagina  Receives sperms during It is muscular tube leading from outside the uterus. The
sexual intercourse. vagina opens to the outside through vulva.
Oviduct  Site for fertilization. Its lining has cilia that push the ovum along the oviduct by
 Passage for ovum from their beating effect. There are rhythmic contractions and
the ovary. relaxation along the oviduct that also help in pushing the
ovum along the oviduct.
Ovary  Releases eggs, one ovum There are left and right ovaries that release the ova
every 28 days. alternately. Each egg cell is in form of graafian follicle
 Produces Oestrogen during its development. Graafian follicle is fluid-filled
structure containing one egg cell surround by a few cells

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 called follicle cells.
Uterus  Supports development of Thick walled muscular organ with space inside called
embryo. uterine cavity. Outer layer has thick muscles that contract
 It is the place for strongly during birth. Inside uterine wall is made up of
implantation. many blood vessels called endometrium. It is thick-
walled for easy implantation and for safe development of
embryo, and also to exert enough force in pushing the
baby out during birth.
Cervix  Prevents entry of harmful It has ring of muscle and mucus plug to close it. The ring
microorganisms into of muscles remains contracted to keep the baby in the
uterus during pregnancy. uterus and relaxes to allow the baby out.
 Allows a baby out during
birth
The figure below shows the structure of an ovum

Fig 6.2: An ovum

Below is a structure of an ovary showing Fig 6.3: Ovary showing Graafian follicle.
Graafian follicle. 2. The male reproductive system
The male reproductive system consists of testes,
scrotum or scrotal sac, seminiferous tubules, vas
deferens, epididymis, urethra, penis, Cowper’s
gland, prostrate gland and seminal vesicles.
Study the figure below for the positions of these
parts in the body.

Figure 6.4: Male reproductive system

Functions of parts of male reproductive system
Table 6.2: Functions of parts of the male reproductive system
Part Function Important notes about the part
Testes or  Production of male gametes They are two in number suspended on the
testicles called sperms sides of the penis. They are positioned
 Produce a hormone called outside the abdomen in a sac called scrotal
testosterone bag

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 Scrotum or  They support and protect the A sac of skin that encloses the testes.
scrotal sac testes. Scrotum is suspended immediately
 Provides lower temperature beneath the base of the penis. They
for the testes than that of the provide lower temperature for the sperms
body. since high temperature reduce sperms’
lifespan.
Seminiferous  Have walls that produce Tightly coiled seminiferous tubes. Other
tubes sperms or spermatozoa. specialized cells located in between the
 Secrete and produce hormone seminiferous tubules are called interstitial
testosterone. cells.
 Cells called sertoli cells
provide nourishment to the
developing sperms.
Vas  They direct sperms from They are tiny tubules
efferentia seminiferous tubules to the
epididymis.
Epididymis  Continuation of sperm It is the muscular and coiled tubule
development.
 Temporary storage of sperms.
Vas deferens  Directs sperm to the urethra Straight muscular tube. Before joining
urethra, it combines with the duct leading
from the seminal vesicle forming
ejaculatory duct.
Urethra  Directs urine from the Plays a role in both urinary and
bladder out of the penis reproductive systems. It is said to be
 Directs sperms from vas urino-genital in function.
deferentia out of the penis.
Prostrate  It releases mucus and slightly The fluid makes sperms more active and
gland alkaline fluid. neutralizes the acidity of the vagina.
Cowper’s  Secretes clear, sticky slightly The fluid secreted by this gland cleans the
glands alkaline fluid urethra prior to ejaculation to neutralize
any urine present in the urethra.
Seminal  Produce mucus into which
vesicles sperms swim
The combination of secretions from these three minimizes drag as it swims in the semen. See the
glands and the sperms is called semen. Semen is figure for the structure of the human sperm.
made up of sugars that nourish the sperms
making them more active.

The sperm has a tail that is used for swimming in

semen. Middle part of the sperm has dense
mitochondria that provide energy for swimming.
The head of the sperm has streamlined shape that
Fig 6.5: A human sperm
Differences between the human sperm and human ovum
Table 6.3: A comparison of a sperm and an ovum
Sperm Ovum
Tail No tail
Head No head

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 Neck No neck
No jelly-like coat Jelly-like coat
Small cytoplasm Large cytoplasm
LH has the following effects
6.2. Menstrual cycle  Stimulates ovulation and the formation of
Menstruation is the shedding of the uterine lining corpus luteum.
and blood through the vagina when fertilization  Causes Graafian follicle to change into a
does not take place in females. yellow body called corpus luteum.
2. Ovulation
The role of hormones in menstrual cycle This is the release of an ovum from the ovary.
1. Healing and repair of uterine lining An increase in the level of LH triggers the
Pituitary gland in the brain releases Follicle process of ovulation at about 14th day of the
Stimulating Hormone (FSH). FSH stimulates the cycle. For ovulation to take, a mature graafian
development of follicles in the ovary. One of the follicle moves to the surface of the ovary. It
follicles develops into Graafian follicle. Each forms a bulge on the ovary surface. It then
egg in the ovary becomes surrounded by a layer ruptures and releases the ovum with a coating of
of cells called follicle cells. When FSH is cells called the zona pellucida into a funnel of
released, it causes one of these follicles to form a the oviduct.
space, accumulates some fluid, increases in size
3. Thickening of the endometrium
and develops in structure called a graafian
Graafian follicle secretes both oestrogen and
follicle.
progesterone. The progesterone causes further
The ovary secretes a hormone called oestrogen.
thickening of the endometrium during which it is
High levels of oestrogen in the blood cause the
enriched with blood capillaries. This is in
following events;
preparation for implantation. It also suppresses
i. Growth and replacement of the uterine
the formation of new follicles. High levels of
lining. This helps to repair the lining of the
progesterone inhibit further production of the
uterus.
FSH from the pituitary gland. The figure below
ii. It triggers anterior pituitary gland to release
gives a summary of the effects of hormones on
Luteinising Hormone (LH).
menstrual cycle.

Fig 6.6: Effects of hormones during menstruation

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 Fig 6.7: Events in the ovaries and uterus as co-ordinated by hormones
4. Menstruation
The corpus luteum lasts for about 10 to 12 days if no fertilization takes place. Then it degenerates since
the level of oestrogen is so low causing the corpus luteum to degenerate and secretion of progesterone
stops. Figure 6.8 is a summary of the effects of the hormones during menstruation.

Fig 6.8: Menstrual cycle of 28 days

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6.3. Fertilization process and conception two different sperms and implanted in the uterine
Fertilization wall at the same time. The twins may be of
Fertilization is the fusion between the male different sex or the same sex. They may or may
gamete and female gamete. For fertilization to not look alike.
take place, an egg must meet with a sperm c) Siemens twins
through the process called copulation or sexual Siemens twins develop from a single ovum
intercourse. Fertilization takes place in the fertilized by a single sperm just as identical
upper part of the oviduct. When the sperm meets twins. However, Siemens twins are born joined
an ovum, the head of the sperm stick onto the together. These ones require surgery to separate
ovum. Eventually, the nucleus of one sperm them.
passes into the cytoplasm of the ovum along with
Implantation
the head and middle piece leaving the tail
This is the attachment of the embryo to the
outside. The sperm nucleus fuses with the
uterine wall. This starts with the embryo moving
nucleus of the ovum. The membrane of an egg down the oviduct. In the oviduct, it undergoes
changes structure after one sperm penetrates it to cell division to form a hollow mass of cells
prevent other sperms from entering the ovum. called blastocyst. It develops fingerlike
The fertilized egg is called a zygote. The figure projections called villi which attach it to the
below shows the process of fertilization taking endometrium. Embryo uses villi to absorb
place. nutrients from the endometrium.

6.4. The placenta

It is formed from villi that develop from
blastocyst and attaches it to the endometrium.
The placenta enables the exchange of the
Fig 6.9: A sperm penetrating ovum nucleus materials. Materials exchanged by placenta
include glucose, oxygen and carbon dioxide. The
Conception sinus contains the blood. In early stages of the
This is the beginning of development of a zygote embryo, red blood cells are produced by
into an embryo when the cell undergoes division mesodermal cells of yolk sac. By the third or
by mitosis. This happens as the cell moves along fourth months, red blood cell production shifts to
the uterus with the beating aid of the cilia found the liver. Below is the figure showing exchange
in the oviduct. of materials between the blood and the placenta
Twins Sinuses
Twins are also known as multiple births. There
are three types of twins.

a) Identical twins
This occurs when a single egg is fertilized by a
single sperm to form one zygote. The zygote then
divides into two separate embryos before
implantation onto the uterine wall. Two embryos Fig 6.10: Exchange of materials between the
develop into separate fetuses. The twins are of maternal blood and the placenta
the same sex and they resemble each other.
b) Fraternal twins The placenta has membranes that separate the
This occurs when the ovary produces two eggs at blood vessels of the mother and the foetus. These
the same time. These two eggs are fertilized by membranes are thin and hence allow dissolved

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 oxygen, glucose and amino acids and salts in the in maintaining the pregnancy and preparing for
mother’s blood to diffuse into the blood vessel of birth.
the placenta.
Gestation period
Blood from the embryo goes to the placenta It is a period within which the embryo grows and
capillaries through umbilical arteries. This blood develops into a human being. Gestation period in
has high levels of carbon dioxide and wastes like humans is 38 – 40 weeks. After successful
urea. Blood reach in nutrients such as glucose implantation, one part of the blastocyst develops
and amino acids and oxygen is directed to the into two membranes called the chorion and
foetus through the umbilical vein. The membrane amnion. These membranes surround and protect
of the placenta is selectively permeable. the growing embryo until birth.
Another role of the placenta is the production of
hormones progesterone and oestrogen that assist

Fig 6.11: Growth and development of an embryo

The amnion is the innermost membrane that surrounds the foetus. A fluid called amniotic fluid fills up the
amnion. Amniotic fluid keeps the embryo moist, gives it a stable environment and cushions it from
physical damage and acts as shock absorber.

Adaptations of the placenta

i. Placenta has membranes that separate blood vessels of the foetus from those of the mother. This
prevents blood contact between maternal blood and foetal blood.
ii. Have thin walled membranes. This allows faster diffusion of substances from maternal blood to the
foetal blood and from the foetal blood to the mother’s blood.
iii. Have semipermeable membranes. Only allows selected substances useful to the foetus to pass from
maternal blood to the foetal blood.
iv. The placenta has cells that produce hormones. The uterine wall produces progesterone that stimulates
thickening of the endometrium to sustain pregnancy.
the uterus until its head lies towards the cervix. If
6.5. The process of birth the baby is born with its legs first, it is called
Months before birth, the uterine walls of the breech birth.
mother develop muscle fibres, which will be
used to expel the baby from the mother’s body. The levels of progesterone drop in the last stages
A few weeks before birth, the baby turns within of pregnancy. This stimulates pituitary gland to

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releases a hormone called oxytocin. Oxytocin Importance of breastfeeding
stimulates rhythmic contraction of uterine wall i. Breast milk contains nutrients needed for
muscle. The waves of contraction of these growth and development.
muscles results to the pain commonly called ii. Provides passive natural immunity to the
labor pain. The contractions provide a force that infant.
starts to push the foetus from the uterus to the iii. Is free from contamination
cervix. The muscles of the cervix relax making it iv. It is cheap
to open and widen to allow the foetus to pass v. It cleans and activates the alimentary
through. As the foetus moves to the cervix, the canal of the infant to enable it carry out
amnion and the chorion walls break releasing the digestion.
amniotic fluid through the cervix. The foetus is vi. Contains calcium that enhances growth
pushed downwards through the cervix into the and development of bones and teeth.
birth canal. The birth canal is elastic and it vii. It delays onset of menstruation thereby
widens allowing the baby to born. The baby delaying pregnancy.
comes out through the vulva with the head first. Exclusive breastfeeding
The figure below shows the process of birth. This is breastfeeding method whereby an infant
receives only breast milk with no additional
foods or liquids not even water for the first six
months. The following are importance of
exclusive breastfeeding:
 Saves lives
 Protects against illness
 Promotes recovery of the sick child
 Enables child’s physical and mental
development
Fig 6.12: Position of foetus few days before birth Bottle feeding
Shortly after birth, the baby experiences a sudden The infant is fed with milk put in the bottle
change in temperature that makes the baby to cry having a rubber teat from which a baby sucks.
soon after birth. By crying at birth, the baby
opens its mouth and draws in the first air from Disadvantages of bottle-feeding
the atmosphere and breathing begins. The  Cows’ milk contains more proteins which
umbilical cord and the placenta pass out through are difficult infant digestion.
the vagina. This is called afterbirth.  Unhygienic handling of the bottle and the
teat that may introduce bacterial infection
Breastfeeding  It is expensive to use powdered, tinned or
Breastfeeding is the provision of milk to the infant formula.
young ones. It starts from the first day by  Infant formula may not provide all
sucking the first milk from mammary glands. nutritional requirements.
This milk is called colostrum. Colostrum is  The baby may develop allergic reactions
yellowish in colour and is rich in proteins, from bottled milk.
lactose, fats, calcium vitamins and antibodies
for natural immunity. 6.6. Contraception
This is the method of preventing conception from
taking place by natural or artificial methods. It is
commonly known as family planning. It allows

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the mother to space the child birth either and maturation of Graafian follicle so that
naturally or artificially. ovulation does not take place.
i. Contraceptive pill
Natural control methods This pill contains hormone oestrogen and
a) Abstinence progesterone. These hormones prevent the
b) The calendar method (rhythm method)
development of the ovum in the ovary. It also
c) Coitus interruptus
interferes with the production of FSH during the
menstrual cycle to prevent ovulation.
Artificial methods of birth control
ii. Intra-uterine device (IUD)
a) Sterilization
A device put into the uterus through the vagina
i. Vasectomy by a doctor and left there. They prevent
The vas deferens of male reproductive system is implantation of any fertilized egg. However, the
cut to prevent sperms from reaching the vagina. device may come out and cause bleeding or
discomfort. It is highly effective.
ii. Tubal ligation
This cuts the oviduct in female reproductive iii. Norplant
system. This prevents the ovum from meeting the Contraceptive pill is put beneath the skin on the
sperms hence no fertilization. upper side of the arm of the woman. The
contraceptives are released continually for a
b) Barrier methods
period of up to five years. It can be removed
i. Condoms when a woman wants to bear children.
A thin rubber put on erect penis just before
sexual intercourse. Female condoms have one iv. Spermicides
closed and one open end and they fit into the These are chemicals contained in either foam,
vagina. Prevent sperms from entering the vagina. jellies, tablets or creams. The chemicals destroy
sperms preventing them from fertilizing an egg.
ii. Diaphragm cap
Dome shaped rubber that fits over the cervix. 6.7. Abnormal conditions associated
Prevent sperms from entering the uterus and with reproduction
meeting the ova. It is used with spermicide that i. Sterility
kills sperms. ii. STIs
iii. Anaemia
c) Chemical methods iv. Maternal mortality
The chemical method uses a mixture of v. Cervical cancer
hormones resembling oestrogen and vi. Fistula
progesterone. They work by inhibiting the vii. Abnormal menses
production of FSH that stimulates development
Topic review exercise
1. Define the term; 3. The figure below is a diagram of human
a) Reproduction gametes. Use it to answer questions that
b) Orgasm follow.
2. Give the functions of the following
reproductive parts
a) Cilia
b) Cowper’s gland

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 c) Looking at the figure above, suggest why
there is no mixing of maternal and foetal
blood.
d) What is found in the sinus?
5. The figure 8A and 8B below show some of
the stages which occur in the female
reproductive system of a mammal.
a) Besides shape and size, in what two other
ways are sperm and ovum different?
b) Explain why the neck of the sperm
contains a large number of mitochondria.
c) Name the structure in a flowering plant
which is responsible for the production
of:
i. Female gametes
ii. Male gametes
4. The figure below is a diagram showing the
relationship between the placenta and the
foetus in the mammal. The foetal pumps
blood through the blood vessels of the
umbilical cord.

a) Give one structural adaptation of the part

marked X.
b) Write down two structural differences
shown in 8A and 8B.
c) (i). Which gland in the brain secretes a
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)?
(ii). State one function of the follicle
stimulating hormone.
a) On the diagram itself, indicate with arrows d) Progesterone is one of the essential
the direction of blood flow in the: hormones during pregnancy.
i. Artery i. What happens to the level of
ii. Vein progesterone to cause the changes
b) Which of the blood vessels will have: seen in figure 8B?
i. The greater concentration of amino acids? ii. Give a reason for your answer.
ii. The greater concentration of oxygen?
iii. The greater concentration of carbon
dioxide?

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7. GENETICS
Success criteria
After studying this topic, students must be able to:
 Describe the principles underlying Mendelian genetics.
 Work out genotypic and genotypic ratios of offspring’s in monohybrid crosses
up to F2 generation.
 Explain how sex and sex linkages are determined in human beings.
 Describe the process of cell division in humans.
 Describe the relationship amongst chromosomes, DNA and genes.

Introduction The seed shape, which the seed will have, will
Genetics is the scientific study of heredity and depend on the relationship between the alleles.
variations. Organisms differ in characteristics in For instance, the seed shape can be round or
an ecosystem. The observable and non- wrinkled. If the seed shape is round then the gene
observable differences among the organisms are for round seed is said to be dominant. A
called variation. These characteristics are shared dominant gene is the one that influences the
from parents to offsprings. The transfer of characteristics to develop in an organism over
characteristics from parents to offsprings is another gene. The gene that cannot influence a
called heredity. Examples of these characteristic to develop in an individual in the
characteristics include the colour of skin fur in presence of dominant allele is called recessive
dogs; the skin fur can be white, black or brown. gene.
In plants, the characteristics include seed shape
The dominant allele is usually represented by a
and seed colour. In human beings, these
capital letter while the recessive gene is
characteristics include, tongue rolling, skin
represented by a small letter. For example, a
colour, hair texture, blood groups etc. These
characteristics are controlled by genes. Genes are gene for round seed can be represented by
the structures that are responsible for controlling capital letter R while the gene for wrinkled seed
the characteristics of an organism. can be represented with a small letter r. The
genetic composition of an allele is called
Terminologies used in genetics genotype while the final appearance of an
The genes are found on the homologous organism due to expression of the allele and the
chromosomes on the position called locus. environment is called phenotype. From an
Chromosomes are rod-shaped filamentous example above, the possible genotypes for seed
bodies that appear during cell division in the shape are; RR, Rr and rr.
nucleus of the cell. A pair of genes controls a
When two genes in a genotype are similar, the
character or trait. This pair of genes is found on
condition is called homozygous or true
the homologous chromosomes. Such genes are
breeding. If the genotype is RR, the individual is
referred to as alleles. The term allele refers to
homozygous dominant, if the genotype is rr, the
different forms of the same gene. The seed may
individual is homozygous recessive. If two
have two alleles for round shape and end up
dissimilar genes are controlling a character, the
having round shape. However, this seed may
condition is heterozygous. In the example of the
have different genes in this pair, one for round
seed shape above, the phenotypes for the
and the other for wrinkled.
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possible genotypes are as shown in the table below.
Table 7.1: Genotype and phenotype took pollen grains from the red flowers and
Genotype Phenotype placed them on the stigmas of white flowers
RR Round (crossing). This resulted to fusion of male and
Rr Round female gametes a process called fertilization.
rr Wrinkled When the seeds developed he had sown them in
7.1. Principles of Mendelian the soil. The plants grew up from the seeds and it
genetics was found out that all these new plants produced
Gregory Mendel was an Austrian monk who red flowers. These results can be summarised as
carried out investigations in the inheritance of follows
characteristics such as seed shape, seed colour, Parents: Red flowers X white flowers
and flower colour among others. The results of
his investigations were summarized into the first Offspring: All red flowers produced.
law commonly known as the “law of Note: X means “crossed”
segregation.” This law states that an organism’s From these results, it can be observed that a gene
characteristics are determined by internal for red flower colour is expressing itself in the
factors that occur in pairs. Only one of a pair of presence of a gene for white flower colour but
factors can be represent in a single gamete. not vice versa. Therefore, a gene for red flower
colour is dominant over a gene for white flower
Genetic crosses colour. For example, take R to represent a gene
A cross is a means of showing inheritance of for red flower colour and r to represent a gene for
genes by offspring from their parents. Mendel white flower colour. The following cross can be
had a bed of flowering plants some of which had carried out to show how offspring inherited these
round seeds and others had white flowers. He genes from their parents.

Fig7.1: Cross between red flowers and white flowers

The resulting seeds were then sown and new plants grew up to produce a second generation. When these
new plants were self-pollinated to produce flowers, it was observed that some of these plants had red
flowers while others had white flowers. This situation was as shown in the figure below.

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 Fig 7.2: Selfing of F1 to produce F2 generation
Summary of Crosses
i. The generations produced as a result of a cross are called filials. Thus, the first generation is called
the first filial generation or F1 generation. Thereafter, the F1 generation becomes adults and selfed,
used as parents and produce second filial generation (F2).
ii. Crossing of organisms depicts the chances that the results of crossing show the ratio of offspring
having the particular characteristic or trait. For instance, the results for the first experiments show
that there is 100% chance that all the F1 have red flowers. The second experimental results indicate
that ¼ of F2 have red flowers while ¾ have red flowers. In other words, this represents the
phenotypic ratio of 3:1 from red to white flowers. This means that if any two heterozygotes for any
character are involved and crossed, the offspring produced are always in the phenotypic ratio 3:1,
i.e. dominant gene: recessive gene.
Similarly, another example can be used with plant height as a trait to be inherited. Take T to be the
dominant gene and t to be a recessive gene in pure breeding lines. Use genetic crosses to illustrate this
process.

F1 genotype Tt Tt Tt Tt
F1 phenotype Tall Tall Tall Tall

The offspring for the F1 generation were allowed to self-pollinate themselves. The following cross was
obtained.

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The genotypic ratio for 1(TT), 2(Tt), 1(tt) in the X – Chromosome (longer)
cross above is 1:2:1. This shows the phenotypic Y – Chromosome (shorter)
ratio of 3:1 for the F2 generation. This is the ratio Genes in sex chromosomes are described as sex
for the dominant to recessive gene. – linked genes. Sex chromosomes may also carry
This means that if there are 240 plants in F2. genes whose characteristics are not related to sex
i. ¼ of 240 plants in the F2 are dwarf of an individual.
¼ x 240 Sex chromosomes in human beings occur in two
60 plants are dwarf combinations. The genotypes are XX, where an
ii. ¾ of 240 plants are tall individual develops female characteristics, and
¾ x 240 XY where an individual develops male
180 plants are tall characteristics.

The crosses above can also be illustrated by the

use of a table known as the Punnet square to
predict possible genotypes and phenotypes of
offsprings. It involves the use of the table with
rows and columns. The first row and first column
of the table are used to give information on the
distribution of genes in the gametes of the
parents as shown in the table below. Sex ratios can be determined using Mendelian
cross. From that, it can be observed that there
are 1: 1 chances of having either a baby boy or
baby girl in the family. Sex ratio is the number of
males per 1000 females in the population of a
society.

Linkage
This is the location of genes on the same
chromosomes. The linked genes are always
inherited together. The following illustration
In the Punnet square, the genotypes and gives an image of linked genes on a homologous
phenotypes of the parents are indicated above the chromosome.
Punnet square and those of the offspring below
the Punnet square.

7.2. Sex determination and linkage

Sex determination in human beings
Human beings have 23 pairs of homologous
chromosomes. Out of these 23 pairs, 22 pairs Fig 7.3: Homologous pair of chromosomes
determine body characteristics, these pairs are showing linked genes
called autosomes. The two homologous Genes A, B and g are linked because they are
chromosomes that form 23rd pair is called sex found on the same chromosome. Genes a, b, and
chromosomes because they carry genes that G are also linked because they are found on the
determine the sex of an individual. There are two same chromosome. The genes that are found on
types of sex chromosomes in humans.
the sex chromosomes are called Sex-linked

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genes. The characteristics that develop in an clotting factor is dominant over the allele that
individual because of these genes are called sex influences formation of defective clotting factor.
linked characteristics. There are three possible genotypes that a woman
Since Y – chromosome is shorter than X – might have for the haemophilia characteristics.
chromosome, X – chromosome bear genes that Genotype Phenotype
H H
have no corresponding alleles on the Y – X X `` Normal
H h
chromosome. See the figure below. X x Carrier
h h
Xx Haemophilia
A carrier is an organism with a recessive gene
that causes production of defective blood clotting
factor in their cells, but has normal phenotype.
There are only two possible genotypes for a man
because Y-chromosome does not have
haemophilia.

Red-green colour blindness is inability of a

given individual to distinguish red from green
colour. The allele for normal colour vision is
dominant.
Genes located on non-homologous part of the
chromosome determine certain characteristics 7.3. Cell division
other than sex. These characteristics are referred Cell division is the process by which a parent cell
to as sex-linked characteristics or traits. divides into two or more daughter cells. Cell
Examples of these traits are colour blindness, division occurs in order to:
haemophilia, hairy ears and hairy nose. The  Form new organisms
genes that determine sex-linked traits are located  Form gametes
on the unpaired part on the X-chromosome. Cell division involves the division of all
Haemophilia is a condition where if an structures in a cell including chromosomes. The
individual is injured to bleed, the blood takes figure below shows a cell with coiled invisible
long time to clot or does not clot at all. The allele chromosomes before division starts.
that determines production for normal blood

Fig 7.5: Chromosomes in a cell.

Centromere Chromatid

Fig 7.6: Structure of a chromosome

The two chromatids are exact copies of each The difference in number of chromosomes in the
other. During cell division, the two chromatids same organisms depends on whether a cell is a
separate with each going into a separate cell. normal body cell or a reproductive cell. Body

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 cells are called somatic cells. Examples include
nerve cells, bone cells, blood cells and muscle
cells in humans. Reproductive cells are called
gamete cells or sex cells. Examples are sperms
and ova in humans. Cell divisions are of two
types based on these two types of cells.
Fig 7.7: Early prophase
Types of cell division
ii. Metaphase
1. Mitosis  Chromosomes migrate and arrange
This is a process by which a cell divides and themselves on the equator of spindle.
gives rise to two cells during organism’s growth.  They become attached to certain spindle
This takes place in parent cells called somatic fibres at the centromere.
cells.
 Chromatids draw apart at the centromere
Mitosis is divided into four stages: Prophase, region.
metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase. After each  Daughter centromeres are oriented toward
successive cell division cycle, there is a period in opposite poles of the spindles
between, in which daughter cells undergo a
resting stage before the next cycle. This resting
stage is referred to as interphase. This stage is
associated with growth of the cells, then
preparation for the next mitosis. Refer to figure
7.6 above.
 The preparation involves; Fig 7.8: Metaphase
 Replication of DNA (genetic material)
 Building up of sufficient large store of iii. Anaphase
energy to carry out the process through.
 Centromeres split and the spindle fibres
 Formation of new cytoplasmic organelles
shrink or shorten even more
e.g. ribosomes, mitochondria, chloroplasts
 Chromatids separate and migrate to
etc.
opposite poles of the cell with centromeres
i. Prophase
leading.
 Chromosomes become visible as they
become contracted, and nucleolus shrinks.
 Centrioles move to opposite sides of the
nucleus (plant cells do not usually have
centrioles).
 Spindle fibres start to form.
 Chromosomes become shorter and fatter each Fig 7.9: Anaphase
seen to consist of a pair of chromatids joined
iv. Telophase
at the centromeres.
 The chromatids reach their respective
 Nucleolus disappears
poles and become chromosomes.
 Prophase ends with breakdown of nuclear
 A new nuclear envelope or membrane
membrane.
forms.

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  The spindle disappears and a new  Chromosomes eventually regain their
nucleolus forms in each new nucleus. threadlike form and retain to resting
 The cytoplasm divides (cytokinesis) and condition. Each daughter cell has the same
the cell starts to constrict across the number of chromosomes as the original
middle. parent cell.
 Spindle apparatus degenerates.

Fig 7.10: Telophase

The stages of mitosis are generalized into the three main points as follows.
a) Each chromosome duplicates itself by dividing into two strands called chromatids before the cell
divides.
b) These chromatids then separate from each other.
c) Each chromatid is then called a chromosome and it goes into one of the new daughter cells. The
following figure summarises all stages,

Fig 7.11: The summary diagram of the process of mitosis

Importance of mitosis
 The process of asexual reproduction
 It enables the growth of an organism
 Repair and replacement of worn out tissues.

2. Meiosis
This is the type of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes in a cell by half in order to form
gametes (sperm and ova). Meiosis takes place in the reproductive organs to produce gametes.
The original cell first divides into two cells. Each cell then divides further into two cells forming a total of
four cells. Each of the four cells has half the number of chromosomes as the original. The four daughter

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 cells are therefore haploid. These cells are similar but not identical. This occurs in humans when sperms
and eggs form.
The following are the events that happen only to the chromosomes in an imaginary cell with two
chromosomes.

Fig 7.12: generalization of the meiosis cell division

i. Chromosomes inside the nucleus split into two chromatids and the homologous chromosomes pair
up.
ii. The homologous chromosomes separate, and the first meiotic cell division occurs.
iii. The chromatids separate to form chromosomes and the second meiotic division takes place in a
process similar to mitosis.

The stages of meiosis The chromosomes are not visible. The

The stages of meiosis form a cycle of events chromosomes and organelles replicate.
which can be divided into:
a) Prophase I
1. First meiotic division (Meiosis I)  Chromosomes contract and become more
This is where dividing homologous
chromosomes get separated from each other and clearly visible as seen in Figure 7.13a.
go into different cells.  The nucleolus shrinks and disappears.
 Prophase I  Homologous chromosomes come together
 Metaphase I (synapsis)
 Anaphase I  Each chromosome seen to consist of a pair
 Telophase I of chromatid called bivalent as seen in
2. 2ND meiotic division (Meiosis II) figure 7.13b below.
The second division is concerned with separating  Homologous chromosomes wrap around
the chromatids. each other and become joined at a certain
 Prophase II points called chiasmata.
 Metaphase II  One or both chromatids of the homologous
 Anaphase II chromosomes may break at these points
 Telophase II and link up with the chromatid of the other
1. First meiotic division (Meiosis I) chromosome in the bivalent at points called
Interphase chiasmata.
The cell is in normal non-dividing condition with  Formation of chiasmata ensures that the
the chromosomes in long and threadlike form. portions of the chromosomes are

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 exchanged in a process called crossing over as shown in figure 7.13c below.

a b c
Fig 7.13: Events taking place during prophase I of meiosis
b) Metaphase I
 The spindle is fully developed. Bivalents
move to the equator and arrange themselves
on equator of spindle as pairs. Some with
exchanged positions.
Fig 7.16: The cell divides into two new cells

2. 2ND meiotic division (Meiosis II)

a) Prophase II
 Centrioles have replicated and a new
spindle is formed. The two daughter cells
Fig 7.14: Metaphase I prepare for the second meiotic division.
c) Anaphase I b) Metaphase II
 Homologous chromosomes part company  The chromosomes arrange themselves on
and migrate to opposite poles of the cell. the spindle in a usual way singly on the
 Each chromosome is replicated to form equator of the cell.
chromatids  The spindle fibres attach themselves to the
centromere of each chromosome.
 The chromatids are still attached to each
other at the centromeres as shown below.

Fig 7.15: Anaphase

d) Telophase I
 The chromosomes have reached their
destination and the cell constricts across the Fig 7.17: Metaphase II
middle as in mitosis. c) Anaphase II
 The spindles disappear.  Chromatids part company and migrate to
 The nuclear membrane may reform around opposite poles of the cell.
the two sets of chromosomes.
 The cell divides into two new cells each
with half the number of chromosomes as the
original cell. This can be observed in the
diagram below.

Fig 7.18: Anaphase II

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d) Telophase II
 The cells constrict along the middle and
four new cells are formed.
 Nuclear membrane and nucleoli are
reformed as at the end of mitosis.
 The daughter cells have the number of Fig 7.19: Telophase II
chromosomes of the original parent cell. The cells formed in this way are not gametes.
 The chromatids separate from each other They do specialize to form gamete cells such as
and form new cells. The result is four sperms and ova for male and female respectively
new cells each with half the number of in human beings.
chromosomes of the original parent cell. In flowering plants, the daughter cells eventually
form specialized structures called ovules in the
female part of the flower and pollen grains in the
male part of the flower.
Table 7.2: Summary of mitosis and meiosis

Significance of meiosis
i. Formation of gamete cells.
ii. Crossing over during prophase leading to exchange of genes, hence source of variation.

Table 7.3: Differences between mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
 Two daughter cells are formed.  Four daughter cells are formed.
 Daughter cells are identical to the  Daughter cells are not identical to the
parent cells. parent.
 Chiasmata do not form. No crossing  Chiasmata form and crossing over may
over. occur.
 The number of chromosomes is  The number of chromosomes is halved.
retained.
 Homologous chromosomes do not pair  Homologous chromosomes pair up in
up. prophase I forming bivalents.

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 DNA and genes
7.4. Genes, chromosomes and DNA The gene is the basic unit of inheritance. Each
Genes are segments of the nucleotide sequence gene occupies a given part along the
found on the DNA which controls the chromosome. The specific location of a gene on
development of the particular characteristics in a chromosome is referred to as the gene locus.
an organism. A gene is a part of a chromosome. Genes influencing the characteristic are found at
Gene is a portion of DNA that codes for protein the same loci on the separate homologous
for or RNA molecule. chromosomes. The figure below illustrates
examples of gene loci of some traits.
There are two forms of genes;
a) Regulatory genes
b) Structural genes

Function of a gene
i. Controls character in an organism
ii. Transmits an organism’s hereditary
material Fig 7.20: Gene loci in a pair of homologous
iii. Acts as a switch in response to local chromosomes
conditions Genes are made up of deoxyribonucleic acid
iv. Dictates how cells specialize, i.e. how (DNA). DNA belongs to a group of chemical
cells develop. compounds called nucleic acids. They are found
Chromosomes are rod-shaped filamentous in the nucleus, hence, the name nucleic acids.
bodies found in the nucleus of an organism that DNA is a polymer made up of nucleotides
become visible during cell division. The number (monomers).
of chromosomes in somatic cells is referred to as A chromosome is composed of one very long
the diploid number of chromosomes. It is DNA molecule made up of two strands arranged
denoted by 2n. This diploid number or condition parallel to each other. DNA molecule is
in organisms is known as diploidy. composed of a large number of chemical
As discussed in meiosis, gametes contain half the compounds called nucleotides linked together to
number of chromosomes that are in the normal form a chain. These chains are arranged like a
body cells. The gametes are therefore, said to be ladder that has been twisted into the shape of a
haploid. A haploid number of chromosomes is winding staircase called double stranded helix.
denoted by (n). This condition is known as It is anti-parallel in such a way that the two
haploidy. strands point in opposite directions.

Fig 7.21: Double stranded helix of DNA molecules

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Each monomer is made up of:
 Pentose sugar
 Phosphorus group
 Nitrogen containing base
The deoxyribose molecule occupies the centre position in the nucleotide. It is flanked by a phosphate
group on one side and a base on the other.
The phosphate group of each nucleotide is also linked to deoxyribose of the adjacent nucleotide in the
chain. These linked deoxyribose – phosphate subunits form the parallel side bars of the ladder. The bases
face inward toward each other forming the rungs of the ladder.

Nitrogen containing bases 3. A tall pea plant was crossed with a dwarf
1. Adenine (A) plant.
2. Thymine (T) i. Explain why all the F1 plants obtained
3. Cytosine (C) were tall.
4. Guanine (G) ii. If the F1 were selfed, what could be the
The bases have different sizes, shapes and phenotypic ratios of F2 ?
amount so that A only fits with T, and C fits with 4. Haemophilia is a sex linked trait. Haemphilic
G only. These are called complementary base male married a normal female.
pairs. These complementary bases are joined to a) Work out the possible phenotype of their
each other using a weak chemical bond called children
hydrogen bonding. b) What is their probability of giving birth to
Functions of DNA molecule i. A carrier female?
 Carries genetic material ii. Haemophilia male?
 Carries information needed to direct protein iii. A normal child?
synthesis and replication 5. A grey hen mated with a white cock where
grey was dominant over white. If 48 chicks
Protein synthesis is the production of the were hatched, use G for the dominant gene
proteins needed by the cell or virus for its and g for the recessive gene to find the
activities and development. number of chicks that were white.
Replication is the process by which DNA copies 6. Warfarin is a poison used against rats. Some
itself for descendant cell, passing on the rats have evolved which are resistant to
information needed for protein synthesis. A Warfarin. The resistant rats are pure breeding
and have two recessive genes.
sequence of three nucleotide bases, called a
a) If N represents the normal gene and n
triplet is codon that specifies a particular amino
acid. represents the resistant gene, state the
genotype of resistant rats.
Topic Review exercise b) Show a cross between two rats
heterozygous for this condition using a
1. Define the following terms as used in Punnet square.
genetics c) How many rats would you expect to be
a) Monohybrid cross resistant in a litter of 16?
b) Meiosis 7. The figure below is an outline diagram of an
c) Linkage animal cell. Use it to answer questions that
2. Suggest why did Mendel use garden peas for follow
his experiments? a) In the diagram draw and label:

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 i. Two pairs of chromosomes 9. Describe how sex of an individual is
ii. One mitochondrion determined.
b) If the cell underwent meiosis, how many 10. State three differences between mitosis and
chromosomes would each daughter cell meiosis.
have?
c) In humans, the allele for blown eyes is BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Biology Macmillan; Richard Robson
dominant to the allele for blue eyes.
 Chanco Senior Secondary Biology; Oyimbo
However, a blue-eyed baby may be
produced by a brown-eyed father and Baxter Kalimbwanji
brown-eyed mother.  Complete Biology; WR Pickering, DG
i. Using B for a dominant allele and b for the Mackean
recessive allele for blue-eyes, what would  Excel and Succeed Senior Secondary Biology
be the genotype of such parents? Book 3; Herbert R. Nsasa
 GCSE Biology Essentials of Anatomy and
Father
Physiology; Valerie C. Seanlon and Tina
Mother
Sander, 5th Edition
ii. Using the genotypes you have given in i.
 Genetics teaching notes; Moses Maliro,
above, show with the aid of the labeled
diagram how two brown eyed parents can Weston Mwase, Wilson Kaumbata.
produce a blue-eyed child.  Human Anatomy and Physiology, Schaum’s
8. White flowers (genotype WW) and red Outline; Kent M. Van de Graaff.
flowers (RR) of pure bred balsam plants  Introduction to Tropical Biology; John
Murry, 2nd and 3rd Edition
were cross-pollinated. The resulting flowers
 Malawi school certificate of education
were all pink.
teaching syllabus for Biology (2013
a) State genotype of the pink flowers?
curriculum)
b) If the pink flowers were self-pollinated,
what would be the ratio of white, pink,  Senior secondary Biology; Medi and
and red flowers? Show your working Meredith

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