Chapter 3: Processes

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Outline
 Process Concept
 Process Scheduling
 Operations on Processes
 Interprocess Communication
 IPC in Shared-Memory Systems
 IPC in Message-Passing Systems
 Examples of IPC Systems
 Communication in Client-Server Systems

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 Objectives
 Identify the separate components of a process and illustrate how they are represented and scheduled in an operating system.
 Describe how processes are created and terminated in an operating system, including developing programs using the
appropriate system calls that perform these operations.
 Describe and contrast interprocess communication using shared memory and message passing.
 Design programs that uses pipes and POSIX shared memory to perform interprocess communication.
 Describe client-server communication using sockets and remote procedure calls.
 Design kernel modules that interact with the Linux operating system.

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 Process Concept
 An operating system executes a variety of programs that run as a process.
 Process – a program in execution; process execution must progress in sequential fashion. No parallel execution of
instructions of a single process
 Multiple parts
• The program code, also called text section
• Current activity including program counter, processor registers
• Stack containing temporary data
4 Function parameters, return addresses, local variables
• Data section containing global variables
• Heap containing memory dynamically allocated during run time

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 Process Concept (Cont.)
 Program is passive entity stored on disk (executable file); process is active
• Program becomes process when an executable file is loaded into memory
 Execution of program started via GUI mouse clicks, command line entry of its name, etc.
 One program can be several processes
• Consider multiple users executing the same program

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 Process in Memory

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 Memory Layout of a C Program

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 Process State
 As a process executes, it changes state
• New: The process is being created
• Running: Instructions are being executed
• Waiting: The process is waiting for some event to occur
• Ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor
• Terminated: The process has finished execution

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 Diagram of Process State

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 Process Control Block (PCB)
Information associated with each process(also called task
control block)
 Process state – running, waiting, etc.
 Program counter – location of instruction to next
execute
 CPU registers – contents of all process-centric
registers
 CPU scheduling information- priorities, scheduling
queue pointers
 Memory-management information – memory
allocated to the process
 Accounting information – CPU used, clock time
elapsed since start, time limits
 I/O status information – I/O devices allocated to
process, list of open files

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 Threads
 So far, process has a single thread of execution
 Consider having multiple program counters per process
• Multiple locations can execute at once
4 Multiple threads of control -> threads
 Must then have storage for thread details, multiple program counters in PCB
 Explore in detail in Chapter 4

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 Process Representation in Linux
Represented by the C structure task_struct

pid t_pid; /* process identifier */

long state; /* state of the process */
unsigned int time_slice /* scheduling information */
struct task_struct *parent;/* this process’s parent */
struct list_head children; /* this process’s children */
struct files_struct *files;/* list of open files */
struct mm_struct *mm; /* address space of this process
*/

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 Process Scheduling
 Process scheduler selects among available processes for next execution on CPU core
 Goal -- Maximize CPU use, quickly switch processes onto CPU core
 Maintains scheduling queues of processes
• Ready queue – set of all processes residing in main memory, ready and waiting to execute
• Wait queues – set of processes waiting for an event (i.e., I/O)
• Processes migrate among the various queues

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 Ready and Wait Queues

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 Representation of Process Scheduling

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 CPU Switch From Process to Process
A context switch occurs when the CPU switches from
one process to another.

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 Context Switch
 When CPU switches to another process, the system must save the state of the old process and load the
saved state for the new process via a context switch
 Context of a process represented in the PCB
 Context-switch time is pure overhead; the system does no useful work while switching
• The more complex the OS and the PCB  the longer the context switch
 Time dependent on hardware support
• Some hardware provides multiple sets of registers per CPU  multiple contexts loaded at once

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 Multitasking in Mobile Systems
 Some mobile systems (e.g., early version of iOS) allow only one process to run, others suspended
 Due to screen real estate, user interface limits iOS provides for a
• Single foreground process- controlled via user interface
• Multiple background processes– in memory, running, but not on the display, and with limits
• Limits include single, short task, receiving notification of events, specific long-running tasks like audio playback
 Android runs foreground and background, with fewer limits
• Background process uses a service to perform tasks
• Service can keep running even if background process is suspended
• Service has no user interface, small memory use

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 Operations on Processes
 System must provide mechanisms for:
• Process creation
• Process termination

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 Process Creation
 Parent process create children processes, which, in turn create other processes, forming a tree of processes
 Generally, process identified and managed via a process identifier (pid)
 Resource sharing options
• Parent and children share all resources
• Children share subset of parent’s resources
• Parent and child share no resources
 Execution options
• Parent and children execute concurrently
• Parent waits until children terminate

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 Process Creation (Cont.)
 Address space
• Child duplicate of parent
• Child has a program loaded into it
 UNIX examples
• fork() system call creates new process
• exec() system call used after a fork() to replace the process’ memory space with a new program
• Parent process calls wait()waiting for the child to terminate

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 A Tree of Processes in Linux

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 C Program Forking Separate Process

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 Creating a Separate Process via Windows API

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 Process Termination
 Process executes last statement and then asks the operating system to delete it using the exit() system call.
• Returns status data from child to parent (via wait())
• Process’ resources are deallocated by operating system
 Parent may terminate the execution of children processes using the abort() system call. Some reasons for
doing so:
• Child has exceeded allocated resources
• Task assigned to child is no longer required
• The parent is exiting, and the operating systems does not allow a child to continue if its parent terminates

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 Process Termination
 Some operating systems do not allow child to exists if its parent has terminated. If a process terminates, then all its
children must also be terminated.
• cascading termination. All children, grandchildren, etc., are terminated.
• The termination is initiated by the operating system.
 The parent process may wait for termination of a child process by using the wait()system call. The call
returns status information and the pid of the terminated process
pid = wait(&status);

 If no parent waiting (did not invokewait()) process is a zombie

 If parent terminated without invoking wait(), process is an orphan

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 Android Process Importance Hierarchy
 Mobile operating systems often have to terminate processes to reclaim system resources such as memory. From most to least
important:
• Foreground process
• Visible process
• Service process
• Background process
• Empty process
 Android will begin terminating processes that are least important.

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 Multiprocess Architecture – Chrome Browser
 Many web browsers ran as single process (some still do)
• If one web site causes trouble, entire browser can hang or crash
 Google Chrome Browser is multiprocess with 3 different types of processes:
• Browser process manages user interface, disk and network I/O
• Renderer process renders web pages, deals with HTML, Javascript. A new renderer created for each website opened
4 Runs in sandbox restricting disk and network I/O, minimizing effect of security exploits
• Plug-in process for each type of plug-in

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 Interprocess Communication
 Processes within a system may be independent or cooperating
 Cooperating process can affect or be affected by other processes, including sharing data
 Reasons for cooperating processes:
• Information sharing
• Computation speedup
• Modularity
• Convenience
 Cooperating processes need interprocess communication (IPC)
 Two models of IPC
• Shared memory
• Message passing

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 Communications Models
(a) Shared memory. (b) Message passing.

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 Producer-Consumer Problem
 Paradigm for cooperating processes:
• producer process produces information that is consumed by a consumer process
 Two variations:
• unbounded-buffer places no practical limit on the size of the buffer:
4 Producer never waits
4 Consumer waits if there is no buffer to consume
• bounded-buffer assumes that there is a fixed buffer size
4 Producer must wait if all buffers are full
4 Consumer waits if there is no buffer to consume

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 IPC – Shared Memory

 An area of memory shared among the processes that wish to communicate

 The communication is under the control of the users processes not the operating system.
 Major issues is to provide mechanism that will allow the user processes to synchronize their actions when they access
shared memory.
 Synchronization is discussed in great details in Chapters 6 & 7.

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 Bounded-Buffer – Shared-Memory Solution

 Shared data
#define BUFFER_SIZE 10
typedef struct {
. . .
} item;

item buffer[BUFFER_SIZE];
int in = 0;
int out = 0;

 Solution is correct, but can only use BUFFER_SIZE-1 elements

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 Producer Process – Shared Memory

item next_produced;

while (true) {
/* produce an item in next produced */
while (((in + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE) == out)
; /* do nothing */
buffer[in] = next_produced;
in = (in + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;
}

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 Consumer Process – Shared Memory

item next_consumed;

while (true) {
while (in == out)
; /* do nothing */
next_consumed = buffer[out];
out = (out + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;

/* consume the item in next consumed */

}

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 What about Filling all the Buffers?
 Suppose that we wanted to provide a solution to the consumer-producer problem that fills all the buffers.
 We can do so by having an integer counter that keeps track of the number of full buffers.
 counter is set to 0.
Initially,

 The integer counter is incremented by the producer after it produces a new buffer.

 The integer counter is and is decremented by the consumer after it consumes a buffer.

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 Producer

while (true) {
/* produce an item in next produced */
while (counter == BUFFER_SIZE)
; /* do nothing */
buffer[in] = next_produced;
in = (in + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;
counter++;
}

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 Consumer

while (true) {
while (counter == 0)
; /* do nothing */
next_consumed = buffer[out];
out = (out + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;
counter--;
/* consume the item in next consumed */
}

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 Race Condition
 counter++ could be implemented as

register1 = counter
register1 = register1 + 1
counter = register1
 counter-- could be implemented as

register2 = counter
register2 = register2 - 1
counter = register2
 Consider this execution interleaving with “count = 5” initially:
S0: producer execute register1 = counter {register1 = 5}
S1: producer execute register1 = register1 + 1 {register1 = 6}
S2: consumer execute register2 = counter {register2 = 5}
S3: consumer execute register2 = register2 – 1 {register2 = 4}
S4: producer execute counter = register1 {counter = 6 }
S5: consumer execute counter = register2 {counter = 4}

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 Race Condition (Cont.)
 Question – why was there no race condition in the first solution (where at most
N – 1) buffers can be filled?
 More in Chapter 6.

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 IPC – Message Passing
 Processes communicate with each other without resorting to shared variables
 IPC facility provides two operations:
• send(message)
• receive(message)

 The message size is either fixed or variable

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 Message Passing (Cont.)
 If processes P and Q wish to communicate, they need to:
• Establish a communication link between them
• Exchange messages via send/receive
 Implementation issues:
• How are links established?
• Can a link be associated with more than two processes?
• How many links can there be between every pair of communicating processes?
• What is the capacity of a link?
• Is the size of a message that the link can accommodate fixed or variable?
• Is a link unidirectional or bi-directional?

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 Implementation of Communication Link
 Physical:
• Shared memory
• Hardware bus
• Network
 Logical:
• Direct or indirect
• Synchronous or asynchronous
• Automatic or explicit buffering

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 Direct Communication
 Processes must name each other explicitly:
• send (P, message) – send a message to process P
• receive(Q, message) – receive a message from process Q
 Properties of communication link
• Links are established automatically
• A link is associated with exactly one pair of communicating processes
• Between each pair there exists exactly one link
• The link may be unidirectional, but is usually bi-directional

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 Indirect Communication
 Messages are directed and received from mailboxes (also referred to as ports)
• Each mailbox has a unique id
• Processes can communicate only if they share a mailbox
 Properties of communication link
• Link established only if processes share a common mailbox
• A link may be associated with many processes
• Each pair of processes may share several communication links
• Link may be unidirectional or bi-directional

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 Indirect Communication (Cont.)
 Operations
• Create a new mailbox (port)
• Send and receive messages through mailbox
• Delete a mailbox
 Primitives are defined as:
• send(A, message) – send a message to mailbox A
• receive(A, message) – receive a message from mailbox A

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 Indirect Communication (Cont.)
 Mailbox sharing
• P1, P2, and P3 share mailbox A
• P1, sends; P2 and P3 receive
• Who gets the message?
 Solutions
• Allow a link to be associated with at most two processes
• Allow only one process at a time to execute a receive operation
• Allow the system to select arbitrarily the receiver. Sender is notified who the receiver was.

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 Synchronization
Message passing may be either blocking or non-blocking
 Blocking is considered synchronous
• Blocking send -- the sender is blocked until the message is received
• Blocking receive -- the receiver is blocked until a message is available
 Non-blocking is considered asynchronous
• Non-blocking send -- the sender sends the message and continue
• Non-blocking receive -- the receiver receives:
4 A valid message, or
4 Null message
 Different combinations possible
• If both send and receive are blocking, we have a rendezvous

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 Producer-Consumer: Message Passing
 Producer
message next_produced;
while (true) {
/* produce an item in next_produced */

send(next_produced);
}

 Consumer
message next_consumed;
while (true) {
receive(next_consumed)

/* consume the item in next_consumed */

}

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 Buffering
 Queue of messages attached to the link.
 Implemented in one of three ways
1. Zero capacity – no messages are queued on a link.
Sender must wait for receiver (rendezvous)
2. Bounded capacity – finite length of n messages
Sender must wait if link full
3. Unbounded capacity – infinite length
Sender never waits

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 Examples of IPC Systems - POSIX
 POSIX Shared Memory
• Process first creates shared memory segment
shm_fd = shm_open(name, O CREAT | O RDWR, 0666);
• Also used to open an existing segment
• Set the size of the object
ftruncate(shm_fd, 4096);
• Use mmap() to memory-map a file pointer to the shared memory object
• Reading and writing to shared memory is done by using the pointer returned by mmap().

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 IPC POSIX Producer

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 IPC POSIX Consumer

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 Examples of IPC Systems - Mach
 Mach communication is message based
• Even system calls are messages
• Each task gets two ports at creation - Kernel and Notify
• Messages are sent and received using the mach_msg() function
• Ports needed for communication, created via
mach_port_allocate()
• Send and receive are flexible; for example four options if mailbox full:
4 Wait indefinitely
4 Wait at most n milliseconds
4 Return immediately
4 Temporarily cache a message

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 Mach Messages

#include<mach/mach.h>

struct message {
mach_msg_header_t header;
int data;
};

mach port t client;

mach port t server;

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 Mach Message Passing - Client

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 Mach Message Passing - Server

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 Examples of IPC Systems – Windows
 Message-passing centric via advanced local procedure call (LPC) facility
• Only works between processes on the same system
• Uses ports (like mailboxes) to establish and maintain communication channels
• Communication works as follows:
4 The client opens a handle to the subsystem’s connection port object.
4 The client sends a connection request.
4 The server creates two private communication ports and returns the handle to one of them to the
client.
4 The client and server use the corresponding port handle to send messages or callbacks and to listen
for replies.

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 Local Procedure Calls in Windows

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 Pipes
 Acts as a conduit allowing two processes to communicate
 Issues:
• Is communication unidirectional or bidirectional?
• In the case of two-way communication, is it half or full-duplex?
• Must there exist a relationship (i.e., parent-child) between the communicating processes?
• Can the pipes be used over a network?
 Ordinary pipes – cannot be accessed from outside the process that created it. Typically, a parent process creates a pipe
and uses it to communicate with a child process that it created.
 Named pipes – can be accessed without a parent-child relationship.

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 Ordinary Pipes
 Ordinary Pipes allow communication in standard producer-consumer style
 Producer writes to one end (the write-end of the pipe)
 Consumer reads from the other end (the read-end of the pipe)
 Ordinary pipes are therefore unidirectional
 Require parent-child relationship between communicating processes

 Windows calls these anonymous pipes

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 Named Pipes
 Named Pipes are more powerful than ordinary pipes
 Communication is bidirectional
 No parent-child relationship is necessary between the communicating processes
 Several processes can use the named pipe for communication
 Provided on both UNIX and Windows systems

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 Communications in Client-Server Systems

 Sockets
 Remote Procedure Calls

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 Sockets
 A socket is defined as an endpoint for communication
 Concatenation of IP address and port – a number included at start of message packet to differentiate network services on a
host
 The socket 161.25.19.8:1625 refers to port 1625 on host 161.25.19.8
 Communication consists between a pair of sockets
 All ports below 1024 are well known, used for standard services
 Special IP address 127.0.0.1 (loopback) to refer to system on which process is running

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 Socket Communication

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 Sockets in Java
 Three types of sockets
• Connection-oriented (TCP)
• Connectionless (UDP)
• MulticastSocket class– data can be
sent to multiple recipients
 Consider this “Date” server in Java:

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 Sockets in Java
The equivalent Date client

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 Remote Procedure Calls
 Remote procedure call (RPC) abstracts procedure calls between processes on networked systems
• Again uses ports for service differentiation
 Stubs – client-side proxy for the actual procedure on the server
 The client-side stub locates the server and marshalls the parameters
 The server-side stub receives this message, unpacks the marshalled parameters, and performs the procedure on the server
 On Windows, stub code compile from specification written in Microsoft Interface Definition Language (MIDL)

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 Remote Procedure Calls (Cont.)
 Data representation handled via External Data Representation (XDL) format to account for different architectures
• Big-endian and little-endian
 Remote communication has more failure scenarios than local
• Messages can be delivered exactly once rather than at most once
 OS typically provides a rendezvous (or matchmaker) service to connect client and server

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 Execution of RPC

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 End of Chapter 3

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Producer-Consumer Problem
 Paradigm for cooperating processes:
• producer process produces information that is consumed by a consumer process
 Two variations:
• unbounded-buffer places no practical limit on the size of the buffer:
4 Producer never waits
4 Consumer waits if there is no buffer to consume
• bounded-buffer assumes that there is a fixed buffer size
4 Producer must wait if all buffers are full
4 Consumer waits if there is no buffer to consume

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 Cooperating Processes
 Independent process cannot affect or be affected by the execution of another process
 Cooperating process can affect or be affected by the execution of another process
 Advantages of process cooperation
• Information sharing
• Computation speed-up
• Modularity
• Convenience

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.73 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Synchronization
 Message passing may be either blocking or non-blocking
• Blocking is considered synchronous
4 Blocking send -- the sender is blocked until the message is received
4 Blocking receive -- the receiver is blocked until a message is available
• Non-blocking is considered asynchronous
4 Non-blocking send -- the sender sends the message and continue
4 Non-blocking receive -- the receiver receives:
4 A valid message, or
4 Null message
• Different combinations possible
4 If both send and receive are blocking, we have a rendezvous

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.74 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018