A ssignment 05: Procedural Booklet

Information

IMPORTANT NOTE
Assignment 05 and Assignment 06 deal with the writing and
assessment of psychological interview questions. These two
assignments constitute a group. You cannot submit
Assignment 06 unless you have submitted Assignment 05.

Project The task is to formulate TEN interview questions for a

psychological interview. In order to do so, you have to provide
a scenario for which a psychological interview is required. The
interview questions should be based on TWO personality
theories (choose TWO theories from the following
chapters: Chapter 11: Maslow’s theory, Chapter 15: The
ecosystemic approach and Chapter 16: Eastern
perspectives). Formulate five interview questions per
theory, giving a total of TEN interview questions. The
assignment should be presented in the prescribed format.

Resource material The prescribed book for PYC4804

The resources contained in this booklet

Time required 3 weeks

Unique number 885221

Submission Final due Contribution to year Contribution to final

date mark mark

1 August 15% 3 marks

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R eview Scale
Resource material
The review scale is used to assess interview questions as well as questionnaire items. In the
case of an interview one refers to ‘the question’, and in the case of a questionnaire one refers
to ‘the item’.
Each question (in the case of an interview) or each item (in the case of a questionnaire) is
reviewed. For example, an interview involving 10 questions has 30 review ratings – three
ratings for each question/item used in the interview/questionnaire.

Here are the generic items of the review scale.

1. The item/question is formulated correctly if:

a the item/question is formulated in everyday language not using psychological jargon

b the item/question is not leading
c the item/question is not ambiguous

Rate 1 if none of a, b, c
Rate 2 if one of a, b, c
Rate 4 if two of a, b, c
Rate 5 if a+b+c

2. The item/question is grounded in theory if:

a the theory the item/question is based on is correct

b the item/question implements the theory it is based on correctly
c the item/question operates correctly in terms of the theory it is based on

Rate 1 if: not a

Rate 2 if: a
Rate 4 if: a+b
Rate 5 if: a+b+c

3. The item/question qualifies for practical use if:

a the item/question is comprehensible by those it is intended for

b the item/question serves the purpose of the interview
c the item/question is valid in practice
d the item/question is reliable in practice

Rate 1 if: not a + not b

Rate 2 if: a or b
Rate 3 if: a+b
Rate 4 if: a+b+c
Rate 5 if: a+b+c+d

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Interview questions and questionnaire items

The review scale is used to review interview questions as well as questionnaire items. The only
difference between interview questions and questionnaire items is the format or structure of
the questions. Interview questions may be broader questions, requiring more lengthy and
detailed responses, whereas questionnaire items may be more structured and require the
respondent to select answers from predefined lists or scales. In an interview, one may formulate
follow-up questions in light of the respondent’s answer to a previous question, whereas
questionnaires contain a fixed set of items. However, in the case of both interviews and
questionnaires, the interview questions and the questionnaire items should be:
- formulated correctly
- grounded in theory
- suitable for practical use.

The components of the review scale

The review scale consists of review criteria and rules to determine ratings. The criteria refer to
the aspects or features one has to look for when reviewing an interview question (or
questionnaire item). The rating rules are rules that indicate how criteria have to be combined
to obtain a particular rating.

Review criteria

One needs assessment criteria to review an interview or a questionnaire. Below are the criteria
that are used to assess the quality of an interview question/questionnaire item with reference to
its generic qualities, namely formulation, theoretical groundedness and practical use. The
criteria are numbered a, b, c, etcetera. (When these criteria are used to assess the quality of a
questionnaire item one refers to ‘the item’ instead of ‘the question’).

1. The question/item is formulated correctly if:

a the question/item is formulated in everyday language not using psychological jargon
b the question/item is not leading
c the question/item is not ambiguous

2. The question/item is grounded in theory if:

a the theory the question/item is based on is correct
b the question/item implements the theory it is based on correctly
c the question/item operates correctly in terms of the theory it is based on

3. The question/item qualifies for practical use if:

a the question/item is comprehensible by those it is intended for
b the question/item serves the purpose of the questionnaire/interview
c the question/item is valid in practice
d the question/item is reliable in practice

Rating rules

Review or assessment criteria can be used to construct an assessment scale. An assessment

scale assigns values (called ratings) to particular combinations of assessment criteria. The

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ratings range from 1 to 5. A rating of 1 is ‘very poor’ because none (or few) of the criteria are
met. A rating of 5 is ‘very good’ because all the criteria are satisfied.

Here are the rules for combining the criteria that are used to determine whether a question/item
has been formulated correctly:

Rate 1 if none of a, b, c
Rate 2 if one of a, b, c
Rate 4 if two of a, b, c
Rate 5 if a+b+c

- The first rule states that a rating of 1 is assigned if none of the criteria have been met.
- The second rule states that a rating of 2 is assigned if any ONE of criteria a, b, or c has
been met.
- The third rule states that a rating of 4 is assigned if any TWO of criteria a, b, or c has been
met.
- The fourth rule states that a rating of 5 is assigned if criteria a, b, AND c have been met.

Although a 5-point scale offers five possible ratings, namely 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, all ratings are not
always used. The lowest value (in this case 1) and the highest value (in this case 5) are always
defined, but some of the values in between may be left undefined. For example, if no rule is
provided for rating 3 (as is the case with this set of criteria), the only possible ratings would be
1, 2, 4 or 5. No rating of 3 can be given.

Here are the rules for combining the criteria that are used to determine whether a question has
been grounded in theory:

Rate 1 if not a
Rate 2 if a
Rate 4 if a+b
Rate 5 if a+b+c

- The first rule states that a rating of 1 is assigned if criterion a is not met.
- The second rule states that a rating of 2 is assigned if criterion a is met.
- The third rule states that a rating of 4 is assigned if criteria a and b are met.
- The fourth rule states that a rating of 5 is assigned if criteria a, b and c are met.

As was the case with the first set of criteria related to the formulation of the item above, not all
ratings are used with this set of criteria. The lowest value (in this case 1) and the highest value
(in this case 5) are always defined, but some of the values in between may be left undefined.
For example, there is no rule provided for rating 3, so the only possible ratings would be 1, 2,
4 or 5. No rating of 3 can be given.

Here are the rules for combining the criteria that are used to determine whether a question
qualifies for practical use.

Rate 1 if not a + not b

Rate 2 if a or b
Rate 3 if a+b
Rate 4 if a+b+c
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Rate 5 if a+b+c+d

The criteria are combined by means of ‘+’ and ‘or’. Thus a + b means both criterion a and
criterion b are met, and a or b means either criterion a or criterion b is satisfied. In the case of
‘not a + not b’ neither criterion a nor criterion b is met. Hence:

- The first rule states that a rating of 1 is assigned if neither criterion a nor criterion b are
met.
- The second rule states that a rating of 2 is assigned if either criterion a or b has been met.
- The third rule states that a rating of 3 is assigned if both criteria a and b have been met.
- The fourth rule states that a rating of 4 is assigned if criteria a, b, AND c have been met.
- The fifth rule states that a rating of 5 is assigned if ALL of a, b, c, d, and e have been met.

IMPORTANT NOTE:
In order to judge whether a question/item meets the criteria in the rating scale, you first need
to know what each criterion in the scale refers to – in this respect you have to study the ‘Notes
on the review criteria’ (See the Assignment 05 Procedural Booklet pp. 7-16) – you cannot judge
whether an item/question is leading if you do not know what a leading item/question looks like.
Similarly, you cannot judge whether an item/question is ambiguous if you don’t know what
ambiguity refers to – all the criteria in the rating scale have been unpacked on pp. 7-16 of
Assignment 05 Procedural Booklet. It is VITAL to understand what the criteria refer to if you
are going to provide correct ratings.

How to use a rating scale

Suppose you want to assess whether a question (in the case of an interview) or an item (in the
case of a questionnaire) is grounded in theory (see Item 2 above). Then note the following:
Firstly, that rating 3 is not defined. Therefore, the only valid ratings are 1, 2, 4 or 5. Secondly,
that the criteria are combined in a manner that sets up prerequisites. Criterion a is required for
ratings 2, 4 and 5. Therefore, criterion a is a prerequisite for criteria b and c. Criterion b is
required for ratings 4 and 5. As such, it is a prerequisite for criterion c. These prerequisites are
set up for a reason. If the theory that informs the question (criterion a) is not correct, the
question cannot be a correct implementation of theory (criterion b), and one cannot expect the
question to function or operate correctly in terms of the theory it is based on (criterion c). In
other words, if a is not correct one cannot consider b and c, and if b is not correct, c cannot be
considered.
Rating scales do not only provide ratings. For Assignment 03 and 06 you are also required to
provide comments that explain why you gave a particular rating. For example, suppose a
question’s grounding in theory is rated 4, which means criteria a and b are met. This generates
the following comment:

Although the theory the question is based on is correct, and the question implements the theory
correctly, it does not operate correctly in terms of the theory it is based on. It does not operate
correctly because …. (add an explanation to indicate how the question fails to operate
correctly).

How to conduct a review

The exercise of reviewing interview questions/questionnaire items is an integral part of your

coursework in this module. The objective is to expose you to an experience through which you

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can learn to assess the quality of psychological interview questions/questionnaire items and
thus improve your competency in writing interview questions/questionnaire items. This is an
important exercise to help you prepare for the examination in Personology.

We understand only too well that the peer review procedure may make you feel exposed and
vulnerable, but remember, peer review is the cornerstone of academic life. Risking one’s point
of view, having it evaluated and receiving criticism is part of weaving the fabric of a healthy
academic life. Therefore, write as many comments and suggestions as you can think of for
these interview questions/questionnaire items. Simply ensure that your remarks are well
justified in terms of the review criteria. Also, consider your attitude. Do not think of yourself
as the person in power. Think of yourself as someone who works with the author of the
interview questions/questionnaire items in an attempt to improve the interview/questionnaire.
Do not shy away from offering your views, but in doing so, try not to put down the person on
the receiving end, or to let him/her have it! Engage a conversational tone. State where you
disagree and explain why, but also indicate where you agree. If you come across interesting
material, or if you find a particularly well put argument, or a train of thought that is elegantly
presented, then say so! In this exercise, we try to pass on to our students some of the
fundamental characteristics of a well-educated person, namely, to be able to tolerate different
approaches and points of view, but also not to be afraid to speak your mind, and to do so in a
responsible and cordial manner.

**Now that you are familiar with the elements of the review scale and how to go about
assigning ratings it is essential to study the ‘Notes on the review criteria’ so that you know
what each criterion in the rating scale refers to. Please see the next page for the ‘Notes on the
review criteria’.

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N otes on review criteria
Resource material

1 Judge whether the question/item is formulated correctly

The question/item is formulated Consider:

correctly if: The way the question/item is formulated.
a the question/item is formulated Ask:
in everyday language not using
Does the question/item show any of the indicated
psychological jargon problems with regards to its formulation?
b the question/item is not leading
c the question/item is not Required knowledge and skills:
ambiguous Knowledge of the kind of problems associated with
the formulation of questions/items, and the ability to
identify these problems.

Note 1.a Questions/items should not be phrased in terms of technical language and
specialist vocabulary. The questions used in psychological interviews and
psychological questionnaires are based on psychological theory. Such
questions are designed to elicit responses that can be interpreted in terms of
psychological theory. It is not easy to formulate questions that are based on
theory. These questions should be formulated in ordinary language, and not
make use of psychological jargon. But despite being formulated in ordinary
language the questions should still elicit information that can be interpreted in
terms of the underlying theory. The point to keep in mind is that the person
who is interviewed should understand the question without having any
knowledge of psychology.

Note 1.b The question should not be leading because leading questions introduce
response bias. A leading question is a question that hints at or suggests an
answer or guides the respondent to a particular answer. Consider this question,
for example: Do you believe one can use sexually abusive language even
though sexual abuse is prohibited by law? The second part of the question (that
sexual abuse is prohibited by law) informs the respondent that sexual abuse is
not allowed, which alerts the respondent to the fact that using sexually abusive
language may not be a good idea. This guides the respondent by hinting at a
particular answer. The respondent is more likely to indicate that one should not
use abusive language. This response is biased because the respondent reacts to
the hint and not to what he/she truly believes.

Note 1.c Ambiguous questions are items or questions that are not resolved when a
respondent responds to the question because it is not clear what the respondent
is thinking. Ambiguous items/questions include (a) double-response
items/questions and (b) items/questions that lack information required for
providing a proper answer.
(a) Consider the following ambiguous item:
Mark [yes] or [no] to indicate whether you agree or disagree that South

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 Africans have high levels of anxiety?
If the respondent, marks [yes] it is not clear whether he/she means: “Yes, I
agree”, or “Yes I disagree”. This also holds when the respondent marks [no].
This is an example of a double-response item (yes/no and agree/disagree). One
of these responses should be removed to make sure the question is not
ambiguous:
Mark [yes] or [no] to indicate whether you agree that South Africans have high
levels of anxiety?
Or, Mark [agree] or [disagree] to indicate whether you agree or disagree that
South Africans have high levels of anxiety?
(b) Here is a second kind of an ambiguous question:
Use the scale [1… 2 … 3 … 4] to indicate how much you feel in control of your
life.
If a respondent marks 1 it is not clear whether the respondent feels totally in
control or totally without control. The same holds for 4, and for any of the other
numbers on the scale, because the meaning of these numbers is not specified.
This is an example of a question that lacks information that is necessary for a
proper answer. The question would not be ambiguous if formulated in the
following way:
Use the scale [1… 2 … 3 … 4] (in which 1 means no control and 4 means total
control) to indicate how much you feel in control of your life.
Or, Use the scale [no control… little control … much control … total control]
to indicate how much you feel in control of your life.

2 Judge whether the question/item is grounded in theory

The question/item is grounded in Required knowledge and skills:

theory if: Knowledge of relevant personality theory, and the
a the theory the question/item is ability to judge whether the theory is applied
based on is correct correctly.
b the question/item implements
the theory it is based on
correctly
c the question/item operates
correctly in terms of the theory
it is based on

a the theory the question/item is Consider:

based on is correct The theory the question/item is based on and how
the question/item uses the theory.
Ask a:
Is the theory that is presented as justification for the
question/item correct?

b the question/item implements Ask b:

the theory it is based on Is the theory correctly presented and translated into
correctly ordinary language in the formulation of the
question/item?

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c the question/item operates Ask c:
correctly in terms of the theory Is the information that is elicited by the
it is based on item/question correct in terms of the theory?

Note 2 Criterion a is a prerequisite for criterion b, and criterion b is a prerequisite for

criterion c. If the theory the question is based on is not interpreted and
understood correctly the question cannot be formulated correctly in terms of
the theory. Also, the question cannot operate correctly in terms of the theory if
the theory is incorrect or if it is implemented incorrectly.

Note 2.a A psychological question should be formulated in ordinary language so that

people with no knowledge of psychology can understand the question and
respond to it appropriately. But a psychological question is psychological
because it is based on psychological theory. In other words, a psychological
question implements psychological theory. The purpose of the question is to
obtain information about the person being interviewed (the respondent) in
terms of the underlying psychological theory. Thus, a psychological question
aims to tap psychological information about the respondent. The first
requirement for a question to be theoretically justified is the correctness of the
theory that informs the question. If the theory is not correct the question cannot
be correct.

Note 2.b A psychological question is psychological because it is based on psychological

theory. This means the theory is implemented by the question. The question
translates the theory into everyday language. When respondents answer the
question, their responses can be interpreted in terms of the psychological theory
the question is based on. But this can only happen if the question implements
the theory correctly.
For example, consider Karen Horney’s theory. Suppose a question is meant to
implement the theory that a person moves towards others in healthy ways
(versus unhealthy ways). This notion needs to be translated into ordinary
language as respondents are unlikely to be familiar with the jargon ‘movement
towards others’. This happens in the following question: ‘When things get
difficult, do you seek help from your colleagues?’ To seek help from one’s
colleagues is to approach others for assistance and move towards them in
healthy ways. When movement towards others becomes excessive and fixated
(and thus unhealthy) people seek permanent affection and support from others.
Horney classifies this kind of person as a submissive or compliant type who
acknowledges their own dependence on others and their own helplessness. This
represents unhealthy movement towards others. If you wanted to implement
this aspect of Horney’s theory you could ask a question such as “Do you need
the constant support, approval and validation of others?” This implementation
will identify someone of the submissive or compliant type whose movement
towards others is excessive and fixated.
Now consider the following question: ‘When things get difficult, do you prefer
to take control?’ This question does not implement the idea of moving towards

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 people. It implements a different aspect of Horney’s theory, namely the
tendency to move against others in healthy ways (in which people can be
assertive and display the ability to argue and differ from other people). When
movement against others becomes excessive and fixated it represents
unhealthy movement against others. A question that implements this unhealthy
movement against others is, for example, “Do you exploit others in the pursuit
of your own goals?”. This is a characteristic behaviour pattern of the hostile
personality type so if the interviewer considers the question as a reflection of
Horney’s hostile personality type, the question would be a correct
implementation of the theory.
An example of a question that does not implement Horney’s psychoanalytic
theory correctly: ‘When things get difficult, do you seek help from your
colleagues before you take control?’ According to Horney, although, in healthy
development the individual has recourse to all three interpersonal styles on an
alternating basis, the different interpersonal styles are irreconcilable and
preclude one another in any particular situation. Individuals belong to a
particular category and are not supposed to switch between categories. On the
grounds of Horney’s theory, one does not expect somebody to move towards
others (seeking help) only to then move against them (taking control). Thus,
the question does not enable respondents to provide a valid answer in terms of
Horney’s theory and the question does not implement the theory correctly.

Note 2.c There is a difference between how a question implements theory and how it
operates in terms of the implemented theory. Implementation refers to how the
underlying theory is represented in the question, how it is translated into
ordinary language. For example, the psychological construct of ‘moving
towards others’ can be translated into ‘seeking help from colleagues’ (an
ordinary language statement). Operation goes further than reflection or
implementation of the underlying theory. It is about how the question works,
what it does with the theory, what distinctions are drawn in terms of the theory
as provided by the responses to the question/item. Think in terms of the
theoretical operation of the item/question. In other words, what does the
information that is elicited by the item/question tell you in terms of the theory?
Here you have to look at the response options made available by the responses
to the question/item. Look at the distinctions that are drawn by the
question/item to see if these distinctions can be meaningfully interpreted in
terms of the theory. The important thing to keep in mind is that this criterion
refers to how the item/question operates in terms of the theory. The focus is
therefore on what the item/question does with the theory – what distinctions do
the operation of the question make in terms of the theory.
The following examples of how questions operate are based on Karen Horney’s
theory, which distinguishes three kinds of interpersonal behaviour, namely
‘moving towards others’, ‘moving against others’ and ‘moving away from
others’. Horney sees these interpersonal behaviour types as irreconcilable and
preclusive of one another because a person cannot simultaneously move
towards, against or away from people. Thus, they constitute three categories
into which people can be classified.
If one asks whether a person approaches colleagues for help when things get

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 difficult, the function of the question, the way in which it operates in terms of
Karen Horney’s psychoanalytic theory, is to identify healthy movement
towards others. The respondents who answer ‘yes’ confirm that they tend to
‘move towards others’. Respondents who deny the tendency to seek help from
colleagues imply that they do not tend to ‘move towards others’ and therefore
may not display this interpersonal style. Thus, the way in which the question
operates is to distinguish between people who move towards others in healthy
ways and those who do not. The question identifies movement towards others,
but it does not produce further information about those who do not display this
interpersonal style. Although its function is restricted, the question operates
correctly in terms of the theory it is based on.
Suppose the question used in the previous example is revised as follows:
‘When things get difficult, do you seek help from your colleagues, or do you
take control?’ In this form, the question elicits more information. It
differentiates between movement towards others (do you seek help from your
colleagues) and those who display the interpersonal style of movement against
others (do you take control).

3 Judge whether the question/item qualifies for practical use

The question/item qualifies for practical use Required knowledge and skills:
if: Knowledge of the nature of psychological
a the question/item is comprehensible by questions/item, and the ability to judge
those it is intended for whether such questions/items are fit for
b the question/item serves the purpose of purpose.
the interview/questionnaire
c the question/item is valid in practice
d the question/item is reliable in practice

a the question/item is comprehensible by Consider:

those it is intended for The respondents that the question/item is
intended for.
Ask a:
Is the respondent likely to understand the
question/item?

b the question/item serves the purpose of Consider:

the interview/questionnaire The purpose of the interview/questionnaire
– that is, what the interview/questionnaire
Further refinement of criteria: is intended to be used for (which is to be
b The question/item serves the purpose of found in the scenario).
the interview/questionnaire if:
b1 the question/item operates correctly in Ask b1:
Does the question operate correctly in
terms of the theory on which it is based
terms of the theory?
b2 the question/item generates
Ask b2:
information that contributes toward
Does the question/item generate
achieving the purpose of the
information that contributes toward

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 interview/questionnaire achieving the purpose of the
questionnaire/interview

c the question/item is valid in practice

Further refinement of criteria:

c the question/item is valid in practice if:
Consider:
c1 the question/item is relevant in the
The context in which the
context in which the
interview/questionnaire is to be used.
interview/questionnaire is used
Ask c1:
Is the question/item relevant in the context
in which the interview/questionnaire is to
be used?

Consider:
c2 The question/item is fair to all
The nature of the respondents that the
respondents question/item is intended for.
Ask c2:
Are these respondents equally able to
respond to this question/item, that is the
question/item is not biased in any way?

d the question/item is reliable in practice

Further refinement of criteria:

d the question/item is reliable in practice
if:
Consider:
The consistency of responses across
d1 respondents are likely to attach the same
respondents.
meaning to the question/item
Ask d1:
Are respondents likely to attach the same
meaning to the question/item i.e., are they
likely to understand the question/item in
the same way?

d2 respondents are likely to provide the Consider

same responses as before when asked The consistency of responses over time.
again at a later stage Ask d2:
Are respondents likely to provide the same
responses as before when they are asked
the question/item again at a later stage?

Note 3.a A question should be comprehensible by those it is intended for. The

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 difficulty with the item/questions we deal with here is that they are
psychological questions. A psychological question is a question that
implements psychological theory. When an interviewer asks a psychological
question, he/she tries to understand the respondent in terms of the
psychological theory that informs the question. But respondents do not
possess psychological knowledge. Therefore, the interviewer has to translate
psychological theory into ordinary language and phrase the questions in a
language that the respondents can understand. The language should be
familiar to respondents given their lived experiences. A question that contains
psychological jargon has not been properly translated and may therefore be
difficult to comprehend by those it is intended for. A question containing
psychological jargon is also not fair to all respondents, because respondents
with knowledge of psychology are in a better position to respond to such an
item/question i.e., the item/question has an educational bias.

A question/item cannot serve the purpose of an interview/questionnaire if it

Note 3.b does not correctly implement the theory it is based on and if it does not
operate correctly in terms of this theory.
To serve the purpose of the interview/questionnaire the information generated
by a question/item should contribute to the purpose of the
interview/questionnaire (the purpose of the questionnaire/interview is
communicated in the scenario). For example, if the purpose of the interview
is to differentiate people in terms of internal-external locus of control, the
questions used in the interview should address this matter. A question that
aims to distinguish individuals in terms of specific anxiety versus free-flow
anxiety clearly would not serve the purpose of this interview.
This does not mean that each question/item has to fully implement the
purpose of the interview/questionnaire, but all questions/items should
contribute towards the purpose of the interview/questionnaire although some
questions/items may fulfil only part of the overall purpose. For example, the
purpose of the interview may be to profile individuals’ behaviour in terms of
the tendencies to be directive, persuasive, conciliatory and compliant. But this
does not mean that each and every question in the interview should provide
information about all four of these aspects of behaviour. Some questions may
differentiate between the preference to direct and the preference to persuade,
whereas others could distinguish between the preference to direct and the
preference to comply. Each of these questions contributes information
towards the overall purpose of profiling an individual’s behaviour in terms of
these four behavioural preferences.
It is important to be clear about the overall purpose of an interview. Suppose
the purpose of an interview is only to differentiate between individuals with
a high preference to direct and persuade versus those with a high preference
to conciliate and comply. Then all questions in the interview should aim to
provide information about this particular distinction. Questions aimed at
delineating differences between the preference to direct and the preference to
persuade would be wasted because making this distinction does not contribute
to the purpose of the questionnaire.

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Note 3.c To be valid, a question should be meaningful and appropriate given the
context in which the interview is used. If the purpose is to explore the
experience of stress in a particular kind of situation (e.g., the work
environment), the question should refer to the situation in question, and not
mention a different kind of situation (e.g., the home environment). It should
also refer to experiences that are likely to be encountered in the context in
question. If the interview is about experiences in the workplace, the questions
should be phrased in terms of behaviour and events that could reasonably be
encountered in the particular work environment.
The question should also be fair to all respondents. All respondents should
find the question appropriate and suitable. In other words, the question should
not be biased by advantaging some individuals and disadvantaging others. A
question is biased if the response given by the respondent depends on a
characteristic of the respondent that does not concern the purpose of the
question. Questions formulated using psychological jargon, for example, are
not fair to all respondents – those with knowledge of psychological
terminology are in a better position to be able to respond to questions
containing psychological jargon than respondents without knowledge of
psychology. Such a question has an educational bias towards people with
knowledge of psychological jargon.
Experience is a common source of bias. If individuals with particular
experiences find it easier to respond to an item/question the question is not
fair to those who do not have the experience, which means the question is
biased. For example, suppose an interviewer wants to establish whether a
respondent is inclined more towards internal locus of control than external
locus of control in an information technology environment, and asks: ‘Do you
think you prefer to work in XML because it allows you to control the structure
of a database instead of having to work within a predetermined structure?’
Although the question is contextually relevant in dealing with information
technology individuals who are experienced XML programmers are in a
better position to respond to the question than those who may not have XML
programming experience.
Other common sources of bias are gender, age and education. For example,
the purpose of a question may be to identify managers’ leadership styles.
However, if men are more likely than women to provide a particular response
the question has a gender bias. Questions about competence in information
technology often have an age bias because younger people are more likely
than older people to show competence in this regard. Questions involving
knowledge about a particular field often have an educational bias. These
kinds of questions are not fair because the responses given by respondents
depend on characteristics of the respondents (experience, gender, age,
education, etc.) that do not concern the purpose of the questions.

Note 3.d Reliability has to do with the consistency of responses. There are two kinds
of consistency, namely consistency across respondents and consistency over
time.
Consistency across respondents is evident when all respondents attach the
same meaning to the item/question. Of course, this does not mean they all

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provide the same answer. They have different opinions, and therefore
different answers, but they all have similar understandings of what the
question/item means. In other words, there is consistency in their
understanding of the question/item.
Respondents respond inconsistently when they do not attach the same
meaning to an item/question, which happens when the item/question is open
to different interpretations.
Ambiguous items/questions are unreliable because respondents do not
understand such questions in the same way and therefore their responses
cannot be compared to each other. In the case of double-response
items/questions, two respondents may provide the same response but the
meaning they attach to the item/question may differ. Or they may give
different responses even though the meaning they attach to the item/question
is the same. In both cases, these responses cannot be compared to each other,
thus rendering the item/question unreliable.
For example, given the question: Select ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to indicate whether the
statement that you are a prolific reader is true or false:
1. Respondent A may say: YES, meaning that he/she is a prolific reader
(confirming that the statement is true)
2. Respondent B may say: YES, meaning that he/she is not a prolific reader
(confirming that the statement is false)
3. Or, Respondent B may say: NO, meaning that he/she is a prolific reader
(denying that the statement is false)

In (1) and (2) respondents A and B give the same response, but the responses
mean different things, and in (1) and (3) they give different responses, but the
responses mean the same thing. Inconsistency also occurs in the case of
questions that lack guidelines for responding properly. Respondents’
responses cannot be compared because there is no way to determine what
their responses actually mean when they make up and follow their own
guidelines for responding to an item/question.
A second source of inconsistent responses is questions that contain indefinite
words (e.g., often, seldom, and rarely). Although each respondent offers
definite answers to such questions the answers obtained from different
respondents may not be comparable because interpretations of indefinite
words may differ among respondents. For example, the statement ‘I rarely
sleep late’ may mean different things to different individuals. People do not
have the same interpretations of what ‘rarely’ means and what time ‘late’
refers to.
A third source for inconsistency is guessing. Guessing occurs when
respondents do not know how to respond to items/questions. Questions that
lack proper guidelines is one reason for guessing (respondents guess at how
to respond to such questions), but another reason is incomprehensibility.
When questions are incomprehensible respondents have to guess what the
questions actually mean. Responses based on guessing are inconsistent.
In addition to consistency across respondents, reliability also refers to
consistency over time. To be reliable a question should elicit a similar

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 response from a respondent when he/she is asked to respond to the
item/question again at a later stage. A question such as: “Do you feel angry?”
depends on the moment and context in which the question is asked. A
respondent who feels angry at the moment the question is put to him will say
‘yes’, but when the question is repeated later, the same respondent may say
‘no’. Thus, the question does not work in practice. A better question would
have been: “Do you feel angry when other people ignore you?” because this
question is likely to elicit the same response from a respondent when repeated
at a later stage.

But not all sources of bias involve the characteristics of the respondent. There
are also other factors that cause random or biased information. For example,
ambiguous items/questions are sources of random information. Respondents
respond randomly (i.e., not systematically) to an ambiguous item/question.
Leading questions are sources of biased information because the respondents’
responses are influenced by values and perceptions that do not involve
underlying theory.

**Now that you are familiar with the review criteria, study the resource ‘Designing your
psychological interview’ below outlining how to go about designing your psychological
interview and writing your interview questions.

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Designing your psychological interview
For assignment 05 you are required to develop your own psychological interview. The
interview must be based on 2 theories (choose any TWO from Chapter 11: Maslow’s theory,
Chapter 15: The ecosystemic approach and Chapter 16: Eastern perspectives). The first
theory you choose will underpin the first 5 interview questions you have to formulate, and the
second theory will underpin the other 5 questions. Note that psychological interviews can
contain both open-ended questions, and questions which ask a respondent to choose between
various options. For example, a question that requires a respondent to indicate a preference
between two/more options could be phrased as follows:
Explain to me whether you are the kind of person who actively plans ahead or do you prefer to
take each day as it comes?

When designing your psychological interview, you have to think clearly about a few things.
Start with your scenario. Give a brief overview (a few paragraphs) of the theory you have
chosen with emphasis on those aspects of the theory that are specifically relevant to your
interview scenario i.e., the psychological characteristics/traits that your interview questions
aim to identify. You can be as creative as you like in designing a scenario but try to keep it
relatively simple. Or you can use the same kind of scenario that we use in your tutorial matter
i.e., design your interview to be used as a selection instrument for a specific kind of job or
training program etc. When writing up your scenario, offer enough detail so that the reader is
well informed of the context in which the interview will be used. Include a paragraph indicating
the reason(s) (aims/purpose/s) for your interview – an interview is designed for a specific
purpose/reason (to identify specific psychological characteristics/traits). For example, if you
formulate a scenario for a job interview, the interview (and the questions you ask) are designed
to identify specific psychological characteristics in your respondents (e.g., a specific instance
of optimal development such as empathy or freedom from prejudice etc.). Or if you have
constructed a clinical interview for your scenario, you may be looking for the presence or
absence of specific behaviours or symptoms etc. – you need to make explicit what it is your
interview (and hence, interview questions) are designed to assess. Be explicit about the purpose
of the interview and about how each of the questions contribute to the interview’s purpose.
Also make explicit, in the scenario, the psychological characteristics/behaviours/traits that are
being assessed by the psychological interview. In other words, your interview questions must
be designed to identify psychological constructs as set forth by a particular personality theory.
You might decide to focus on a particular theorist’s conception of optimal development – you
then need to design your interview to determine whether an individual displays the
characteristics associated with the theorist’s conception of optimal development.
Whatever your scenario, make sure that the theories you choose are well suited to elicit the
kind of information you need, given the aim(s) of your interview. You also need to indicate
how your chosen theories support, and are relevant to, the focus/aims of your interview. In
other words, your chosen theories need to say something about the characteristics for which
you are interviewing (i.e., locus of control, the presence of aggression, the absence of
pathological behaviour etc.). Suppose your interview is designed to assess individuals applying
to work in a high-risk job. Due to the nature of the job suitable applicants need to demonstrate
that they are able to take control of their circumstances and environments. This infers that they
need to demonstrate an internal locus of control. You then need to choose a theory that allows
you to identify this characteristic in people. Similarly, if you are interviewing respondents to

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work in a sales position where interacting with others is important, Karen Horney’s theory is
relevant given that it can be used to distinguish between individuals who move towards others
versus away from/against others. Or if you are interviewing students who have applied for a
master’s degree in clinical psychology and you need to know whether the applicants display
characteristics of optimal development such as empathy/a concern for humankind and a
democratic attitude, Maslow’s theory would be appropriate given that his conception of self-
actualisation includes notions such as empathy and a democratic character structure. The
theories you choose must therefore say something about the characteristics the interview is
designed to assess. Make sure to study the prescribed theories to familiarise yourself with the
information that can be elicited in terms of a particular theory. For example, if a theory focuses
on the interplay of psychic dynamics to explain human functioning (such as the depth-
psychology theories) it will not be a suitable theory to employ if you wanted to focus on the
patterns of interpersonal behaviour that exist in a family system. In other words, different
theories focus on different aspects of human functioning to explain human personality
characteristics/behaviours. Make sure that the theory you choose can elicit information about
the personality characteristic/behaviour that you are interested in assessing. In sum, be sure to
indicate the aims/purposes of the interview (that is, the (psychological) theoretical aspects you
are interviewing for i.e., extraversion or movement towards others etc.) as well as how the
theory you have chosen supports the aims of your interview (how the theory is relevant – what
it says about the characteristics the interview is designed to assess in respondents). Without
this information the scenario does not make much sense.
Once you have decided what the focus of your scenario should be, you need to formulate the
interview questions to elicit the information you are looking for. Design each question with a
particular purpose in mind such that each question contributes to the overall purpose of the
interview (that is, to identify particular psychological characteristics/traits as espoused by the
theory you choose). And don’t try to get too complicated or fancy – keep it simple. Identify
what theoretical concept/construct you want to assess and formulate a question that implements
this concept. At this point you’ve worked with the criteria related to the question’s formulation,
theoretical grounded-ness and practical use, so use what you’ve learned to scaffold a
framework for developing your questions (make sure they’re not leading, ambiguous etc., make
sure they implement the theory correctly and operate correctly in terms of the theory and that
they meet the criteria for practical use etc.).
You have to provide a justification for each question that you formulate. The question’s
justification must indicate three important aspects pertaining to the theoretical grounded-ness
of a question: (1) The theory (or aspect of a theory) on which the question is based: Be specific
and cite the theoretical notion that informs the formulation of the question. In other words, if
the question taps into Jung’s taxonomy of personality types in order to identify, for example,
the extravert-thinking type, indicate precisely what the theory says about the extravert-thinking
type i.e. ‘The question is based on Jung’s theory which identifies eight different personality
types. The extravert-thinking type perceives the world as structured and lives according to fixed
objective rules and all subjective feelings are repressed’. This tells the reader/reviewer what
theoretical aspect informs the question. (2) The implementation of the (aspect of the) theory in
the question, that is how the (aspect of the) theory is implemented in the question, how it is
translated into the (everyday) language used in the question’s formulation. For example, the
theoretical notion of introversion-extraversion is implemented in the following interview
question: ‘Do you prefer spending time alone reflecting on your thoughts and feelings or do
you prefer going to lively parties where you can have stimulating conversations with others?’
Introversion is implemented in the notion of spending time alone reflecting on one’s thoughts
and feelings and extraversion is implemented in the notion of going to parties where you can

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have stimulating conversations with others. It is therefore important to include a sentence in
the justification about how the theoretical concept/construct under investigation is translated
into the language used in the formulation of the question. (3) It is also necessary to indicate
how the question operates (how it functions) in terms of the theory on which it is based in order
to, for example, identify someone as extraverted or to determine whether someone moves
towards or against others. Following on from the introversion-extraversion example used in (2)
above, it would be necessary to indicate that the question operates by distinguishing between
individuals who are extraverted (respondents who indicate that they prefer going to lively
parties) and individuals who are introverted (those who indicate that they prefer spending time
alone reflecting on their thoughts and feelings). So, make sure that you include a sentence on
how the question operates in terms of its underlying theory. (Please see the resource
‘Assignment 5 Task’ [below] in this booklet (‘Step 3’ [pp. 20-21]) for an additional explanation
of these 3 aspects.) You need to indicate all 3 of these aspects so that when your peers review
your interview questions it is clear what the theory says about the psychological
concept/construct under investigation, how the theory is implemented in the question and how
the question operates in terms of the theory.
Important note:
Assignment 05 is due on 1 August. Students are advised that if their assignment 05s are not
received by the due date of 1 August, they will not be able to partake in the peer review process.
This is an invaluable learning experience, and the review of your peers’ assignments offers
additional opportunities to engage with the prescribed theories and to work with and practice
using the review criteria to assess psychological interview questions. Kindly note that NO
extensions can be granted because once the submission portal closes no further assignment
submissions are possible.

Again, please be sure to submit your Assignment 05 via the myModules (myUnisa)
platform and NOT via myAdmin or the assignment submission platform/any other
platform, otherwise your assignment will not be included in the peer review process.

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T ask
Assignment 05
Project Formulate interview questions for a psychological questionnaire.

Step 1 Write a scenario for which a psychological interview is required. (See

Step 4 below [p. 22] and the resource ‘Designing your psychological
interview’ in this booklet [pp. 17-19] for more information about writing
the scenario/interview questions.) Choose TWO of the theories
indicated below on which to base your interview questions.

Step 2 Base the interview on TWO personality theories, selected from

amongst the following chapters in the prescribed book: Chapter
11 (Maslow), Chapter 15 (Ecosystemic approach), and Chapter 16
(Eastern perspectives).

Step 3 Formulate TEN interview questions based on TWO theories:

Base questions 1 to 5 on the first theory you selected.
Base questions 6 to 10 on the second theory you selected.

Use the following format for each question:

- Number the question, for example: “Interview question 1”
- Write down the question

Note that psychological interviews can contain both open-ended

questions, and questions which ask a respondent to choose between
various options. For example, a question that requires a respondent
to indicate a preference between two/more options could be phrased
as follows:
Explain to me whether you are the kind of person who actively plans
ahead or do you prefer to take each day as it comes?

Under the heading “Question Justification” write a short paragraph in

which you explain and justify the interview question in terms of the
psychological theory it is based on and in terms of the purpose of the
question, given the scenario you provided.

NOTE:
In the question’s justification, you need to indicate the theory (or the
part/aspect of the theory) on which the question is based. You also
need to indicate how the question implements the theory, that is, how
the question translates the psychological concept/aspect under
investigation into ordinary language. Finally, you also need to indicate
how the question operates in terms of the theory (i.e., what do the
responses to the question tell you in terms of the theory on which the

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question is based?). (Also see the resource ‘Designing your
psychological interview’ above for more information on these 3
aspects that need to be included in the question’s justification.)

As an example, consider the following interview question:

‘Would you say you are the kind of person who is outward looking or
are you more focused on your own experiences and emotions?’

Question justification

(1) The question is based on Frankl’s notion of self-transcendence,

one of the characteristics associated with optimally developed people.
Self-transcendence involves moving beyond self-absorption and
focusing rather on developing productive relationships with others
and the world. (2) The question implements ‘self-transcendence’ in
the notion that people who display self-transcendent behaviour are
outward-looking rather than turned in on themselves. (3) The question
operates to distinguish between individuals who display self-
transcendent behaviour (those who indicate they are outward looking)
and those who do not (individuals who indicate that they are more
focused on their own experiences and emotions).

As you can see, in the question’s justification above you need to

indicate 3 things:
(1) First, provide a theoretical statement (a statement which indicates
the particular aspect of a theory on which the question is based). In
this instance, the question employs the notion of self-transcendence,
and hence, one has to indicate what the theory says about self-
transcendence.
(2) Second, indicate how the theoretical concept under investigation
(in this case, self-transcendence) is implemented in the question.
Implementation refers to how the theoretical concept of interest is
translated into ordinary, everyday language (study the resource called
‘Notes on the review criteria’ in this booklet about implementing the
theory). For example, ‘self-transcendence’ can be implemented in the
notion of ‘being outward-looking rather than focussed on your own
experiences and emotions’.
(3) Third, indicate how the question operates in terms of the theory.
How a question operates in terms of the theory refers to how the
question functions in terms of the theory, i.e., what the question does
with the theory on which it is based (see the Notes on the Review
Criteria in this booklet). In the example above, the question operates
to distinguish between respondents who indicate that they are
outward looking and those who are more focused on themselves and
their own experiences and emotions. In terms of the theory,
respondents who indicate that they are outward looking display self-
transcendent qualities, and those who indicate that they are more
focused on their own experiences and emotions do not demonstrate

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 self-transcendence.

Step 4 Use the following format for your assignment:

Page 1: On the first page, provide the title of the psychological

interview as well as your student number:

Example 1: “Psychological interview for a job position”

“Interview formulated by: 01214473”
Example 2: “Psychological interview for assessing depression”
“Interview formulated by: 23135126

(Note that these are merely examples of the kinds of scenarios you
can use in the construction of your interview questions. You can
develop any scenario that lends itself to the development of interview
questions. Note, however, that because the interview questions are
based on a specific theory, the theory you choose must lend itself to
the information required from the questions/interview. In other words,
you cannot use a particular theory to assess for depression if the
theory does not tell you anything about depression. Different theories
conceptualise psychological functioning/behaviour in different ways,
so make sure that the theory you choose lends itself to the
psychological characteristics/behaviours/traits your interview
questions are designed to assess.)

Page 2: Use the heading “Interview scenario” and compose your

interview scenario. Remember also to indicate how the theories
support the interview – In other words, you need to indicate why your
chosen theories are apt for use in your scenario. For example, if you
want to use a particular theory to determine whether an individual
shows the characteristics associated with optimal development, you
need to indicate how the theory conceptualises optimally developed
people.

Also remember to indicate the purpose of your interview in your

scenario – in other words make explicit the psychological
characteristics/behaviours/traits (as espoused by a particular theory)
which your interview has been designed to assess. This is necessary
information as it tells the reader what the interview will be used for.
Say, for example, you want to determine whether someone displays
optimally developed characteristics according to Frankl’s theory. You
will then indicate in your scenario that the questions contained in the
interview were designed to assess aspects of optimal development
as theorised by Frankl such as (for example) self-transcendence,
work as a vocation and self-determining action. Without this
information the reader does not know the purpose of the interview and
therefore cannot judge whether the questions serve the purpose of
the interview.

Page 3: Use the heading “Proposed interview questions” and

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Step 5 formulate the proposed questions. Remember to provide a
justification for each question. A question is justified by indicating the
theory (or part of the theory) that informs the question and by
explaining how the question implements the theory and how it
operates in terms of the theory (See Step 3 above as well as the Notes
on the review criteria in this booklet).

Note: If your work does not fit on single pages as indicated above,
simply continue to the next page, and increase the page numbers
accordingly.

Page 4:Provide a reference list for the sources you consulted. You
also need to provide in-text citations when citing theoretical
information. All in-text citations must be provided in the reference list.
Please use referencing techniques as per APA 7th edition. There are
many resources on the internet that may be consulted in this regard.

Page 5:Include the signed Good research and plagiarism declaration

on the last page. Please note that any form of plagiarism or academic
dishonesty will result in a 0 (zero) mark for the assignment. The
plagiarism case will be referred to the Student disciplinary office for
actioning.

Go to myModules (myUnisa) and submit your assignment as

Assignment 05 for PYC4804. The assignment has to be submitted in
PDF format. Also, if you do not submit Assignments 05 online via
myModules (myUnisa), you cannot partake in the peer review
process. DO NOT submit your PDF document via myAdmin or
the assignment submission portal.

Very important: Regularly visit the course page for PYC4804 on

myUnisa to look for new announcements and additional resource
material. Also, remember to activate your myLife.unisa.ac.za email
address.

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