UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY

PRACTICAL PSYCHOLOGY

PSY 137

NAME: MORENIKEJI JANET JOHN

MATRIC NO.: 240904059

GROUP 1

UNDERSTANDING VARIABLES IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH:

INDEPENDENT, DEPENDENT, EXTRANEOUS AND CONFOUNDING

VARIABLE

LECTURER IN CHARGE: MR OSCAR V. OYOGHO

Variables are fundamental in any experimental research, they define the boundaries of what is

studied and measured. A variable is a characteristic or attribute of an individual or an

organization that can be measured or observed and that varies among the people or

organization being studied (Creswell & Creswell 2018). Whether it's a research on sleep

deprivation on memory or positive reinforcement on behaviour, their findings are rooted in

the careful manipulation of variables. These variables; Independent Variable, Dependent

variable, Extraneous Variable and Confounding Variable plays a central role in the shaping of

any research.

According Morling (2021), an independent variable is one that is deliberately altered or

manipulated to examine its influence on a dependent variable. The Independent Variable acts

as a catalyst, introduced by the researcher to provoke a response, while the Dependent

Variable is the effect of what was measured, observed and manipulated. However, this

shaping between the independent and dependent variable can be disrupted by external forces;

Extraneous Variables if not properly controlled and also Confounding Variables that imitates

the effects and results of the experiment. This paper explores the meaning, functions and

implications of independent, dependent, extraneous and confounding variables within a

psychological research with verifiable and real-life examples to demonstrate their application.

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2.0. INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

These variables are manipulated by researchers to observe its effect on another variable

(dependent variable). Independent Variables are those that researchers manipulate to

determine whether they cause changes in another variable (Gravetter & Forzano 2018)

2.1. Real life example: Children and Aggressive Behaviour

The Bobo Doll Experiment (1961) was conducted by Albert Bandura and his colleagues to

study observational learning and how children imitate aggressive behaviour. Their aim was to

determine whether children would imitate the aggressive behaviour modelled by an adult.

(Bandura & Ross 1961). In this classic experiment, the independent variable was the type

of model behaviour (aggressive, non-aggressive, or no model) that the children observed.

This manipulation allowed researchers to assess the causal effect of observed aggression on

children’s later behaviour, which was measured as the dependent variable.

2.1.2. Levels of Independent Variable

The levels of an independent variable refer to the different conditions or groups that

participants are exposed to in an experiment. In experimental research, the levels of an

independent variable represent the different conditions to which participants are assigned. For

instance, in the real-life example above, (Bandura’s study), the independent variable

(observed behaviour) had three levels: aggressive model, non-aggressive model, and no

model.

2.1.3. Operationalizing Independent Variables

To operationalize an independent variable means to define it in specific, observable and

measurable terms so it can be manipulated in a research. For instance, the independent

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variable in the Bobo Doll experiment was operationalized by clearly defining and

standardizing the model’s behaviour across three conditions: aggressive, non-aggressive, and

no model (Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1961).

2.1.4. Controlling Independent Variables

Controlling the Independent Variable means to systematically manipulate it across conditions

while keeping all other variables constant, ensuring that any change in the dependent variable

is because of the Independent Variable and nothing else.

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3.0. DEPENDENT VARIABLE

In experimental psychology, the Dependent Variable is the outcome that is measured to

assess the effect of the independent variable. It is termed “dependent” because its value is

presumed to change as a result of manipulations to the independent variable. The dependent

variable is the variable that is measured in an experiment. The researcher examines whether it

is influenced by changes to the independent variable (McLeod, 2019) which means, the

Dependent Variable reflects the effects of the treatment or condition under investigation. To

ensure scientific accuracy and replicability, dependent variables must be clearly

operationalized, that is, defined in specific, observable, and measurable terms. This allows

other researchers to replicate the study and helps avoid ambiguity in the interpretation of

results (McLeod, 2019; Cherry, 2023).

3.1. REAL LIFE EXAMPLE: Sleep Duration and Memory

In a study examining the impact of sleep duration on memory performance, the independent

variable might be the number of hours of sleep participants receive (e.g., 4, 6, or 8 hours).

The dependent variable, in this case, could be the number of words correctly recalled from a

previously studied list. Here, memory performance is operationalized as “the number of

correctly recalled words after a 10-minute delay.”

3.1.1. EXAMPLE 2

In a research exploring the effect of room cleanliness on creativity, participants might be

randomly assigned to work in either a clean or cluttered room (independent variable), and

their creativity could be measured by the number of original uses they generate for a common

object like a paperclip (dependent variable). The dependent variable here which is creativity

is operationalized as the count of unique, non-repetitive responses provided in a timed task.

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In both examples, the dependent variable is clearly defined, measurable, and directly related

to the manipulation of the independent variable, which is essential for drawing valid

conclusions. A well-operationalized dependent variable ensures that the research findings are

credible and interpretable within the context of the experimental design.

3.1.2. Implications of Dependent Variable

 Defines the Study’s Focus: By selecting a dependent variable, the researcher

explicitly states what they aim to examine. As Bhandari (2023) explains, the

dependent variable “is the effect,” representing the outcome measured after

manipulating the independent variable (p. 2). For example, choosing “academic

performance” signifies a clear objective to understand or enhance educational

achievement.

 Drives Validity of Research: The internal and construct validity of a study depends

heavily on how well the dependent variable is defined and measured. Price et al.

(2017) emphasize that rigorous operational definitions are required to ensure that the

dependent variable authentically represents the construct under investigation. A

poorly operationalized dependent variable threatens reliability and may lead to

ambiguous conclusions.

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4.0. EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES

Extraneous variables are any variables other than the independent variable that may

inadvertently influence the dependent variable. While they are not intentionally studied, they

pose a serious threat to the internal validity of research because they can obscure or mimic

the effects of the independent variable. According to Price, Jhangiani & Chiang (2017),

controlling extraneous variables is essential for drawing accurate conclusions, as failure to do

so can result in misleading or biased findings. To manage their influence, researchers often

use standardization, which involves keeping conditions constant for all participants.

4.1. Real life example: Music and Concentration

In a study examining how background music affects concentration, standardizing the testing

environment, such as room lighting, noise level, and time of day ensures that all participants

experience similar conditions, reducing the likelihood that those factors will impact

performance. Another method is to turn the extraneous variable into a control variable,

meaning the researcher deliberately measures and holds it constant or includes it as part of

the study design. For instance, if participant mood could affect concentration, the researcher

might assess mood using a pre-test questionnaire and include it as a control variable in the

data analysis to account for its influence. Through the identification and addressing

extraneous variables through standardization or control techniques, researchers enhance the

credibility of their findings and ensure that the changes in the dependent variable are

genuinely due to the manipulation of the independent variable.

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5.0. CONFOUNDING VARIABLES

A confounding variable is a type of extraneous variable that systematically varies with the

independent variable and also influences the dependent variable, potentially creating a

spurious or misleading relationship. This hidden influence poses a serious threat to internal

validity, because it becomes difficult to discern whether the observed effects are due to the

independent variable or to the confounder. According to Thomas (2020), confounding

variables must be taken seriously in research design because they “influence both the

supposed cause and the supposed effect” and can thus distort the true relationship between

variables (p. 1).

5.1. Real-Life Example 1: Ice Cream Sales and Sunburns

One classic illustration involves ice cream sales and sunburn incidents. While these two

variables appear correlated, neither causes the other. Instead, temperature is the confounding

variable: warm weather leads to both increased ice cream consumption and more sun

exposure, which in turn increases sunburn rates. Ignoring temperature would make the

relationship between ice cream and sunburn seem causal, when it is not (Thomas, 2020).

5.1.1. Real-Life Example 2: Coffee Drinking and Lung Cancer

An earlier study found that coffee consumption was associated with higher rates of lung

cancer. However, smoking—a known risk factor for lung cancer—was the true confounding

variable. Coffee drinkers also happened to be more likely to smoke. When researchers

controlled for smoking habits, the apparent link between coffee and cancer disappeared.

These examples remind us that any variable linked to both the independent and dependent

variable and when not properly accounted for, it can skew results and lead to faulty

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conclusions. Addressing confounders through design strategies like randomization, matching,

or statistical controls is critical to preserving the truth of causal inferences in research.

6.0. CONCLUSION

Understanding and correctly applying the different types of variables; independent,

dependent, extraneous, and confounding is foundational to conducting sound psychological

research. These variables are not just labels or formalities; they shape how hypotheses are

tested, how results are interpreted, and how knowledge is advanced. The independent

variable sets the stage for experimental manipulation, the dependent variable reveals the

effect, while extraneous and confounding variables must be carefully managed to ensure

valid and trustworthy conclusions.

When researchers fail to properly control confounding variables, they risk drawing false or

misleading conclusions, attributing effects to the wrong causes. A confounding variable can

silently distort the results, making it appear as though the independent variable caused a

change when in fact another, uncontrolled factor was at play. This undermines the integrity,

accuracy, and usefulness of the entire study. Therefore, psychological research demands more

than curiosity, it calls for precision, clarity, and critical thinking. Each variable must be

handled deliberately and thoughtfully, like instruments in a symphony. When done right, the

result is not just valid data, but insightful, meaningful contributions to the understanding of

human behaviour and experience. The future of psychology depends on researchers who not

only ask important questions but also design their studies with careful, critical intention.

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References

Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of

aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(3), 575–582.

Bhandari, P. (2023). Independent and dependent variables.

Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and

mixed methods approaches (5th ed., p. 125). Sage Publications.

McLeod, S. A. (2019). Independent and dependent variables. Simply Psychology.

Morling, B. (2021). Research methods in psychology: Evaluating a world of information (5th

ed.). W. W. Norton & Company.

Price, P. C., Jhangiani, R. S., & Chiang, I. A. (2017). Research methods in psychology (3rd

American ed.). BCcampus.

Thomas, J. R., Nelson, J. K., & Silverman, S. J. (2020). Research methods in physical

activity (8th ed.). Human Kinetics.

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