Logic and Truth Tables

What is a Truth
Table?
A truth table is a tool that helps you analyze statements or arguments in order to verify
whether or not they are logical, or true. There are five basic operations that you will
utilize when creating a truth table. These operations are the conjunction, disjunction,
negation, conditional, and bi-conditional. These operations are also referred to as “and,”
“or,” “not,” “if-then,” and “if and only if.” The rules for these operations are as follows:

Logic Operations

And Statements – These statements are true only when both p and q are true (as the
AND 
rigorous definition of “and” implies.)
(conjunction)
Example: “I will bring both a pen AND a pencil to the tutoring session.” Only if I bring
bothpis thisq true. p  q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Or Statements OR – These statements are false only when both
are false (follows the definition of “or”.) Example: “I will bring a pen OR
p and q (disjunction)
a pencil p  q appointment.” Only if I don’t do either is this false.
p toqthe tutoring
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Not Statements
NOT ~ – The “not” is simply the opposite or complement
(negation)
of its original value.
p ~p Example: p = “It is raining”
T F ~p = “It is NOT raining”
F T

IF-THEN If → Then Statements – These statements are false only when p

(conditional) is true and q is false (because anything can follow from a false
p q p→q premise.) Example: “IF I am elected THEN taxes will go down.”

TT T Only if I am elected and taxes don’t go down is this false.

TF FTT
FT
FF

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Reviewed August 2017
If and
IF Only
AND If Statements
ONLY IF – These statements are true only when both p and q have the same
truth (bi-conditional)
values.
Example: “Taxes will go down IF AND ONLY IF I am elected.”
p q p↔q
Only if I am elected and taxes go down, or I am not elected and
T T T taxes do not go down is this true.
T F F
F T F
F F T
Constructing Truth Tables
To create a truth table, follow these steps:
n
1. Determine the number of variables; for n variables, create a table with 2 rows.
 If there are two variables (p, q), then you will need 22 or 4 rows.
 If there are three variables (p, q, and r), you will need 23 or 8 rows.
2. List the variable and every combination of T and F for the given variables.
TWO VARIABLE THREE VARIABLE
p q p q r
T T T T T
T F T T F
F T T F T
F F T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F

3. Then start with negations (“nots” or “~”), create a new column for each “piece” of the
statement or argument, filling in the truth values as you go. Work from simple pieces to
more difficult pieces until you have the truth values for the whole problem.
4. If two statements have the same truth values, then they are equivalent.
Equivalents
There are a number of equivalents in logic. This means that these statements have been
proven true, and you can use these statements without having to prove them. The
symbol for equivalent is ≡. The following are the most commonly used equivalents:
 pT≡p  pp≡p  ~(p  q) ≡ ~p  ~q
 pF≡F  pp≡p DeMorgan’s Law
 pT≡T  p  ~p ≡ F #1
 pF≡p  p  ~p ≡ T  ~(p  q) ≡ ~p  ~q
 p  q ≡ ~p  q  p  (q  r) ≡ (p  q)  DeMorgan’s Law
 p  q ≡ ~q  ~p (p  r) #2
 p  (q  r) ≡ (p  q) 
(p  r)

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Truth Table Example
Statement: (p  q)  (~p  q)
p q
T Step
T 1:
T Determine
F the number of variables and rows needed, then
F write
T down all possible combinations of p and q.
F F
p Step~p2:
q
T
T p  qF ~p  q
T
F F F
F T
WriteT down values of ~p (or “not p”)
F T
Step 3:
p q ~p p ∧
p  q  ~p  q
q
LeftTSide:
T  q) true? Use values from p and q columns.
F Is (p T
T F F F
F T T F
p q ~p p ∧ q ~p ∨
Step 4:
q TT F T T
 ~p
pT q F F  q F F
Right
F TSide:T Is (~pF  q) true?
T Use values from ~p and q columns.
F F T F T
p q ~p p ∧ q ~p ∨ q p ∧ q ↔ ~p
Step 5: q
∨
T p T q F ~pT  q T T
T F F F F T
Is
F T Tthe entire statement
F true?
T No. F

The entire statement is true only when the last column’s truth values are all “True.” In
this case, (p  q) is not equivalent to (~p  q) because they do not have the same truth
values.

If every cell in the last column is “True,” then the entire statement is true.
This is called a tautology.

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Truth Tables for Arguments

A logical argument is made up of two parts: the premises and the conclusion.
Arguments are usually written in the following form:

If it is cold, then my motorcycle will not

start. My motorcycle started.
It is not cold.

Arguments of this form can be turned into a logical statement. First, assign variables to each
premise and conclusion.

“It is cold” = p
If it is cold, then my motorcycle will not start. “It is not cold” = ~p
My motorcycle started. It
“Myis not cold.
motorcycle will start” = q
“My motorcycle will not start” = ~q

You can now re-write the argument using logical operators. Look for keywords like “if” and
“not.”

If it is cold, then my motorcycle will not start. p  ~q

My motorcycle started. Itqis not cold.
~p

Finally, the argument can be rewritten as a logical statement. Arguments can always be
written in the following form:

[Premise One  Premise Two]  Conclusion

Our example would be rewritten as:

[ (p  ~q)  q ]  ~p
This statement can then be proven valid or invalid using a truth table, as shown on the
following page.

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Truth Table Example

Statement: [ (p  ~q)  q ]  ~p

p q
T TStep 1:
T FDetermine the number of variables and rows
F Tneeded, then write down all possible combinations
of p and q.
F F
~p
p q
T F 2:
T Step
T F
F [ (p  ~q)  q ]  ~p
F T
T Write down values of ~p (or “not p”)
F F T
p Step
q 3:~p ~q
T F~q)  qF ]  ~p
T [ (p
T Write
F F T
down values of ~q (or “not q”)
F T T F
F F TT
p T qTTFFStep
T 4:
~p ~q (p →q ~q)
[ (p  ~q) ]  ~p
F F F
Left Side: Start within the inner most parentheses. Is (p  ~q) true? Use values from p and ~q colu
F T T
T F T
F F T T T
Step 5:
p q ~p ~q [ (p (p  ~q)  (p
→ ~q) q→ ] ~q)~p∧ q
T T F F Left Side: F Work outwards F towards the outer most parentheses. Is [ (p  ~q)  q ] true? Use
T F F T T F
F T T F T T
F F T T T F
p q6: ~p ~q (p → ~q)
Step (p  ~q)  q [ (p  ~q)  q ]
 ~p
[ (p  ~q)  q ] 
T T F F F F T
~p
T F F T T F T
IsF theTentire
T statement true?
T T T
F
Yes. This is a tautology F T
F F T T T

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