Graph Theory and Combinatorics - Complete Notes With Visual Examples & Memory Tricks
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vishutanishqkrGraph Theory and Combinatorics - Complete Notes With Visual Examples & Memory Tricks
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vishutanishqkrGRAPH THEORY AND COMBINATORICS – COMPLETE NOTES WITH VISUAL EXAMPLES
& MEMORY TRICKS
UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHS
What is a Graph?
● A Graph G = (V, E) has:
○ V = Set of vertices (nodes)
○ E = Set of edges (lines joining nodes)
🎓 Memory Tip:
"Graphs = Dots + Lines"
Types of Graphs:
● Simple Graph: No loops/multiple edges
● Null Graph: No edges
● Finite Graph: Limited vertices & edges
● Infinite Graph: Endless nodes/edges
● Isolated Vertex: Degree 0
● Pendant Vertex: Degree 1
🖼️ Visual Example:
A -- B C (isolated)
|
D
A simple graph where C is isolated and A, D are pendant.
Matrix Representations:
● Adjacency Matrix: Shows connections
ABC
A010
B101
C010
● Incidence Matrix: Rows = vertices, Columns = edges
Degree of a Vertex:
● Number of edges connected to it
🧠 Handshaking Theorem:
Sum of degrees = 2 × number of edges
Example: Degrees = 1,1,4,4,6 → Total = 16 ⇒ Edges = 8
UNIT II: TREES, CONNECTIVITY &
PLANARITY
Tree:
● A connected graph with no cycles
● n vertices ⇒ (n - 1) edges
🖼️ Example:
A
|
B
/\
C D
Spanning Tree:
● Subgraph including all vertices with minimum edges
🖼️ Original Graph: A-B-C-D-A
Spanning Tree: Remove one edge to break the cycle
Cut Set:
● Set of edges, removing which disconnects the graph
🖼️ Triangle (A-B-C) — Cut set = any single edge
Planar Graph:
● Can be drawn on plane without crossing edges
Euler’s Formula:
V - E + F = 2 (V=vertices, E=edges, F=faces)
Example: K4 is planar, K5 is not
Connectivity:
● Graph is connected if path exists between every pair
UNIT III: MATRICES, COLORING,
DIRECTED GRAPHS
Chromatic Number (χ):
● Minimum number of colors to color a graph without two adjacent nodes having same
color
🖼️ Triangle Example:
A
/\
B---C
χ(G) = 3 (A, B, C need different colors)
Chromatic Polynomial:
● Number of ways to color the graph using ‘k’ colors
● Example: P(k) = k(k − 1)^2 for path graph with 3 vertices
Matching:
● Set of edges without common vertices
🖼️ Bipartite Example:
Jobs → Workers
Covering:
● Set of vertices covering all edges
Four Color Theorem:
● Any planar graph can be colored using ≤ 4 colors
Directed Graph (Digraph):
● Graph with directions on edges
🖼️ Example:
A→B→C
Isomorphic Graphs:
● Two graphs are isomorphic if they have:
○ Same number of vertices/edges
○ Same connections
⚠️ Tip:
Compare degrees and edge connections to check isomorphism
UNIT IV: PERMUTATIONS &
COMBINATIONS
Rules:
● AND = Multiply, OR = Add
Permutations:
● Order matters
● P(n, r) = n! / (n − r)!
Example: P(5, 3) = 5×4×3 = 60
Combinations:
● Order doesn’t matter
● C(n, r) = n! / [r!(n − r)!]
Example: C(5, 2) = 10
With Repetition:
● C(n+r−1, r)
● Example: Select 3 chocolates from 2 types ⇒ C(2+3−1, 3) = C(4,3) = 4
Inclusion-Exclusion Principle:
|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B|
Example: A = 10, B = 12, A∩B = 4 ⇒ A∪B = 18
Derangements:
● No element in original position
Formula: Dn = n![1 - 1/1! + 1/2! − 1/3! + … + (−1)^n/n!]
Example: D3 = 2
UNIT V: GENERATING FUNCTIONS
Generating Function:
G(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x² + a3x³ + …
Example:
1 + x + x² + x³ + … ⇒ G(x) = 1 / (1 - x)
Partition of Integers:
● Ways to write an integer as a sum of positive numbers
Example: 4 ⇒ (4), (3+1), (2+2), (2+1+1), (1+1+1+1)
Exponential Generating Function (EGF):
● G(x) = ∑ (an * xⁿ) / n!
● Example: For constant sequence ⇒ EGF = eˣ
Summation Operator (Σ):
∑ i=1 to n of ai = a1 + a2 + … + an
Example: ∑1 to 5 = 1+2+3+4+5 = 15
Recurrence Relations:
● First Order: an = r * an−1
○ Example: an = 2an−1, a0=1 ⇒ an = 2ⁿ
● Second Order: an = an−1 + an−2
○ Example: Fibonacci: 0,1,1,2,3,5...
Solving using Generating Functions:
1. Define G(x)
2. Use recurrence in G(x)
3. Solve algebraically
4. Expand to get formula
PYQ STYLE EXAMPLES
1. Degree Sum: Deg = 1,1,4,4,6 ⇒ Edges = 8
2. Tree Check: 12 vertices and 15 edges? ❌ Not a tree (must be 11 edges)
3. Coloring: Triangle needs 3 colors ⇒ χ(G) = 3
4. Permutations: 15 people for 3 posts ⇒ 15×14×13 = 2730
5. Derangement: D3 = 2
6. Fibonacci using GF: G(x) = x / (1 - x - x²)
QUICK MEMORY TRICKS
Concept Memory Aid
Tree “No loops, N-1 edges”
Degree Sum “Every handshaking uses 2 hands” ⇒ Sum =
2E
Permutation vs Combination “Position matters? → Permutation!”
Coloring “No two neighbors same shirt color”
Cut Set “Remove edges to break the network”
GF “Turn numbers into power series”
✨ Final Tips
● Use visuals to remember structure
● Color-code graphs for chromatic number
● Reuse formulas: handshaking, GF, permutations
🎯 ALL THE BEST FOR YOUR EXAMS! MASTER THE GRAPH – WIN THE MARKS!
