Chapter 2

Ordinary Differential
Equations

CHAPTER
HIGHLIGHTS
☞ Laplace transforms
☞ Introduction
☞ Differential equations

InTRODUCTIOn dy
6. 3
y  d 2   9 y  16x2
Familiarity with various methods used in evaluating indefi- ddx3 8y dx
dx2
nite integrals or finding anti-derivatives of functions [or, in u u
7. x y  8u
other words, evaluating ∫ f(x) dx] is a pre-requisite.
x y
2u 2u
DIffeREnTIAL EQUATIOns 8.   10
An equation involving derivatives of a dependent variable y2 2 x2 2
u u
with respect to one or more independent variables is called 9.  25
a differential equation. The equation may also contain the
y2 x2
variables and/or their functions and constants. If there is
only one independent variable, the corresponding equation 4u 4
2u   u  e3xy
10. 
is called an ordinary differential equation. If the number of x2y2 y4
independent variables is more than one, the corresponding 6
x4
equation is called a partial differential We note that in the given examples, Eqs. (1) to (6) are
equation. ordinary differential equations while Eqs. (7) to (10) are
partial differential equations. We refer to these examples
Examples: later on in next chapter.
dy
1.  x4  ex  y Certain Geometrical Results may
dx also be
d 2 y  dy 2
2. x2 3  3y4 x  sin x  Expressed as Differential Equations
6  
dx2  dx  Illustration 1 Consider a family of parallel lines. All these
dy lines have the same slope. If k represents the slope, we
3.  5 y  x3  tan
x dx may interpret the family of parallel lines as curves
having the
d 2y dy
4. 4y 0 same slope. As
dx2 dx
represents the2
slope of the tangent to
 d3 y   dy 4 a curve atdyany point (x, y), we may say that the differential
5.    5   e2xy  6 equation  k represents a family of parallel lines.
3
 dx   dx  dx
 2.34 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics
dy dn y dn1 y dn2 y
Illustration 2 The differential equation y  k (a P P P ⋯
constant)
dx 0
dxn 1 2
may be said to represent the family of curves having the dxn1 dxn2
dy
length of subnormal equal k at every point (x, y) on the P 1  Pn y  Q
curve. (We may note that the family of curves is the family n dx

of parabolas). Our study is confined to ordinary differential where P0, P1, P2, . . ., Pn, Q are functions of x or
equations. In what follows, differential equation means constants. If an equation is not linear, it is called a non-
ordinary differential equations. linear differ- ential equation. In examples, 1, 3, 4, 6 are
linear differential
equations, while examples 2 and 5 are non-linear differential
Order of a Differential Equation equations.
It is defined as the order of the highest derivative present in the
equation. Examples (1), (3) are of first order; (2), (4) are of Solution of a Differential Equation
second order and (5), (6) are of third. A function y = f(x) or F(x, y) = 0 is called a solution of
a given differential equation if it is defined and differenti-
Degree of a Differential Equation able (as many times as the order of the given differential
The degree of a differential equation is defined as the degree of equation) throughout the interval where the equation is
the highest order derivative present in the equation. (It valid, and is such that the equation becomes an identity
dy d 2 y
when y, , ,… are replaced by f(x), f ′(x), f ″(x),
…
is assumed that the various order differential co-efficients dx dx2
or derivatives present in the equation are made free from respectively. dy d 2 y
fractional powers). [In the case of F (x, y) = 0 one has to get , 2 , … by
Examples (1), (2), (3), (4), (6) are of first degree while successive differentiation of F(x, y) = 0 with dx dx to x].
respect
Example (5) is of second degree. Examples:
Consider the differential equation, dy
  dy 2 
5/ 2 1. y = e7x is a solution of  7y, since on substitution
d3 y dx
1    4 . of y = e , both left and right sides of the differ-
7x
3
dx dx
   ential equation become identical. We find that

Taking the square on both sides (to free it from 1
y  e7x , 3e7x ,e7x or, in general, y = Ce7x, where
fractional powers), the differential equation is 2
5 2
  dy 2   d3 y  C is an arbitrary constant represents solutions of
dy 
1     16   . dx 7y.
 dx 
3
  dx 
2. y2 – x2 = 4 is a solution of the differential equation

This is a third order second degree differential equation. dy x
 . Also, y2 – x2 = 5, y2 – x2 = –10, … or, in gen-
dx y
Linear Differential Equation of
If, in a differential equation, the dependent variable and dx2 dx
the derivatives appear only in the first degree and there is d 2y dy
only x; a  a y  f ( x),where a , a are
no term involving products of the above or containing
func- tions of the dependent variable, it is called linear con-
differen- tial equation. dx2 1
dx 2 1 2

dy stants and f (x) is a function of x are examples of sec-

1.  Py  Q (where P and Q are functions of only x) ond order linear differential equations.
is
dx
an example of a first order linear differential equation.
d 2y dy
2.  P  Qy  R ,where P, Q, R are functions
 Chapter ■ Ordinary Differential Equations |
eral, y2 – x2 = C where C is an arbitrary constant tion2is a relation between
2.35 x and y involving one arbitrary
dy x constant such that the differential equation is satisfied by
repre- sents solutions of  . this relation or, the general solution of a first order
dx y
In both the above examples, we could represent the solu- differen- tial equation is a one parameter family of curves
tions of the differential equations which involve an where the parameter is the arbitrary constant. By assigning
arbitrary constant denoted by C. We now define the particu- lar values to the arbitrary constant, we generate
general solution of a first order differential equation. particular solutions of the equation.
The general solution of a first order differential equa- In Example (1) y = Ce7x represents the general solu-
Similarly, we can have nth order linear differential dy
tion of the differential equation  7 and the solutions
equation.
y
dx
2.36 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics
y = e7x, y = 3e7x, … are its particular solutions. The general
solu- tion represents a family of exponential curves. SOLVED EXAMPLES
In Example (2) y2 – x2 = C represents the general solu-
dy x Example 1
tion of the differential equation  and the
Form the differential equation representing the one-
solutions parameter family of curves
dx y
y2 – x2 = 4, y2 – x2 = 5, … are its particular solutions. The
general solution in this case represents a family of rectan- x3 – Ay = 0.
gular hyperbolas.
3. y = 2e–3x + 5e6x is a solution of the second order differ- Solution

ential equation d 2 y dy Given, x3 – Ay = 0 (1)

3 18 y 
Ay = x3
0.
dx2 dx
(which can be verified by actual substitution). Also, dy 3x2
A   A (2)
y = 4e–3x – 10e6x, e–3x + e6x, … or, in general, y = Ae–3x dy
2
+ Be6x where A and B are arbitrary constants 3x
dx dx
represents d 2 y dy Substituting
solution of  3 18 y  0.
in the Eq. (1),
2
A
dx dx we have
4. y = 2 cos 4x + 3 sin 4x or, in general, y = A cos 4x + B 3x2
sin 4x where A and B are arbitrary constants x3  y0
x dy  3y  0.
d 2y 
represents solutions of 16 y  0. dx
dx2 dy
In Example (3), the general solution is y = Ae–3x + Be6x dx
and in Example (4), the general solution is y = A cos 4x + B
sin 4x. Example 2
By assigning particular values to the arbitrary constants Obtain the differential equation of all the circles in the first
one can generate particular solutions. quadrant, which touch the co-ordinate axes.
From Examples (3) and (4), we infer that the general
solution of a second order differential equation is a relation Solution
between x and y involving two arbitrary constants such The equation of any circle in the first quadrant, which
that the differential equation is satisfied by this relation or touches the co-ordinate axes may be represented as (x – h)2
the general solution of a second order differential equation + (y – h)2 = h2.
is a two-parameter family of curves where the parameters Differentiating with respect to x,
are the arbitrary constants. dy
To sum up, the general solution of an nth order differ- 2( x  h)  2( y  h)  0
ential equation is a relation between x and y involving n dx
dy
arbitrary constants, such that the differential equation is xy
sat-
or dx
h
isfied by this relation or the general solution of an nth
order differential equation is an n-parameter family of  dy 
1
 
curves where the parameters are the arbitrary constants. dx 
For the first and second order differential equations, we Substituting the above expression for h in the equation
have of the circle
First Order Equation
One parameter family of curves:  dy 2  dy 2  dy 2
Representation: Relation between x and y involving one x  y x  y dx   x y dx 
 dx  
arbitrary constant, say C. x  y   
Eliminate: Eliminate C to obtain a DE representing the    dy  dy
1dy 1 dx 1 dx 
given curve.     
dx   dy 2
or  dy  2
( x  y)2  ( x  y)2  x  y
Second Order    
Equation dx dx
 Chapter ■ Ordinary Differential Equations |
Two-parameter family of curves: 2 2.37   
Representation: Relation between x and y involving two 2
  dy 2    dy 
arbitrary
B constants, say A and
or ( x  y)2 1      x  y  .

  dx     dx 
Elimination: Eliminate A and B to obtain a DE
representing
the two-parameter family of curves. Initial Value Problems A first order differential equation
We shall work out a few examples to illustrate the with a condition that y = y0 when x = x0 [written as y(x0)
forma- tion of differential equations. = y0] is known as an initial value problem. For example,
2.38 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics
dy x
1.  ; y(0)  Integrating on both sides,
1
dx y  1   1 
dy  y dy   x  dx  0

 
2.  2xy  x3; y(1)  y  x 
6
dx y2 x2
dy 3y log y  2  log x  2  log C
3.   ex ; y(0) 
4
dx x  y2  x2 
To solve such problems, we first obtain the general solu- xy y2  x 2 xy  2 

tion and find that particular value of the arbitrary constant loge   e 
C 2 C
in the general solution which satisfies the condition y(x0) =   y2  x2

y0. 

This means that the solution of an initial value problem is  xy  Ce 2
a particular solution of the given differential equation.
First Order First Degree Equations The general form of Example
5
dy Solve the initial value problem
the equation will be  f ( x, y).
dx dy 3
y2  x2ey , y(1)  (0)
Separable Equations (or Variables Separable Type) dx
Here, the given differential equation can be reduced to
Solution
the form dy
dy Given: y2  x2ey
3

f (y)dy = g(x)dx. [Recall that may be thought as the

dx
ratio 3
dx y2e y dy  x2dx.
of the differential of y to the differential of x]. Direct inte-
ye 
3

gration of the relation with respect to the variable on each

2  y
dy 
side gives general solution or, in other words, the general x2dx
solution of the differential equation above may be written
as
∫f(y) dy = ∫g(x) dx + C, where C is an arbitrary 3 3

constant. Let e y   e y  3y2dy  dt

t 1
Example 3
3
Solve: dy 1 y2   dt  3 x dx 2

dx  1 x . 1 x
2
t c
Solution 3 3
1 y2 1 3 x3
dy  e y   c.
dx  1 x2 3 3
1 1
dy dx Given: When x = 1, y = 0;
1 y2  1 1
1 x2  e   c
3 3
sides,
Integrating on both 2
1 1 c
 dy   dx.
∴ The solution is 
3
1 y2 1 x2 1 3 x3 2
e  y
  .
sinh–1y = sinh–1x + c. 3 3 3
Example
x +e
3 –y3
– 2 = 0.
4
 Chapter ■ Ordinary Differential Equations |
dy 2 2.39
Solve: ( x  xy )
2
 ( y  x y) 
2
Homogeneous Differential
0.
dx
Equations Homogeneous differential equation will
be of the form f (x, y)dy = g(x, y)dx, where f (x, y) and g(x,
Solution y) are homogeneous
dy functions in x and y of the same degree.
( x  xy2 )  ( y  x2 y) 
0
dx Definition
(x – xy2) dy + (y + x2y) dx = 0 A function F(x, y) in x and y is a homogeneous function in
x and y of degree n(n, a rational number), if F(x, y) can be
2 + y (1 + 22) dx = 0
x(1 – y12) ydy 1 x
dy  dx  0 n  y  n x
expressed as x    or y   .
y x
 x  y
2.40 | Part ■ Engineering
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 4y
y3  Solution
1. x  4x y  y  x 1
3 2

3
is a homogeneous
3 dy y
 x x3  Given: x  y  x sin  
dx x
function in x and y of degree 3.  
3 y dy y y (1)
   sin
2. x tan  is a homogeneous function in x and y of dx x  
 x
x  
dy dv
degree 3. Put y  vx, vx .
3. xy  dx dx
is a homogeneous function in x and y of
2x  3y Substituting in (1) we get,
degree 0. We change the dependent variable y to v dv
by vx  v  sin v
dy dv dx
the substitution y = vx. Then, vx .
dx dx
dy xdv
On substitution y and   sin v 1 dv  1
dx in the given homogeneous sin dx x

dx v
equation, it reduces to the variables separable form. 1
  cosec v dv   dx
x
Example 6
dy ⇒ log (cosec v – cot v) = log x + log c
Solve: x2  x2  7xy  9 y2. ⇒ cosec v – cot v = cx
dx
y y
Solution
cosec    cot    cx.
x x
   
dy
x2  x2  7xy  9
y2 Example
dx 8
dy 7  9 y 2 Solve 3y2 dx + (2xy + 3x2) dy = 0.
ydx  1   
x x

 
Put y  xv Solution
 dy dv 3y2 dx + (2xy + 3x2) dy = 0.
v
dx dx dy 3y2
dv 
v  1 7v 
dx 2xy  3x2
9v2 dy dv
dx
dv Put y  vx vx
x  9v2  6v
 dx dx
1
dx dv 3v2
1 vx 
dv
1 dx dx 2v  3

9v  6v 1
2
x
dv 3v
2

x v
Integrating on both sides,  2v  3
dx
1 1 dv 3v2  2v2  3v
x 
 Chapter ■ Ordinary Differential Equations |
 9v 2
 6v 1
dv   2 2.41
dx 2v  3
dx
x
1 1 1 1
2v  dv  dx
3

 c 1)
log(3v
2
dv   dx 
x 3(3v 1)
 log x  5v2  3v x

1 1
 x 2v  3 dv  dx  0
 3y  log cx   log  v(5v  x
cx e e 3)
 9 y  3x
3 1 Integrating on both sides,
 x 
where C is an arbitrary constant. 1 3  1
   dv   dx  0
 v 5v  3 x

Example 7 3
dy y (5v  3)  log x  log
Solve
 x  y  x sin  log v  c. log
5
 
dx x ⇒ 5 log v –3 log (5v + 3) + 5 log x = 5 log c.
2.42 | Part ■ Engineering
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Example 10
 log v5 x5  log Find the solution of (ey + 1) cot x dx + ey log(sin x) dy = 0.
(5v  c5
3)3

y5 Solution
  y  c1, where  c
5
3 Given (e y + 1)cot x dx + e y log (sin x)dy = 0
c1

5 
3 x Let M = (e y + 1)cot x and N = e y log (sin x)
 
y5 x3
 c  M N
(5 y  3x)3 1 x3 y5  c31(5 y   e y cot x  e y cot x
3x) x
and
y

Exact Differential Equations

M N
If M, as well as N, is a function in x and y, then the  y  x
∴ The given equation is exact.
equation Mdx + Ndy = 0 is said to be an exact differential
equation if there exists a function f (x, y) such that
d(f (x, y)) = Mdx + Ndy. The solution is
x

f f
 Mdx   (the terms of N not containing x)dy =
C
That is, dx  dy  Mdx  x
x y
Ndy
  (e y
1) cot x dx   0 dy  C

Example: 3x2ydx + x3dy = 0 is an exact differential

equation since there exists a function x3y such that (ey + 1) log (sin x) = C
d(x3 y) = 3x2ydx + x3dy Integrating factors: Let us say M(x, y)dx + N(x, y) dy = 0
The necessary and sufficient condition for an equa- be a non-exact differential equation. If it can be made
tion of the form Mdx + Ndy = 0 to be an exact equation is exact by multiplying it by a suitable function µ(x, y), then
M N µ(x, y) is called an integrating factor.
 
y x .
The solution of the exact differential equation Methods to Find the Integrating
Mdx  Ndy  0 is U   ( y) dy  C Factors
u Method 1
where U  Mdx and ( y)  N 
y If Mdx + Ndy = 0 is a homogeneous differential equation
x 1
and Mx + Ny ≠ 0, then is an integrating factor of
Or  Mdx   (terms of N not containing x)dy = C Mx  Ny
x Mdx + Ndy = 0
Here ∫Mdx denotes integration of M with respect to x
treating y as a constant.
Example 11
Example 9 Find the solution of (x + 2y)dx + (y – 2x) dy = 0.
Find the solution of
Solution
Here M = x + 2y and N = y – 2x

(3x – 2y + 5) dx + (3y – 2x + 7)dy = 0.

Solution M  2
N  2
y x
M = 3x – 2y + 5, N = 3y – 2x + 7 N
M N M
 2  2. 
 Chapter ■ Ordinary Differential Equations |
M N 2 2.43 y x

∴ The given equation is
y x y x
The above equation is not an exact equation.
exact. The solution is But M and N are homogeneous functions
∴ The integrating factor 
x 1
 Mdx (the terms of N not containing x) dy Mx  Ny
=C (x + 2y)x + (y – 2x)y = x2 + y2 (1)
x

(3x  2 y3x2 5) dx   (3y 3y

 7)
2 dy  C
1
 2 yx  5x  7y Now by multiplying Eq. (1) by , it become an
C
2 x2  y2
2 exact equation.
2.44 | Part Engineering
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II Mathematics
 x2y   y  2x  1
dx   1 M N  [2 y  2 y]
0 2   dy   
x  y2 x2  y2 N y x 2xy
     
2
The solution is U    y dy   f(
x) x
C
xy  2 Integrating factor (IF)
x

U   M1dx, where M1   e f ( x)
2
x2  2log x log
1
1
y dx
2
 dx
 x 2 2 y2 dx
x
e x  e 
∴
x2 
x  y e x2 1
x 1
Multiplying the given equation with , we get
 dx  2 y dx  x2  y2  2xy x2
x y
2 2
x2  y2  2  dx  dy  0
x  x  x 2
1 1  x2  y2  y
 log( x2  y2 )  1
tan    dx  2 dy  (2)
2y x 2 
0 x
2 y y  
1 x x2  y2 and N 2y
 log (x  y )  2 tan
2 2 1 M1  1 
 2
x
x
 
2 y
y  2x  M1 2 y N1 2 y
 2 , and  2
Since in N1 there is no term independent of x, y x x x
 x2  y2 M N
the solution is 1
 1
1 x
∴ Eq. (2) is an exact equation and its solution is
y x
log (x  y )  2 tan   
2 2 1

C
2 y x
(the terms of N1 not containing x) dy = C
Method  M1dx x  y2
x 2

2 
If the differential equation Mdx + Ndy = 0 is of the form  dx   0dy  C

1 x2
y, f(xy)dx + x g(xy)dy = 0 and Mx – Ny ≠ 0, then is x
y2 y2
x 
Mx  Ny  1 dx  C  C. x
an integrating factor of Mdx + Ndy = 0. x2
Example 13
Method 3 Find the solution of xy 2dx + ( y + y2)dy = 0.
In the equation Mdx + Ndy = 0, Solution
1 M N  Given xy2dx + ( y + y2)dy = 0 (1)
if    f ( x), then  f ( x) is an integrating
N y dx Mdx + Ndy = 0
e  
x
factor of the given equation. M = xy2; N = y + y 2
1 N M  M N
∫g( y) dy  2xy and 0
Similarly if
 Chapter ■ Ordinary Differential Equations |
    g( y) then e is an 2 y
2.45 x
M x y
 
M N
integrating factor of the given equation. 
y x
Example 12
1 N M  1
Find the solution (x2 – y2)dx + 2xy dy = 0. M  x  y  xy 2 [2xy]
Solution 2
  g(
Given (x2 – y2)dx + 2xy dy = 0 (1) y) y
M = x – y and N = 2xy
2 2
Integrating factor is e∫g(y)dy
2 1
M N  y dy log 1
 2 y and 2 e  e2log y dy  y2 
y e
y x y2
1
M N MultiplyingEq.(1)by , we get xy dx2
 y  y2 
 dy  0
  
y x y2 y2  y2 
2.46 | Part Engineering
■

II Mathematics
1 
xdx  1 dy  Here, P = cot x, Q = cosec x.
0   ∫ Pdx = ∫cot x dx = log (sin x)
y
 

∴ The general solution is y ⋅ IF = ∫QIF dx + c

x2 IF = e ∫Pdx = elog sin x = sin x.
Integrating on both sides we get  log y  y 
C y sin x = ∫cosec x . sin x dx +
Linear Equations 2 c y sin x = ∫dx + c
dy y sin x = x + c.
Consider the linear differential equation  Py  (1)
Q Example 15
dx
where P and Q are functions of only x. We explain dy
below, how such equations can be solved. Consider the Solve (1 x4 )  4x3 y  sin3 x.
equation dx
dy Solution
 Py  0 (2) dy
dx Given: (1 x4 )  4x3 y  sin3
x dx
The Eq. (2) is called the homogeneous linear equation
corre- sponding to Eq. (1). We find the general solution of
Eq. (2).
Eq. (2) is a variables separable type. We write it as dy 4x3 sin3 x
dy
 Pdx.  1 x4 y 1 x4
dx
y It is a linear differential equation in y.
Integrating the above equation given. 3
4x3 and Q  sin x
Here, P
log y = – ∫Pdx+ log C or y = Ce–∫Pdx (3)  1 x4 1 x4
This represents the general solution of Eq. (2). 4x3
 Pdx dx  log(1 x4 )
Eq. (3) may also be written as ye ∫Pdx = c. 1 x4

d
( ye
Pdx
Now, )0 IF  e pdx  elog(1 x
4
)  1 x
dx
Pdx dy Pdx  dy General solution
e  ye  P  0 or e
Pdx
That
 is, 
Py  0. y ⋅ IF = ∫Q ⋅ IF dx + c.
 dx sin3 x
dx  y(1 x4 )   (1 x4 ) dx  c


This means that if we multiply both sides of Eq. (2) by
∫Pdx 1 x4
e , the product 3sin x  sin 3x

 Pdx   d dx  c
e dy  Py is {ye ∫Pdx}. The factor e ∫Pdx is sin x dx  C 3

4

called 
 cos 3x 3
 dx  dx y(1 x4 )   cos x  c
an integrating factor of Eq. (2). 12 4
Suppose we multiply both sides of Eq. (1) by e ∫Pdx
, it 12y(1 + x4) = cos3 x – 9 cos x + c
is
d d
reduced to ( ye Pdx )   d Example 16
( Qe Pdxdx), since ( Qe
 dy 
dx dx Pdx Solve x2  y  4x2  8  2 y.
  
 dx
 Pdx 
  Pdx
dx)  Qe  . Hence, we get the general solution of Eq.
ye Pdx  C   Qe dx.
(1) as
 Chapter ■ Ordinary Differential Equations |
 dx  2
Solution 2.47
 dy 
Given: x2  y  4x2  8  2 y
Example 14  
dx
dy dy
Solve sin x  y cos x  y4 2y
8 
1. x2
dx dx x2
Solution dy 2  8
 y 4
1

dy 

sin x  y cos x  dx x2  x2
1 P 2 Q 8
Here,  1 and 4
dx
dy x 2 x2
 (cot x) y  cosec 2 2
x.  Pdx  1 dx  x 
dx
This is a linear equation in y x2 x
2.48 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics
 2
x x2
IF
x  e Pdx  e 1  3  Ce 2
 
y
General solution is y ⋅ IF = ∫Q ⋅ IFdx + c 1
x
2
 8  x
2 y x2
ye x    4  2 x dx  c 3  Ce 2
e x
 
 2  Example 18
x2 
 4   1 2  x dx c
e x
  dy y y
x
2 Solve  log y  (log y)2.
(Put e x  dx x x 3

t
2
 e x x 1 2  dx  Solution
dt)
 x 2  = dy y log y y(log y)2
Given  
4 ∫ dt + c = 4t +
c dx x x3
1 dy 1 1 1
The general solution is
2
xx 2     (1)
ye  xx
c y(log y)2 dx x (log y) x3
4e

Bernoulli’s Linear Equations 1

Let  u,
dy log y
An equation of the form  Py  Qyn is called
Bernoulli’s Differenting wrt x
dx 1 1 dy du
linear equation, where P, Q are continuous functions in x.  
(log y)2 y dx dx
∴ Eq. (1) becomes
Example 17
dy
Solve  xy  (3xy2 du 1 1 du 1 1
).
dx   u   u

Solution dx x x3 dx x x3
dy
Given  xy  (3xy2 It is a linear equation in u.
) Here 1 1
P and Q 
dx
Throughout the equation dividing with y2 we x x3
1
get   dx 1
dy
y2  xy1  3x IF  e Pdx  e  elog x 
dx (1)
x x

∴ Solution is u . IF = ∫QIFdx + c
Let y1  u du dy
   y2
dx dx 1 1 1
du u  dx  c
The Eq. (1) becomes   x x3 x

xu 3x 1
dx u   x4dx  c
du
 xu  x
3x dx 1 1
 c
 Chapter ■ Ordinary Differential Equations |
The above equation is a linear differential equation in 2 (log2.49
y)x 3x3
u.

∴ IF  e Pdx  e  xdx  e
 x2
Second Order Linear Differential
Equations with Constant Co-
∴ Solution is u ⋅ IF = ∫QIF
2
efficients
dx The standard form of a second order linear differential equa-
 x2  x2 tion with constant co-efficients is
ue 2  3xe 2 d2y dy
dx.

 3et dt when t x
2 a0 2  a1  a2 y  F ( x) (1)
where a , a , a are dx
real constants
dx and F(x) is a function of

2 0 1 2

3et only x. The second order equation,

  t dy
3e d2y   (2)
1 a 0 dx2  a1 a2 y 0
 2 2
x x dx
ue 2  3e 2 C represents the corresponding homogeneous equation.
2.50 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics
Let y = u (x) represent the general solution of Eq. (2)
Since the roots of the auxiliary equation are equal and
[u(x) will contain two arbitrary constants]. This means that
each equal to m1, this reduces to
a (D – m )2 y = 0 or (D – m )2 y = 0 (7)
2
du 0 1 1
0d u a a u
2
a dx  (3) (since a0 ≠ 0)
0
1 2
dx
Let y = v (x) represent a particular solution of the given Let (D – m1)y = Y1 (8)
Then, Eq. (7) becomes (D – m )Y = 0. (9)
1 1
equation of Eq. (1). We have, then, dY1
2 Now, Eq. (9) is reduced to 1 1  0, giving Y1 =
 mY
d v dv m x dx
a0 2  a1  a2v  F ( x) (4) C1e as the solution.
1

dx dx dy
Substituting in Eq. (8),  m1y  c1 em1 x is a linear
Substituting y = u(x) + v(x) in Eq. (1), equation. The general solutiondxis given by ye–m x = c + ∫c em x
1 1

d2 d 2 1
a (u  v)  a (u  v)  a (u   em xdx  c2  c1x
1

v)
0
dx2 1
dx 2
or y  c2em x  c1xem x  em x (c2 
1 1 1

 d 2u du   d 2v dv 
c1x) where c and c are arbitrary constants.
  a0 2  a1  a2u    a0 2  a1  a2 v  1 2
 dx dx   dx dx  Case 3: Let the roots of (V) be complex. Let us assume the
= 0 + F(x) (by Eqs. (3) and (4)) roots as the conjugate pairs a ± ib. (The co-efficients a0, a1,
a2 being real, roots occur in conjugate pairs).
= F(x).
The general solution is y  c1e( i )x  c2e( i )x
We infer that y = u(x) + v(x) is the general solution of
the Eq. (1). Thus, the general solution of Eq. (2) is the sum  c1e x (cos  x  i sin  x)  c2e x (cos  x  i sin
of the general solution of the corresponding homogeneous  x)
= ea x{(c + c ) cos b x + i(c – c ) sin b x}
equation (2) and a particular solution of the given equation 1 2 1 2

(1). y = u(x) is called the complementary function of Eq. = ea 1

cos b x + 2
sin b x).
x
(2) {A A
and y = v(x) is called a particular integral of Eq. (1). The where A and B are arbitrary constants. We may now
general solution of Eq. (1) is given by y = u(x) + v(x). summarize the nature of the complementary function of
= [Complementary function] + [Particular integral] Eq. (1) as follows:
= CF + PI (in short).
To find the complementary function of Eq. (1) or to Roots of the Auxiliary Complementary Function of
Equation a0m 2 + a1m + a2 = 0 (1), or General Solution of
obtain the general solution of the homogeneous
(2)
Roots, real and distinct, say y = c1em1x
equation
dy + c2em2x m1, m2
(2): As y = emx is a solution of  my  0, we assume y Roots, real and equal, say y = (c1 + c2 x)em1x
= each equals m1
dx
emx (for some value of m) to be a solution of Eq. (2).
d2 d Roots, complex, say a ± ib y = ea x{c1cos bx + c2 sin bx}
Then, a0 dx2 (e )  a1 dx (e )  a2e
mx mx mx
must be equal Roots, complex and = esin
y b 1 + c2x) cos bx + (c3 +
[(c
ax
c x)
repeated, say m = m = a
to zero (or) emx{a m2 + a m + a } = 0. + 1 2 4
x
0 1 2
ib and m3 = m4 = a – ib
Since emx cannot be equal to zero, a m2 + a m + a = 0 (5)
0 1 2
Eq. (5) is called the auxiliary equation corresponding to Example 23
(1) [or (2)]. Eq. (5) is quadratic in m and gives two values
Obtain the complementary function of the equation
for m, which may be real or complex. d 2 y 7dy
Case
and 1: Let the roots of Eq. (5)
m x be real andmdistinct, say m1   6 y  x4 .
x m (m ≠ m ). Then, y  e and y  e dx2 dx
2 1 2
1
are two distinct
2
 Chapter ■ Ordinary Differential Equations |
solutions m1 x 2
Solution 2.51
of (2) or y  C1e  (6)
m2 x
C2e
(C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants) is the general solution d 2y dy
7  6 y  x4
of (2) or the complementary function of (1). dx2 dx
Case 2: Let the roots of (5) be real and equal and each ⇒ (D2 – 7D + 6) y = x4
equals to m1. Auxiliary equation is m2 – 7m + 6 = 0
d
∴ The complementary function of the given equation.
Let  d2  m = 1, 6.
dx D,
dx2 D2.
Then Eq. (2) may be expressed as (a D2 + a D + a ) y = 0. y = c ex + c e6x.
0 1 2 1 2
2.52 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics
Example 24
provided f (k) ≠ 0. f (k) reduces to zero when one or both
Obtain the general solution of the equation the roots of the auxiliary equation a0 m2 + a1 m + a2 = 0, is k.
d 2y dy
10   25 y  0.
1. Suppose one of the roots is k. Then, f (D) = a (D – k)
0
dx2 dx (D – m ), where k. Particular integral
m
0 0
Solution
d 2y dy 1
Given: 10  25 y   ekx
a0 (D  k ) (D  m0 )
0
dx2 dx
1  1 
⇒ (D2 – 10 D + 25)y = 0   ekx

Auxiliary equation is m2 – 10 m + 25 = 0 D  k  a0 (D  m0 
The roots are (m) = 5, 5 )

∴
ekx
The general solution of the equation is (c1 1 1
+ c2x)e . 5x  a (k  m ) (D  k )
0 0

Example 25 1
Let ekx  X1
Obtain the complementary function of the equation (D  k )
d 2y dy
 6  10 y  kx
Then (D   dX1 kx
3x
e .  
k ) X1 e
dx2 dx or
kX1 e
dx
Solution This is a linear equation and the particular solu-
tion of the above equation is xekx. Therefore, particular
d 2y dy 1
Given: 6 10 y  integral xekx .
e3x 
dx2 dx a0 (k  m0 )
⇒ (D2 – 6D + 10)y = e3x 2. Suppose both the roots of the auxiliary equation are k.
Auxiliary equation is m2 – 6m + 10 = 0 Then, particular integral

6  36  1 [ekx ]
m 6 
 2i3  i
40 2 a0 (D  k )2

∴
2
y The complementary function is given by c = e3x(c1cos x 1  1 kx 
 a (D  k )  (D  k ) e 
+ c2sin x). 0  
1
To find a particular integral of Eq. (1) or to find a  kx
[xe ],
particular
solution of the Eq. (1): a0 (D  k )
1
d 2 y  dy Use the result in (1) . Now, let
( xe )  X 2
kx
a 0 dx2 a1  a2 y  F ( Dk
dx x)
dX 2
We have, therefore, (D – k) X = xekx or   xekx
kX
We may write the above as (a D2 + a D + a ) y = F(x) or 2 dx 2
0 1 2
f (D) y = F(x) where f (D) stands for (a D2 + a D + a ). which is a linear equation.
0 1 2
Particular integral y is that function of x independent of x2 kx
Particular solution is X  e or, particular inte-
arbitrary constants such that f (D) on y or f (D) y yields 2
2
F(x).
1 x2
This is symbolically represented as y  {F ( gral in this case is given by y  ekx .
f (D) x)}. 2
Example 26
Case 1: F(x) = ekx where k is a constant.
 Chapter ■ Ordinary Differential Equations |
Solve the differential equation: 2 2.53
We have D(ekx) = kekx, D2(ekx) = k2ekx … or, in general,
g(D) (ekx) = g(k) ekx where g(D) is a polynomial in D, in (D2 + 5D + 6)y = e–4x

particular, f (D) {ekx} = f (k) ekx. Solution

(D2 + 5D + 6)y = e–4x
Since 1
ekx is that function of x which when oper- Auxiliary equation is m2 + 5m + 6 = 0.
f (D)
1 1 (m + 3) (m + 2) = 0.

∴ Roots are m = –3, –2.

ated by f (D) gives ekx, it is clear that ekx f (k ekx
f (D)
 )
2.54 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics
Complementary function is c1e–3x + c2e–2x. Case 2: F(x) = sin kx or cos kx where k is a constant.

Particular integral We have D{sin kx} = k cos kx

1
  e 4
D2  5D  x D2{sin kx} = – k2 sin kx
 6
x 4x e 4 Similarly, D2{cos kx} = – k2 cos kx
1 e 
( 4)2  5( 4)  6 2
∴ General solution is
If g(D2) is a polynomial in D2,
e 4 x g(D2) {sin kx or cos kx} = g(–k2) sin kx or g(–k2) cos kx.
y  c e3x  c e2x  .
1 1 1
1
2
2 Hence, sin kx  sin kx and cos kx

Example 27 g(D2 ) g(k 2 ) g(D2 )

1
Solve (3D2 – D – 10)y =  cos kx, provided g(–k2) ≠ 0.
6e2x g(k 2
)
Solution We shall illustrate the above technique by considering
Given (3D2 – D – 10)y = 6e2x two examples.
Auxiliary equation 3m2 - m - 10 = 0
5
∴
Example 29
m = 2, .
3 Find the particular integral of the equation (D2 + 16)y
Complementary function is
= cos 3x.
5
x
CF  c1e2x  c2e 3 Solution

PI 1 1 1 cos3x
 6e2x PI cos 3x cos 3x
3D  D 10
2
 D 16 
2
(3)2 16 7
1
 (D  2) (3D  Example 30
6e2 x
5) 1 Find the particular integral of the equation (D2 – 5D + 6) y
 1 2x
1  1 e2x  6 e 1 = sin 3x.
6 

D  2  3D  5  (D  2) 11
6 1 Solution
 e2x  6 xe2 1
x

∴
11 (D  2) 11 PI
D2  5D  6 sin 3x

General solution is
5
6 1

 xe2x .  32  5D  6 sin 3x
y  c1e2x  x
c2e 3 11

Example 28 1
sin 3x
Solve (D2 – 12D + 36)y = e6 5D  3
x

Solution 5D  3
  (5D  3) (5D  sin 3x
Given: (D 2 – 12D + 36) y = e6
x 3)
Auxiliary equation is m2 – 12m + 36 = 0. (5D  3) 3  5D
 (25D2  9) sin 3x sin 3x
m2 – 12m + 36 = 0.  25(9)  9
m = 6, 6 1
Complementary function (CF) = (c1 + c2x)e6x  [(3  5D) sin 3x]
234
 Chapter ■ Ordinary Differential Equations |
PI 1 1 2 2.55
 e6x 6 1
D 12D  36 
2
(D  6)2 ex  234 [3sin 3x  5D(sin 3x)]
x2 6 x
 e 1
2!
∴ General solution is y = CF + PI
 [3sin 3x 15 cos 3x]
234
x2
 (c  c x) e6x  15 cos 3x 3sin 3x
e6x0 PI  
2 234 234
1 2!
2.56 | Part ■ Engineering

∴ CF = c1 cos 4x + c2 sin 4x
II Mathematics

NOTE 1
PI 
Suppose g(– k2) = 0. sin 4x.
Let us discuss the technique of finding particular inte- D2 16
gral in this case. 1 x
[sin kx].  cos 4x
Suppose we have to find 2
D k2 24
By Euler’s formula, eikx = cos kx + i sin kx or sin  1 x 
kx ∵ sin kx   cos kx 
 D 2 k2 2kx 
= imaginary part of eikx. 1
Particular integral  2 [sin x
D k2  cos 4x
kx]. 1
= Imaginary part of (eikx ) 8
D2  k
2 General solution is y = CF + PI
=Imaginarypartof 1 ikx
(D  ik ) (D  ik) e  c1 cos 4x  c2 sin 4x 
x
cos 4x.
8
1  eikx 
= Imaginary part of D  
 ik  2ik 
=
Cauchy’s Homogeneous Linear
xeikx Equations
Imaginary part of
2ik An equation of the form
x dn y
=Imaginarypartof (cos kx  i sin n1
2ki xn  p1xn1 d y ⋯ pn y  Q( x) (1)
x dxn
= Imaginarypartof ( i cos kx  sin dxn1
2k
kx) where p1, p2, . . ., pn are constants is called Cauchy’s linear
 x cos kx equation. To convert the above equation into linear

. differen- tial equation with constant co-efficients, we

∴ z = log x,
substitute x = ez or z = log x.

1
Similarly, if we have to find
D2  k 2 [cos dz 1
 dx  x
1
We write it as the real part of
kx]. dy dy dz
 

(eikx )
D2  k 2 dx dz dx
1
= Real part of dy dy 1
(eikx )  
(D  ik )(D  ik) dx dz x
x
= Real part of ( i cos kx  sin dy dy
kx) x
2k dz dx
x sin kx d 2 y d  dy  d  1 dy 
 2k . 2
     
dx dx
dx   dx  x dz 
1 x  12 dy  1 d  dy 
sin kx  cos
D k
2 x dz x dx dx
2 kx  
2k 12 dy 1 d  dy  dz
1  x dz x dz dz dx
x Solve the equation (D2 + 16) y = sin
D2  k cos kx  sin
4x.
Example 31
 Chapter Ordinary Differential Equations |
■

  2 2.57d 2 y 1 dy 1 d 2
y dx2 x2 dz  x2 dz2
d 2 y d 2 y dy d  dy 
x2    y
Solution
dx 2
dz 2 
dz dz  dz 
Given: (D2 + 16) y = sin 4x dy dy d 2
y
Auxiliary equation is m2 + 16 = 0 Let y  x   y x2     y
2
m = ± 4i dz dx dx
2.58 | Part Engineering
■

II Mathematics
3 1
d y  
Similarly x
3
   (  ) y, and so e2 z 1   9  28  z
 
on.dx3
30  30 
Then Eq. (1) is changed into a linear differential
 
2z   9  28 
equation. We solve this by methods discussed earlier.  e  z
1 
Example 32 30 2 z 30 
d 2y dy e
Solve x2  3x  3y   z 28 2 z
(30)2 e
0 
30
dx2 dx
y = CF + PI e2 z
Solution = C e–z + e–z(C cos z + C sin z)  z  28 2 z
z
e
Let x = e or z = log x 1 2 3
30 (30)2
dy 2y d
2

Then x   y;     C1 1 x2 log x

x dx   cos(log x)  sin(log x))   28 2
y 2
900 x
dx2 30
(C C3
x x
The above equation becomes
[    3   y  Example 34
0 d 2y dy
Solve (2x 1)  2(2x 1) 100 y  32(2x 1)2
   2   y 
0

Auxiliary equation is m2 + 2m – 3 = 0 dx2 dx

⇒ (m + 3)(m – 1) = 0

∴ y = c e–3z + c ez
Solution
⇒ m = –3, 1
Let 2x – 1 = u
du
1 2 2
= c x + c x.
–3
dx
1 2

Example 33 dy dy du

dy dxdu dx  du
2
d3 y d 2y dy
Solve x3  6x2 8  2 y  x2 log
x.
dx3 dx2 dx d2y d  dy  d  dy 
2

dx2    
dx dx dx du

Solutionz    
Put x = e or z = log x.
Then d  dy  du 2 d2 2 y
 2 du  du  dx  2du
dy d 2y
∴ The given equation becomes
x   y, x2      
y,
dx dx2 d2y dy
3 22 u2  2  2u 100 y  32u2
d y
x 3
   (  2) du2 du
y dx3
d2  25 y  8u2
The given equation becomes uy 2 
dyu
du2 du
[q(q – 1) (q – 2) + 6q(q – 1) + 8q + 2]y = e2z ⋅ z (m + 1)(m2 + 2m + 2) = 0
(q 3 + 3q 2 + 4q + 2)y = e2z ⋅ z m = – 1 or m = –1 ± i
AE =1 m3 + 3m2 +2 4m + 2 =3 0 CF = C e + e (C cos z + C sin z )
–z –z
 Chapter ■ Ordinary Differential Equations |
dy d 2y 2 2.59
 
 25 y  8e2z
Let u  e , u
z
 0; x 2
    
dx dx2
AE = m2 – 25 = 0 ⇒ m = ±5
[      ]y  8e 2z
CF = C e–5z + C e5z
PI  1 1 2


 e2z z
 8
  3  4  1 1  e2
PI   8e2z 
1   25 8.e2z 22  25 21
 e2 z z 8
(  )3  3(  )2  4(  )  2 y = CF + PI = C e5z + C e5z – e2z
2
1 21
1 8
 e2 z   C u5  C u  5
u where u = (2x – 1).
z
   9   28  2
1 21

2.60 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics
Method of Variation of
 y  yc  yp  C1 cos 2x  C2 sin 2x 
Parameters d 2y dy
An equation of the form  P( x)  Q( x) y  R( x), 1 1

dx2 dx [log(cos 2x)]cos 2x  x sin 2x.

4 2
where P(x), Q(x) and R(x) are real valued functions of x, is
called the linear equation of the second order with variable Example 36
co-efficients. Solve the differential equation y″ + 4y′ + 4y = x3e2x
The above equation is solved by the method of
variation of parameters. Solution
The method is explained below: Given equation
d 2y dy (D2 + 4D + 4) y = x3 e2x
1. Find the solution of  P  Qy  0 and let
The auxiliary equation is
the m2 + 4m + 4 = 0
dx2 dx
solution be y = C U(x) + C V(x)
c 1 2 (m + 2)2 = 0 ⇒ m = –2
2. Write particular solution as follows: y = C e–2x + C xe–2x
y = AU(x) + BV(x) C 1 2
p Let U(x) = e–2x and V(x) = xe–2x
where A  VR yp = AU(x) + BV(x)
W dx VR UR
 A   dx, B  dx
UR
and B   W W
dv du d d
dx W u v  e2x ( xe2x )  xe2x (e2 x )
W
U V dx dx dx dx
where W  dV is called the
dU dV 
dUU V  e2 x e2 x  2xe2 x   2xe2 xe2 x  e4 x
dx dx dx dx
UR xe2x x3  e2x
Wronskian of U and V. dx
A   dx 
3. Then the solution is yc + yp  vdu
udv e4 x

dx dx
i.e., y = C1U(x) + C2V(x) + AU(x) + BV(x)
  x 4 e 4x dx
Example 35
Solve the differential equation (D2 + 4)y = sec 2x by varia-  x4 e4 x x3e4 x x2e4 x e4 x
 3 xe4 x
 16
tion of parameters. 6  46 16
4
UR 4  2 x 16
e xe 3 2x 16
B dx   dx   x3e4xdx
Solution W e4 x
Given (D2 + 4)y = sec22x e4 x 3  e4x 4 e4 x 
AE = m + 4 = 0 ⇒ m = ±2i x 3
2
 2 xe 
x x

4 4 4 16 32 

∴ U(x) = cos 2x; V(x) = sin 2x

CF = yc = C1cos 2x + C2 sin 2x
y = yc + y p = AU(X) + BV(x) + C1e–2x + C 2xe–2x

y = AU(x) + BV(x) e2 x x3e2 x 3x2e2 x

= C e–2x + C xe–2x – x4  
p 1 2
dV dU 4 4 16
W U V 2x 2x 4 2x
3 3
dx dx 6xe 3e xe 3x3e2x
     x2e2 x  x e2 x
d d 64 3128 4 16 32 128

cos 2x (sin 2x)  sin 2x  (cos
2x) dx dx 3 9
 C1e2 x  C2 xe2 x x3e2 x  x2e2 x xe2 x e2 x
 9  
 Chapter ■ 1
Ordinary Differential Equations |
= 2cos2 2x + 2 sin2 2x = 2 2 2.61
16 32 128 128 128
VR sin 2x sec
2Ax  dx  
dx
W 2 LaPLACE TRAnsfORms
tan 2x 1
  dx  log(cos Let f(t) be a given function defined for all t ≥ 0. The Laplace
2x)
2 4 transform of F(t) is denoted by L{f(t)} or L{f} and is
defined
UR 
B dx cos 2x  sec 2x dx 
W
1
x
as L{f(t)} =  est f (t)dt  F (s).
 2 2
0

1 1
 y  [log(cos 2x)] cos 2x  x sin Here L is Laplace transform operator. f(t) is the deter-
2x mining function depends on it. F(s) is the function to be
p
4 2
 2.62 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics
determined called generating function. est is called kernel Solution
of the transform.
Some standard results of Laplace transforms are given As the given function is not defined at t = 0, 1 and 2
below. 

1 ,s
L{ f (t)}  e st
 F (t)dt
1. L e at
 asa
0
1 2 
=  est  0dt   est 1dt   est 
tdt
2. L e 
at 1 0 1 2
s  a,
kL k  2 
3. =  est dt   est  tdt
(a) Let k be a constant 
s 1 2
1 2   st
est est e
(b)  
L 1  ,s  ] t ]    dt
0 s s s
s
1 2 2
n!

n
4. L t  ,s0 e2s es 2e2s 1 est 


   
sn1  s s s  2
s s
5. Lcos at  s
,s0 e s 1 2s
s  a2 2
e2s   2 e2s e
a
 s s s  s2
6. Lsin at  s2  a2 , s  0
e2s  1  es
 1  .
 
s  s s
7. Lcosh at  s
,s a
s2  a2 Example 39
a Find the Laplace transform of the function
8. Lsinh at  s2  a2 , s  a
est  est 
2   st
e
s 
f (t) = sin 2t, 0 < t < p   t    dt
s
  s
9. L{t n  eat } n!   2 2
 ,nZ
(s  a)n1  = 0, t > p 1

1  

Solution
10. L  f (t)  
t  F (s) ds 
  s
L{f (t)} =  est f
Example 37 (t)dt
0
Find the Laplace transform of the function
 

 e st
 sin 2tdt   est  0dt
f ( x)  5e2x  0 

7e3x

0
e st
sin 2tdt
Solution
L{ f ( x)}  L(5e2x  7e3x est 
)
1
= 5L(e2x) + 7L(e–3x)
L 1
{ f (t)}  5  7
 Chapter ■ Ordinary Differential Equations |
2 2.63
2t]]0
 [s sin 2t  2 cos
s2  4 2(1 e s )
 .
s2 s3 s2  4
5 7


 Example 40
s3
Example 37 s2 Find the Laplace transform of the function f (t) = (sin t + cos
t)2
Find L{f (t)}
where Solution
f (t) = 0, 0 < t < 1 L{(sint + cost)2} = L{1 + sin2t} = L{1} + L{sin2t} =
= 1, 1 < t <2
1 2
= t, t > 2. s  s2  4
2.64 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics
Some important (theorems) properties of Laplace (using multiplication theorem)
transforms:
1  1 (s2  4)  s(2s) 

1. Linear property: Let f and g be any two functions L{t sin2t}  2 
of = 2 s (s2  4)
t and a1, a2 are constants, then L{a1f(t) + a2g(t)} = a1L
{f(t)} + a2L{g(t)} 1 4  s2

2. First shifting property: If L {f(t)} = F(s) then L {eat 2(s2  4)2

2s2
f (t) = F(s – a) 1 4  (s  2)2
L{e2t  t sin2 t}  2[(s  2)2  4]2
Example: L {eat cos ct} sa  2(s 
= 2 2 2)2
(s  a)  c (using shifting property)
3. Change of scale
1 property:
s If L{ f(t)} = F(s) then
2 4s  s
2
L{f(at)}  F 1 2
 2(s  2)  2(s  4s  8) .
2
 
a  a
Example: We know Example 42

L{eat } 1
 F Find the Laplace transform of sin 2t  cos 2t .
s  a (s) t
1 s 11
Then L{beat }  F  1 b
  Solution
 b s
|b|  b b s  ab
  a 2  s
b L {sin2t – cos2t} 2
= s  4 s2  4
4. Differentiation theorem: If derivatives of f(t) are
continuous and L{f(t)} = F(s) then L {f ′(t)}= sF(s) – 
 2 s 
sin 2t  cos 2t
f(0) and L{ }   
t s
 s2  4 s2  4
L{f n(t)} = snF(s) – sn – 1 f(0) – sn–3 f (0)…. f n–1(0) ds
= (using division property)
n1 2 s  1
snF(s) –  sn1r  f r (0) ( f r represents rth
s
derivative
of    [log(s2  4)]
r
tan1 2  2 s 2
f) 0

5. Multiplication theorem: If L{f(t)} = F(s) then L{t ⋅  s 1 log(s2

f(t)} = –F (s)   1   4)
tan 2 2 2
n d
n s 1
and L{t ⋅ f (t)} = (1)
n
F (s)  cot 1  log(s2  4).
ds n 2 2
1 
6. Division theorem: If L{f(t)} = F(s), then L f t
 Example 43
 ( )
t  t
sin 2u

du.

s
F (s)ds Find the Laplace transform of
u
7. Transforms of integrals (theorem)  0

t 1 Solution
2
If L{f(t)} = F(s), then L{ f (u)du} s F L{sin 2u} 
s2  4
and sin 2u  2

(s) ds
0

 Chapter ■ Ordinary Differential Equations |
Example 41 2  2.65
 u  s
s2  4
Find the Laplace transform of te–2t sin2t.
(using division theorem)
Solution 2 s   s s
1 1 1 s  tan1    tan1  cot1
L
{sin2 t}  2 L{1 cos 2t}   2 2 s 2 2 2
 
2 s s 42
t 
∴
   sin 2u  1 1 s
d  1 1 s  L    cot
du

∴
u s 2
L{t  sin2 t} 
(1)     0 
ds  2  s s  4
2
(using transform of integral theorem).

 2.66 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics
Inverse Laplace Transforms
(c) If L1{F (s)}  f (t), then
If F(s) is the Laplace transform of the function f(t) i.e., L t
{f(t)} = F(s) then f(t) is called the inverse Laplace (i) L 1  F (s)    f (t)dt
transform 
of the function F(s) and is written as f(t) = L–1{F(s)}. Here  s  0
L–1 is called inverse Laplace transformation operator.
Some important standard results for inverse Laplace  dt
 t t  f (t)dt
transform. (ii) L1  F (S)
2  
 s  00 
1
1. L1  2. Convolution theorem: Let f(t) and g(t) be two

1  functions and
s t
where n is a positive integer L1{F (s)}  f (t) and L1{G(s)}  f (t), then
n t
2. 1  1 
L
 sn1   n!
1
L1 {F (s) G(s)}   f ( x)g(t  x)dx
or L1  t n1 0
n
 (n 1)!
s
  It is denoted by f(t) * g(t) here * represents
  convolution.
3. 1L1  eat
  3. Unit step function: This function is defined as
sa 0 t  a
 
u(t – a) = H(t – a) = the Laplace transform

1  1  eatt
L 
n1  1 t  a
(s  a) 
n
(n 1)!
4. of H(t – a) = L {H(t – a)}
  
1  1  1  e st
u(t  a)dt eas

5. L  2 2 
 sin at s
s a  a 0

 s  NOTE
6. L1  cos at
 s2  a2  This is also called as Heavisides unit function
 
 s  4. Periodic function: If f(t) is a periodic function with
7. L1  cos
 2 2  period a i.e., f (t + a) = f(t), then
hat
 s 1 a  1
  a
8. L1
hat  2 2 
 sin e st
f (t)dt
s a a
 
 L{ f(t)} 0
9. L1 1  1 eat sin bt = 1  esa
  G(s)
 (s  a)  b  b
2 2
5. Using partial fractions: If F(s) is of the from
 sa  H (s)
10. L1  eat cos
  where G and H are polynomials in S then break F(s) into
bt partial fractions and manipulate term by term.
(s  a)
1  b 
2 2

11. 1L1  6. Heavisides expansion formula: Let F(s) and G(s)

(sin at – at cos at)
 2 2 2 
(s  a ) 2a3 be two polynomials in ‘s’ where F(s) has degree less
 
than that of G(s). If G(s) has n distinct zeros a , r = 1,
 s  1 r
12. L1 t sin at 2, 3, …., n
(s2  a2 )2   2a
  i.e., G(s) = (s – a )(s – a )…(s – a ), then

To find the inverse Laplace transform we use the (a) If L1{F (s)}  f (t), than L1{F (s  a)}  eat f
following methods. (t)
1. Using the following properties
 Chapter ■ Ordinary Differential Equations |
(b) If L1{F (s)}  f (t)) and f (0)  0; then 2 2.67 1 2 n

 F (S)  n F ( )
L   e t
1 r

 G(S)  r 1 G(r )
r

Transform of Special Functions

7. Bessel function:
d
(i) L1{sF (s)}  ( f (t)) x2 x4 x6
J0 (x) = 1 -   ⋯
dt d n 2 22  42 22  42  62
(ii) L1{sn F (s)}  ( f (t)) if f (0) =
1 1
=
s2 
f (0)
dt n
then L {J0 (x)} = 1
f (n-1)(0) = 0
2.68 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics
8. Error function: Error function is denoted as er f
Example 45
(t) Evaluate L-1 3s  7 
er f ( 2 x t 2  2 
 e dt, s  2s  3
x)
   
0
Solution
1 3(s 1)2 10
then L {er f ( x  (s 1)  4
) s L1
s 1
9. Complex inversion (theorem) formula: If f(t) has a  
continuous derivative and is of exponential order 3(s 1) 10 
 L1   
and 
L{f(t)} = F(s) then L-1 {F(s)} is given by (s 1)  4
2
(s 1)2  4 
r i
1  s 1   1 
 3L1 10L1  
f (t)
  est F (s)ds, t > 0 and f (t) = 0 for t (s 1)2  4  (s 1)2  4
<0
2i r i  s   1 
 t 1  
 3et L1  10e L  2 2 .
s2  22 s 2
NOTES    
The = 3et cosh 2t + 5et sinh 2t = 4e3t - e-t
1. above result is also known as Bromwich’s
integral formula Example 46
2. The integration is to be performed along a line  1 
s = r in the complex plane where s = x + iy. Evaluate L1 
2 2
The real number r is chosen so that p = r lies to  s(s  4) 
the right of all the singularities. Solution
10. The Gamma function: If n > 0, then the gamma
1 s 
L1 
  2 2 
 s (s  4) 
2
function is defined by G (n) = 
un1eudu 0 1 s
Let F (s) = and F (s)  so that
11. Exponential Integral: The exponential integral is 2
(s  4)
2 2
1
s2
denoted by 1
 u
e L-1 {F (s)} = L-1 = t = f (t)
E (t) =   du  
1 2 1
i s 
t
u  s 
and L-1{F (s)} = L-1
 2
Example 44 2 s2  4 

L1 e23s  t  sin 2t (t)
  =  (say)
Evaluate (s  2)5/2  f 4
2

∴By convolution theorem, we have

 

Solution s 
We have 1  L1{F (s)  F (s)}
L1
  2 2  1 2
 s (s  4) 
2
 1   1 
L1 (s  2)5/2   e2t L1  5/ 2 t t
x 
s
      f2 ( x) f1(t  x)dx    sin 2x (t  x)dx
3 0 0 4 
1 t t
5
t2 4t 2 e
 t 1
 e2t
2t
5
 
 4
0
 x sin 2xdx4
0
x 2
sin 2xdx
  3 
 Chapter ■ Ordinary Differential Equations |
2 2 t  x 2.69 1 
  cos 2x  sin 2x t
 e23s   e3s   
4
∴ L1    e2 L1  
 2 4 0
1  x2 x 1 
(s  2) (s  2) 
5/2 5/2
   cos 2x  sin 2x  cos 2x t

4  
4 2 2 4 0
= (t  3)3/2 e2(t4)  H (t  3)
3  1
 1 t sin 2t  cos 2t
(when expressed in terms of Heaviside’s unit step  16
function)
 2.70 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics
Application of Laplace transforms to solutions of dif-
ferential equations: Solution of ordinary differential 9
or s2L{y} + s - 9 + 6s L{y} + 6 + 9L{y}
equa- tions with constant co-efficients:  s  3
Consider a linear differential equation with constant
9
co-efficients ⇒ (s + 6s + 9) L{y} =
2 s3
(Dn + C Dn-1 + C Dn-2 +…+ (C )y = F(t) (1) s
3
1 2 nt
where F(t) is a function 1of the independednt variable t 18  s2
Let y(0) = A , y (0) = A ,..., y n-1 (0) = A (2) (s  3)2 L{y} 
1 2 n-1 s3
be the given initial or boundary conditions where A1, A2 ...
An-1 are constants. 18  s2
L{y}

By taking the Lapalce transform on both sides of (1) (s  3)3
and

∴
using the conditions (2), we obtain an algebraic equation  9  (s  3)2  6(s  3)
known as subsidiary equation from which y(s) = L {y(t)} is y  L1   (s  33) 
 
determined. The required solution is obtained by finding
the inverse Laplace transform of y(s).  9  s2  6s 
 e3t L1  s3

Example 47  
Solve (D + 3)2 y = 9e-3t, y(0) = -1 and y(0) = 9.
  9  1 1   1 
Solution  et L1 L  6L1
  3    2 
s s s
The given equation can be written       
as
(D2 + 6D + 9)y = 9e-3t  t2 
y  e3t  9  1 6t
applying Laplace transform we get  2! 
∴ L{y″} + 6L{y′} + 9L{y} = 9L{e-3t} ∴ The required solution is
9 2
or s L{y} - sy(0) - y′(0) + 6[sL{y} - y (0)] + 9L{y} = e3t
y 9t 2 12t  2.
s3 2

ExeRCIses

1. The order and degree of the d 2 y = n2y respectively 4. Find the solution of tan y sec2 x dx + tan x sec2ydy = 0
DE 
2 .
are dx when x = y =
4
(A) 1, 2 (B) 1, 1 (A) tan x tan y = 1
(C) 2, 2 (D) 2, 1 (B) cot x tan y = 1
2. The differential equation whose solution is y = mx + (C) tan x cot y = 1
4 (D) cot x cot y = 1
, where ‘m’ is parameter is
m 5. The general solution of the DE, (ex + 1)ydy = (y + 1)
(A) x  dy   y dy  4 dy  0.
2 exdx is
dx dx dx (A) log (ex + 1) - log (y + 1) + c = 0
 
(B) log (ex + 1) = y - log (y + 1) + c
 dy  2  dy  4  0.
(B)   dx (C) log (ex - 1) + log (y + 1) + c = 0
dx

 c
(C) x dy  y  4  0. (D) log  ex 
y 1
dx  
 dy 2 dy dy
(D) x     4  6. Solve | x |
0. dx dx dx
 Chapter ■ Ordinary Differential Equations |
  2 2.71
x
3. If y = c1 log x + c2 log c3 + ex is
+ the
c5 general solu- (A) y  2  (B) xy  2 xc
c4 c
tion of a homogeneous linear differential equation, then the
2
order of the equation is x|x|
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) y x | x |  c (D) y  c
(C) 4 (D) 5 2 2
2.72 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics
dy
7. Solve ( x  y)2  k dy
2. 15. The solution of (1 + x) - xy = 1 - x satisfying the
dx dx
initial conditions at x = 0 and y = 1 is
(A) y = tan–1 (x + y) (A) 1 + x = y + ex (B) y(1 + x) = x + ex
xy
(B) y = sin–1 c
 
 xk y (C) x + y = ex (D) x(1 + y) = cex
  
(C) y = k tan–1 c
  Direction for questions 16 to 17:
 k 
xy dy
Consider the differential equation  y cot x  y2 sin x
(D) y = cot  c
–1
dx
 k 
dy 16. The integrating factor of the above equation is
8. The general solution of the DE,  (3x  y 1)2
(A) cosec x (B) sin x
is (C) cos x (D) sec x
dx 
-1
(A) sec (3x + y + 1) = x + c 17. The solution of the above equation when x = , y = 1
1  3x  y 1  is
(B) tan-1  xc 2
3  3 
(C) tan-1 (3x + y + 1) = x + c 2
(A) y cosec x - x = 2
2  2x  y 1 
(D) tan-1  x
3  c 3 (B) cosec  x 2
x 
dy y 2
xy
9. The general solution of  is
dx x  y (C) y cosec x + x 2
=
(A) x2 + xy + y2 = k (B) x2 - y2 = k 2
(C) x2 - 2xy - y2 = k (D) x2y2 = k (D) cosec x 2
dy x  2 y 1 is y x 2
10. The general solution of
2x  4 y  3 dy

dx
(A) x2 - 4xy - 6y = c 18. The general solution of x + y = y2logx is
(B) x2 - 4xy + 4y2 + 2x - 6y = dx
c (A) y = log x + cx (B) y = x + c log x
(C) x2 + 4xy + 4y2 + 2x - 6y =
c
(D) x2 + 4xy - x + 6y = c 1 1
(C) = 1 + cx (D) = 1 + cx + log x
11. The solution of the differential equation 2xy dy + (x2 y y
+ dy
y2 +1)dx = 0 is
(A) x3 + xy2 + 3x = c 19. Consider the differential equation cos y  3x2 sin y
dx
(B) x3 + 3xy2 + x = c = x 2.

(C) x3
+ xy2 + x = c To convert the above equation into linear form the
3 sub- stituted variable is
(D) 3x2 + y2 + 2x = c (A) z = cos y (B) z = cosec y
12. The general solution of yexydx + (xexy + 2y)dy = 0 is (C) z = sin y (D) z = sec y
(A) ex + y2 = c (B) exy + y2 = c 20. The solution of (aD + bD + c) y = 0 whose auxiliary
2

2
(C) ey + xy = c (D) ey + xy = c equation has its discriminant as zero and has 5 as one
of its roots is
13. The solution of the differential equation (3xy + 2y2)dx
 Chapter ■ Ordinary Differential Equations |
(A) 2 y = c e5x + c e5x (B) y = c ex+ c ex 2 2.73
+ (x + 2xy)dy = 0 is 1 2 1 2
3 2 3 2 2 (C) y = (c + c x)e5x (D) y = c + c x
(A) x y + x y = c (B) x y + x y = c 1 2 1 2

(C) x2y +xy2 = c (D) 2xy(x + y) = c 3 2

14. The integrating factor of the equation (x2 + xy - y2)dx 21. Find the general solution of d y  3 d - 4y = 0.
y
+ dx3 dx2
(xy - x2)dy = 0 is
(A) y = (c + c x)ex + c e–2x
1 2 3
(A) 1 (B) 1 (B) y = (c + c x)e–2x + c ex
x2 x3 1 2 3
(C) y = (c + c x)e2x + c e–x
(C) x2 (D) x3 1 2 3
(D) y = (c + c x)e–x + c e2x
1 2 3
2.74 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics
22. The
4 general2 solution of the differential equation
d x d x 30. Solved the
2 equation
13  36x  0 is . 3x2 dy 2
  
dt x y x .
4 dt 2 dx2 dx
(A) x = (c1 + c2t) cos2t + (c3 + c4t) sin 3t (A) y = C x–3 + C x–1 + x3/7
(B) x = c e2t + c e-2t + c e3t + c e-3t 1
3
2
2
1 2 3 4
(B) y = C1x + C2x + x /7
(C) x = (c1 + c2t) e2t + (c3 + c4t) e3t (C) y = C1 x1/3 + C2 x-1 + x/7
(D) x = c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t + c3cos 3t + c4 sin 3t (D) y = C1x–1/3 + C 2x + x2/7
23. The particular integral of (D - 4D + 3)y = e is
2 3x
31. Laplace transform of 2sin2 2t = .
xe3x (A) 1 1 s
(A) (B) e3x  (B)
2 s s  16
2
s2  16
1 (C) 1 1 (D) 1 1
(C) e3x (D) xe2x  
2
s s2  16 s s2  16
24. The particular integral of (D - 4D )y = 6 is
3 2
32. The Laplace transform of (t + 1)3 is .
3 2
(A) x2 (B) x 6  6s  3s  s 2 3
6  6s  3s2  s3
4 (A) (B) s
s3
(C) - x2
x2 (D)
(C) 6(1 s  s  s
2 3
(D) 6  6s  3s  s
2 3
3 4
)
4
25. The particular of integral of (D2 + 3D + 2)y = cos 2x is s4 s4
3sin 2x  cos 2x 33. The value of L {sinh 3tcos 3t} .
(A) 3 sin 2x - cos 2x (B) s2 18 s2 18
20 (A) (B)
cos 2x  3sin 2x cos x  sin 2x
4
 81 4
 324

(C) (D) 3(s 2

18) 3(s 2
18)
10 40 (C) s4  324 (D) s4  324
26. The particular integral of (D - D) y = x2 - 2x + 4
2

is 34. The value of L{t2cos 3t} is .

(A) x3 - 8x + 4 (B) -x3 + 4x - 4
3
(C) x s2  27 2s(s2  27)
(D) x - 4x -
3
+ 8x - 4 (A)2 (B)
3 3 s  9)4 (s2  9)3
4
27. If y1
= e2x and y 2 = xe2x are two solutions of a second (C) s3  27 (D) s(s  27)
3

order linear differential equation, then the Wronskian (s2  9)4 (s2  9)3
W of y1 and y2 is .
cos
(A) e4x (B) xe4x 35. Laplace transform of .
4t
(C) 2e4x (D) 2xe4x
t (B) 16
28. The complementary function of the differential equa-
64
(A)

tion s2  16 (s2  16)2

d2y  6 y = 5e3x is = c e–2x + c e–3x using
dy 2  5
dx dx y c 1 2

the method of variation of parameters, its particular is 8

(C) (D) Does not exist
found to be yp = A(x) e–2x + B(x) e–3x. Then A(x) = (s2  16)2
 Chapter ■ Ordinary Differential Equations |
(A) 5e5x (B) e5x 36. 2The Laplace 2.75
transform of the function defined by

(C) 1 0t1
f (t)  is .
e–5x (D) e–5x 2, t1
1,
29. The solution of the DE (D + 1)y = 0 given x = 0, y
2

 2  es 2  es
= 2 and x  , y = - 2 (A) (B)
is 2 s 2
(A) y = sin x - cos x (B) y = 2(cos x - sin x)
2  es 2  es
(C) y = 2cos x sin x (D) y = 2(ex + e-x) (C) (D)
s 2
 2.76 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics
37. If f (t) = t; 0 < t < 3 and f (t + 3) = f (t), then L{ f (t)} 1 is
43. The inverse Laplace transform s3(s2  4)
is 1
of
(A) [1 e3s  e3s ]
s2 (1 e3s ) 1
(A) (2t 2  cos 2t (B) 2t2 - cos2t - 1
1)
1 16
(B) [1 e3s  se3s ]
s(1 e3s ) (C) 1 (D) 1
1 (1 cos 2t  4t 2 (2  cos 2t  4t
(C) ) 16 2)8
[1 e 3s
 3se ] 3s

s2 (1 e3s ) e3s

44. The inverse Laplace transform of when
1
(D) [1 e3s  se3s ] (s  4)5
s(1 e3s ) expressed in terms of Heaviside unit step function is
.
 4t
e  e8t
dts is . 1
38. The value of (A) t 4e4(t3) H(t - 3)
t 16
 0

(A) log 2 (B) log 4

1
(C) log 8 (D) log 6 (B) (t  3)4 e4t H (t 
3) 24



1 4 4(t 3)
39. (C) (t  3) e H (t  3)

0
t  e 2t sin 3tdt = . 24

(A) 1
5 10 (D) t 4e4t H (t 
(B) 3) 24
169 169  s4
6 12 45. The value of L1 log is
(C)  s3
169
(D)
169
   (B) 1
(A) e4t  e3t (e4t  e3t )
 1  t
40. The inverse Laplace transform of is .
 9/ 2 
 S  (C) 1
(e3t  e4t (D) t(e3t  e4t )
(A) 16 t (B) 8 t5 ) t
7
105  15  t
46. Using convolution theorem, the value of

0
sin x cos
(t - x)dx is .
(C) 16 (D)
8 t
t 7
105  1 t
35   cos t (B) sin t
 (A)
41. The value of L-1 4 is 2 2
8 
 2s2
.

3s  2 16s  25  t t
(C) t sin (D) t cos
8 2 2
(A) sin h  cos h
5t 5t
3 4 4
8 5t 5t
(B) e2/3t  sin h  cos h 47. Solve (D4 - 16)y = 1, y = y = y = y = 0.
 Chapter ■ Ordinary Differential Equations |
1 2 2.77
3 4 4 (A) y   [cos h 2t +sin h 2t ]
(C) 1 1 16
8  cos h
e2/3t  5tsin h 5t
3 5 4 8 4 (B) y 1 (1 cos h 2t  cos 2t)

(D) None of these
1
42. The inverse Laplace transform of . 1 (cos
s  8s  20
2
(C) y  h 2t  sin
t) 32

(A) e2t e4t
sin 2t (B) sin 2t
2 2 (D) y  1 (cos h 2t  cos 2t)

(C) e4t sin 2t (D) e4t sin 4t 16 32
2.78 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics
48. Solve (D2 - 5D + 6)y = 1 - e-2t, y = 1, y = 0 when t = 0.
1 1 11 59
(C) y  e2t e2t  e3t
(A) y 1 e2t  11 2t  59 3t   4 30
 20 4 e 30 e 6 20
1 1  11 28 1 1 2t 11 2t 59 3t
(D) y   e  e  e
(B) y  e 2t e2t  e3t 6 20 4 30
  15
6

PREVIOUs YeaRs’ QUEsTIOns

The dy
1. solution for the differential equation (A) 3 and 2 (B) 2 and 3
dx = x2y (C) 3 and 3 (D) 3 and 1
with the condition that y = 1 at x = 0 is [GATE, 7. The solution to the ordinary differential equation
2007]
1 d 2y dy
3   6 y  0 is [GATE, 2010]
x
(A) y = e 2 (B) ln(y) = +4 dx2 dx
x 3
3 (A) y = c ex + c e–2x
2 x 1 2
(C) ln(y) = x (D) y = e3 (B) y = c e3x + c e2x
1 2
2 (C) y = c e–3x + c e2x
2 1 2
2. The general solution of d y  y = 0 is (D) y = c e–3x+ c e–2x
dx2 1 2

dy y
[GATE, 2008] 8. The solution of the differential equation   x,
(A) y = P cos x + Q sin x dx x
(B) y = P cos x with the condition that y = 1 at x = 1, is
(C) y = P sin x [GATE, 2011]
2 x x 1
(D) y = P sin2x (A) y   (B) y  
3x2 2 2x

dy x 3
3. Solution of  at x = 1 and y = 3 is 2 x 2 x2
dx y (C) y   (D) y  
3 3 3x 3
[GATE, 2008]
(A) x - y2 = -2 (B) x + y2 = 4 dy
9. The solution of the ordinary differential equation
(C) x2 - y2 = -2 (D) x2 + y2 = 4 dx
dy + 2y = 0 for the boundary condition, y = 5 at x = 1 is
4. Solution of the differential equation 3y  2x =
[GATE, 2012]
0
dx (A) y = e–2x
represents a family of [GATE, 2009] (B) y = 2e–2x
(A) ellipses (B) circles (C) y = 10.95e–2x
(C) parabolas (D) hyperbolas (D) y = 36.95e–2x
5. Laplace transform for the function f (x) = cosh(ax)
is
[GATE, 2009]
10. The integrating factor for the differential equation
dp
(A) a s2 s a2 (B) s2  a2 + k P = k L ekt is [GATE, 2014]
dt 2 1 0

(C) a s2  a2 D) s
(
 Chapter ■ Ordinary Differential Equations |
s2  a2 (A) e (C) ek (B) e 2 kt 2 2.79 (D) ek t 2

k1t t1 
11. Consider the following differential equation:
6. The order and degree of the differential equation x y y
d3 y  dy 3 (ydx + xdy)cos = y(xdy - ydx) sin
 4    y2  0 are respectively x x
dx3  dx  Which of the following is the solution of the above
[GATE, 2010] equation (c is an arbitrary constant)? [GATE, 2015]
2.80 | Part ■ Engineering
II Mathematics
x y x y (A) c1  c2 x  c3
cos  sin  3x  c4 cos 3x  and
(A) (B)
Cy x Cy x sin
3x4 12x2  c
y y
(C) xy cos  (D) xy sin =C
x x (B)  c2 x  c3 sin 3x  c4 cos 3x and
C
12. Consider the following second order linear differen-
5x 12x  c
4 2

d2y
tial equation 2  -12x2 + 24x - (C) c1  c3 sin 3x  c4 cos 3x and
dx
20. 
The boundary conditions are: at x = 0, y = 5 and at x
= 3x4 12x2  c
2, y = 21
The value of y at x = 1 is . [GATE, 2015] (D) c1  c2 x  c3 sin 3x  c4 cos 3x 
and
13. The respective expressions for complimentary func- 5x4 12x2  c
tion and particular
differential equationintegral
are part of the [GATE,
solution of the
2016]

AnsweR KeYs
Exercises
1. D 2. A 3. B 4. A 5. B 6. D 7. C 8. B 9. C 10. B
11. C 12. B 13. B 14. B 15. B 16. A 17. B 18. D 19. C 20. C
21. B 22. D 23. A 24. C 25. B 26. D 27. A 28. B 29. B 30. D
31. C 32. D 33. C 34. B 35. D 36. A 37. C 38. A 39. D 40. A
41. C 42. B 43. A 44. C 45. C 46. B 47. D 48. B

Previous Years’ Questions

1. D 2. A 3. D 4. A 5. B 6. A 7. C 8. D 9. D 10. D
11. C 12. 18 13. A