• LASER PHYSICS: Introduction to lasers. Conditions for laser action.

Requisites of a Laser system Principle,

Construction and working of Nd-YAG and Semiconductor Laser. Application of Lasers in Defense (Laser range
finder), Engineering (Data storage) and Applications of Lasers in medicine [3 hours]

(Text book 1: Chapter 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5)

LASERS

2
Incandescent vs. Laser Light

1. Many wavelengths 1. Monochromatic

2. Multidirectional 2. Directional
3. Incoherent 3. Coherent
4. Less Intensity 4. High Intensity
3
 What is Laser?
➢ Theoretical concept of stimulated emission by Einstein (1916)
• Applied by C. H. Townes to a Microwave amplifier based on stimulated emission of
radiation (1954)
• First laser built by T. H. Maiman (1960)

➢LASER is a device that emits a monochromatic, collimated, high intense

unidirectional beam of light.
➢0.2 μm -20 μm

➢Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

➢When they return to lower energy levels by stimulated emission, they emit energy.
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5
 Basic principle of LASER
➢ Stimulated Absorption or Excitation
➢ Life time
➢ Spontaneous Emission
➢ Meta stable states
➢ Stimulated Emission
➢ Lasing action

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Stimulated Absorption or Excitation

Excited level

This is, of course,

Energy

absorption.

Ground level

Atoms and molecules can also absorb photons, making

a transition from a lower level to a more excited one.

7
 Absorption
• Let us consider two energy
level having energy E1 & E2
respectively.
E2

• The atom will remain in

ground state unless some photon
external stimulant is applied to
it.

• When an EM wave i.e photon E1

of particular frequency fall on
it, there is finite probability that
atom will jump form energy
state E1 to E2.

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Life - Time

The time for which the atom can remain in the

excited state is known as life- time
(~10-8 sec)

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Spontaneous Emission

When the transition takes place from excited state to

ground state without any external force.

Excited level
Energy

Ground level

Molecules typically remain excited for no longer than a few

nanoseconds. This is often also called fluorescence or, when it
takes longer, phosphorescence.
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(10-10 ̶ 10-7 s-1)

(10-5 ̶ 10-3 s-1)

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Characteristics of Spontaneous emission

• Consider an atom in higher

state (E2).
E2

• It can decay to lower energy

Photon
level by emitting photon. hv=E2-E1

• Emitted photon have energy

E1
hv=E2-E1.

• Life time of excited state is

~10-9sec.
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Meta Stable State

The excited state in which the atoms can

remain more than the life time.

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Stimulated Emission

When the transition takes place from excited state to

ground state with an external force

Stimulated
emission

Photon Two Photons

having same
energy
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 Characteristics of Stimulated emission
• There are meta-stable states i.e. Metastable state(10-3sec)
transition from this state is not
allowed act to selection rule.
Incident photon
• There life time is 10-3 sec.
Emitted
Photon
• Atom in this state can’t jump to coherent
lower state at there own.
• When an photon of suitable freq
arrive it make the atom in
metastable unstable.
• The emitted photon is in
coherence with incident photon.

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Population Inversion
Conditions for Population inversion
1. There must be at least two energy levels E2> E1.
2. There must be a source to supply the energy to the medium.
3. There must be continuously raised to excited state.

Metastable state

The life time of an energy level is of the order of 10-8 second. If an atom posses unusual longer life time in an energy state
such a state is referred to as a metastable state. Usually, the life time of metastable state varies from 10-6sec to 10-3sec.
Population inversion could be achieved with the help of three energy state with one of them a metastable and is as shown in
the fig. The population inversion is achieved between the state E2 and E1 as state E2 is a metastable state.
 Requisites of a LASER system
The three requisites of a LASER system are,
1. Active medium
2. Pumping source
3. Resonant Cavity

Active medium
▪ Only a small fraction of atoms can help achieve population inversion.
• Such atoms are called Active centres
• The medium hosting the active centres is called as active medium
• Population inversion occurs at certain stage in the active medium due to the absorption of energy.
• The active medium supports metastable states.
• After this stage the active medium is capable of emitting LASER light.
Pumping:
In order to achieve population inversion more and more atoms are to be moved to higher energy state and is
called pumping. This is achieved by supplying suitable energy using an energy source. If optical energy is used
then the pumping is called optical pumping and if electrical energy is used then the pumping is called electrical
pumping.
➢ Optical pumping (Excitation by photons)

➢ Electrical pumping

➢ Thermal pumping

➢ Chemical pumping

Resonant cavity (or) LASER cavity

The LASER Cavity consists of an active medium bound between two highly parallel mirrors. The reflection of
photons from the mirrors makes the multiple traverse of photons through the active medium inducing more and
more stimulated emissions. Thus, amplification of light is achieved. This also helps to tap certain permissible
part of LASER energy from the active medium. The cavity resonates and the output will be maximum when the
distance L between the mirrors is equal to an integral multiple of λ/2. Here λ is the wavelength of incident
suitable radiation. The length of the LASER cavity is expressed as
L = nλ/2
 Optical Resonator

• It is an set up used to obtain amplification

of stimulated photons, by oscillating
them back & forth between two extreme
limits.
Consist of
• Two plane or concave mirrors placed co-
axially.
• One mirror is reflecting & other is
partially reflecting.

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Lasing Action

If a medium has many excited molecules, one photon

can become many.
Excited medium

This is the essence of the laser. The factor by which an input

beam is amplified by a medium is called the gain and is
represented by G. 22
23
 Two-level Laser System

Un-imaginable

as absorption and stimulated processes

neutralize one another.

The material becomes transparent.

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 Three-level Laser System

➢ Medium is exposed to radiation

E3
E2
➢ Large no. of atoms excite from E1 to E3.

➢ Undergo rapid downward transition to E2 through non-

radiative transition.

➢ Spontaneous emission from E2 to E1 is prohibited

E1 ➢ So atoms stay at E2.

➢ After a short time no. of atoms at E2 increases.

➢ Population inversion is achieved.

➢ Stimulated emission takes place. 25

 Four-level Laser System ➢Light of pumping frequency is incident on the
Medium.
E4 ➢Active centres are excited to E4.
E3 ➢Atoms drop down to E3; atoms are trapped.
➢A chance photon of energy E3-E2 will trigger
stimulated emission.

➢Laser transition takes place between the third and

second excited states.
E2

➢Rapid depopulation of the lower laser level.

➢Atoms reach level E2.
E1
➢By non-radiative transition the atoms move from
level E2 to E1.
➢Process repeats.
.26
 Different Types of LASERs
S.No. Name of laser wave- Active Nature of Spectral
length medium o/p region

1 Ruby laser 6943 Å solid pulsed visible

2 Ga-As Laser 9000 Å Semi- Continuous Infrared

conductor

3 He-Ne laser 6328 Å gas pulsed visible

4 Nd : YAG 1.06 μm solid pulsed Infra red

laser

5 Semi- 8300 to solid pulsed Infra red

conducting 8500 Å
LASER

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Nd: YAG laser:
Nd: YAG laser is a neodymium based laser. Nd stands for Neodymium (rare earth
element) and YAG stands for Yttrium Aluminum Garnet ( Y3Al5O12) .
It is a four level solid state laser. Operates in both pulsed and continuous mode

➢ Principle

➢ Construction

➢ Working, Characteristics

➢ Advantages

➢ Disadvantages

➢ Applications
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Principle
The active medium Nd: YAG rod is optically pumped by Krypton flash tubes.
The Neodymium ions (Nd3+) are raised to excited levels. During the transition
from meta stable state to ground state, a laser beam of wavelength 1.064 μm is
emitted.

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 Construction

➢ The construction of Nd: YAG laser is as shown in the Figure. A small amount of Yttrium ions (Y3+) is
replaced by Neodymium (Nd3+) in the active element of Nd: YAG crystal.

➢ This active element is cut into a cylindrical rod. The ends of the cylindrical rod are highly polished and they
are made optically flat and parallel.

➢ This cylindrical rod (laser rod) and a pumping source (flash tube) are placed inside a highly (reflecting)
elliptical reflector cavity.

➢ The optical resonator is formed by using two external reflecting mirrors. One mirror (M1) is 100%
reflecting while the other mirror (M2) is partially reflecting.

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Working
Figure shows the energy level diagram for Nd: YAG laser. These energy levels
are those of Neodymium (Nd3+) ions.

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➢ When the krypton flash lamp is switched on, by the absorption of light radiation of wavelength 0.73μm
and 0.8μm, the Neodymium (Nd3+) atoms are raised from ground level E0 to upper levels E3and E4 (Pump
bands).

➢ The Neodymium ions atoms make a transition from these energy levels E2 by non-radiative transition. E2 is
a metastable state.

➢ The Neodymium ions are collected in the level E2 and the population inversion is achieved between
E2 and E1.

➢ An ion makes a spontaneous transition from E2 to E1, emitting a photon of energy h. This emitted
photon will trigger a chain of stimulated photons between E2 and E1.

➢ The photons thus generated travel back and forth between two mirrors and grow in strength. After some
time, the photon number multiplies more rapidly.

➢ After enough strength is attained (condition for laser being satisfied).

➢ An intense laser light of wavelength 1.06 μm is emitted through the partial reflector. It corresponds to the
transition from E2 to E1.
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 Characteristics

1. Type: It is a four level solid state laser.

2. Active medium: The active medium is Nd: YAG laser.

3. Pumping method: Optical pumping is employed for pumping action.

4. Pumping source: Xenon or Krypton flash tube is used as pumping source.

5. Optical resonator: Two ends of Nd: YAG rod is polished with silver (one end is fully silvered and the
other is partially silvered) are used as optical resonator.

6. Power output: The power output is approximately 70 watt.

7. Nature of output: The nature of output is pulsed or continuous beam of light.

8. Wavelength of the output: The wavelength of the output beam is 1.06μm (infra-red)

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 Advantages
1. It has high energy output.

2. It has very high repetition rate operation

3. It is much easy to achieve population inversion.

Disadvantages:
The electron energy level structure of Nd3+ in YAG is complicated.

Applications:
1. It finds many applications in range finders and illuminators.

2. It is widely used in engineering applications such as resistor, trimming

scribing, micro machining operations as well as welding, drilling etc.

3. It finds many medical applications such as endoscopy, urology,

neurosurgery, ENT, gynecology, dermatology, dental surgery and general
surgery.
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 Semiconductor Diode laser

It is specifically fabricated p-n junction diode. This diode emits laser light when it is forward
biased.

➢ Principle

➢ Construction

➢ Working, Characteristics

➢ Advantages

➢ Disadvantages

➢ Applications
35
 Principle

➢ When a p-n junction diode is forward biased, the electrons from n– region and the holes from the p- region
cross the junction and recombine with each other.

➢ During the recombination process, the light radiation (photons) is released from a certain specified direct
band gap semiconductors like Ga-As. This light radiation is known as recombination radiation.

➢ The photon emitted during recombination stimulates other electrons and holes to recombine. As a result,
stimulated emission takes place which produces laser.
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Construction:

37
➢ Figure shows the basic construction of semiconductor laser. The active medium is a p-n junction diode made
from the single crystal of gallium arsenide.

➢ This crystal is cut in the form of a platter having thickness of 0.5μm.

➢ The platelet consists of two parts having an electron conductivity (n-type) and hole conductivity (p-type).

➢ The photon emission is stimulated in a very thin layer of PN junction (in order of few microns). The
electrical voltage is applied to the crystal through the electrode fixed on the upper surface.

➢ The end faces of the junction diode are well polished and parallel to each other.

➢ They act as an optical resonator through which the emitted light comes out.

38
 Working
Figure shows the energy level diagram of semiconductor laser.

➢ When the PN junction is forward biased with large applied voltage, the electrons and holes are injected
into junction region in considerable concentration.

➢ The region around the junction contains a large amount of electrons in the conduction band and a large
amount of holes in the valence band.
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➢ If the population density is high, a condition of population inversion is achieved. The electrons and holes
recombine with each other and this recombination’s produce radiation in the form of light.

➢ When the forward–biased voltage is increased, more and more light photons are emitted and the light
production instantly becomes stronger. These photons will trigger a chain of stimulated recombination
resulting in the release of photons in phase.

➢ The photons moving at the plane of the junction travels back and forth by reflection between two sides
placed parallel and opposite to each other and grow in strength.

➢ After gaining enough strength, it gives out the laser beam of wavelength 8400 A0 . The wavelength of laser
light is given by

Where Eg is the band gap energy in joule.

40
 Characteristics

1. Type: It is a solid state semiconductor laser.

2. Active medium: A PN junction diode made from single crystal of gallium arsenide is used as an active
medium.

3. Pumping method: The direct conversion method is used for pumping action.

4. Power output: The power output from this laser is 1mW.

5. Nature of output: The nature of output is continuous wave or pulsed output.

6.Wavelength of Output: gallium arsenide laser gives infrared radiation in the wavelength 8300 to
8500 Å .

41
 Advantages

1. It is very small in dimension. The arrangement is simple and compact.

2. It exhibits high efficiency.

3. The laser output can be easily increased by controlling the junction current

4. It is operated with lesser power than ruby and CO2 laser.

5. It requires very little auxiliary equipment.

6. It can have a continuous wave output or pulsed output.

42
 Disadvantages:

1. It is difficult to control the mode pattern and mode structure of laser.

2. The output is usually from 5 degree to 15 degree i.e., laser beam has large divergence.

3. The purity and monochromacity are less than other types of laser.

4. Threshold current density is very large (400A/mm2).

5. It has poor coherence and poor stability.

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 Application

1. It is widely used in fiber optic communication

2. It is used to heal the wounds by infrared radiation

3. It is also used as a pain killer

4. It is used in laser printers and CD writing and reading.

44
 Applications of Lasers
Lasers in Communication:
➢ Lasers are used in Optical fibre
communication as light source to transmit
audio, video signals and data to long
distances without attenuation and
distortion.

➢ Laser beam can be used for the

communication between the earth and the
moon or to other satellites.

➢ Laser beam can be used for under water

communication, as laser radiation is not
absorbed by water.
 Lasers in Industry:

Lasers are used for welding. Dissimilar

metals can be welded using lasers.

Holes with controlled precision can be

drilled in steel, ceramics, diamond and Lasers used in welding
alloys, using lasers.

Lasers are widely used in electronic

industry in trimming the components of
ICs.

Drilling Steel foil for high density filters

➢ Lasers are used in cutting metal
sheets, diamond and cloths. In the
mass production of stitched clothes,
lasers are used to cut the cloth in a
desired dimension, all at once.
➢ Lasers are used for surface treatment.
Laser beam is used in selective heat
treatment for tempering the desired
parts in automobile industry.
Cutting wood using laser

Laser surface treatment to change the micro

structure of metals through controlled The world’s first all-diamond ring,
heating and cooling. cut with Laser
 Lasers in medicine:
➢ Lasers are used in eye surgery,
especially to attach the detached
retina.
➢ Lasers are used for treatments
such as plastic surgery, skin
injuries and to remove moles,
tattoos and tumours developed in
skin tissue.
Lasers in Eye surgery
➢ Lasers are used in stomatology-the
study of mouth and its disease.

Lasers used in stomatology Lasers in tattoo removal

➢ Laser radiation is sent through optical fibre
to open the blocked artery region.
➢ Lasers are used to destroy kidney stones
and gall stones.
➢ Lasers are used in cancer diagnosis and
Red Argon laser used in throat cancer treatment
therapy.
➢ Lasers are used in blood loss less surgery.
➢ Lasers are used to control hemorrhage.
➢ Using CO2 laser, liver and lung treatment
can be carried out.
➢ Lasers are used in endoscopes, to detect Lasers used to open artery block
hidden parts.
➢ Laser Doppler velocimetry is used to
measure the velocity of blood in blood
vessels.

Lasers used to destroy kidney stones

 Lasers in Military:
➢ Focusing of high energetic laser beam for few
seconds, destroys aircrafts, missiles, etc. These rays
are called death rays.
➢ The vital part of the enemy’s body can be
evaporated by focusing a highly convergent laser
beam from a laser gun.
➢ LIDAR (Light Detecting And Ranging) is used to
estimate the size and shape of distant objects or war
weapons. Laser armed Humvees shooting a Drone
(flying Robot)

Lasers beams of RMR LIDAR at ALOMAR Observatory Soldiers using laser gun
 Lasers in Computers
➢ By using Lasers, a large amount of
information or data can be stored in
CD-ROM or their storage capacity can
be increased.
➢ Lasers are used in computer printers.

Laser assembly inside a CD burner

Laser Beam Printer (LBP) by Epson

Lasers in thermo nuclear fusion:
➢ A nuclear fusion reaction can be
initiated by concentrating a large
amount of laser energy in a small
volume.
➢ For example, in the fusion of
deuterium and tritium, irradiation with
a high energy laser beam, develops a
temperature of 1017 oC , which is
sufficient to initiate nuclear fusion
reaction.
Lasers used in nuclear fusion reactors

Fusion of deuterium and tritium using 192 lasers

 Lasers in Scientific research:
➢ Laser beam can initiate chemical
reactions, study the nature of chemical
bonds and also can break molecules.
➢ Lasers are used to estimate the size
and shape of biological cells such as
erythrocytes.
➢ Lasers are used to find the size of dust
particles.
Laser Scanning Microscope micrograph
➢ Lasers are used in counting the atoms of human RBCs
in isotope separation.

Laser

Laser used in isotope separation

➢ Lasers are used in holography, for
recording and reconstructing of a
hologram.

➢ Lasers are used to measure the

constantly changing distance between
the moon and the earth, by
astronomers.
Lasers used in Holography

➢ Lasers are used in plastic industries to

unite monomers to form polymers.

➢ Lasers are used to develop hidden

finger prints and to clean delicate
pieces of art.

Finger print scanning using Laser