Senior High School

Quarter 3

Porfirio G. Comia Memorial National

High School
Barcenaga, Naujan, Oriental Mindoro

Reading and Writing

Skills
JENIE V.
QUINZON
Subject
Most Essential Learning Competencies
 Compare and contrast patterns of written text
across disciplines
 Evaluate a written text based on its properties
(organization, coherence and cohesion, language
use and mechanics)
 Identify claims explicitly or implicitly made in a
written text
a.Claim of fact
b.Claim of policy
c. Claim of value

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 Lesso Reading & Thinking
n Strategies: Paragraph
Development
1
WHAT’S NEW
This part of the module discusses about paragraph writing. It includes
the various techniques or patterns in developing a paragraph. It also explains the
elements involved in paragraph writing.
WHAT I NEED TO KNOW
By the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
1. compare and contrast patterns of written texts across disciplines:

a) Narration
b) Description
c) Definition
d) Classification
e) Comparison & Contrast
f) Cause and Effect
g) Problem-Solution
h) Persuasion
WHAT I KNOW
Can you define what a paragraph is? Try filling up this graphic organizer, with your ideas of
what a paragraph is.

PARAGRAPH

Lesso Reading & Thinking

2
n Strategies: Writing
1.1 Paragraphs
WHAT’S NEW

 The word paragraph comes from two Greek words: para which means
“beyond” or “beside” and graphein which means “to write”.
 A paragraph is a collection of related sentences with one central idea. Each
sentence shows connection to other sentences in the paragraph.
 A paragraph is an independent unit or a related unit. As an independent
unit, it is complete in itself. As a related unit, it is a part of a composition that
is combined with other paragraphs to make a larger composition.
 Whether a paragraph is an independent unit or a related unit, it has its
beginning, middle and end.

DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE PARAGRAPHS

One of the most important elements in writing is the form or structure. It is

worth noting that without a solid structure in place, the content you have gathered
would fall apart. After constructing an outline and writing your first draft, it is time
to get on to paragraph writing.

An effective paragraph shows the unity of the sentences used in developing

the main idea. A paragraph is made up of the topic sentence which contains the
main idea, the supporting details and the conclusion or the clinching sentence
at the end.

 Topic sentence – it reveals the main or central idea of the paragraph. It

does not necessarily have to be placed at the beginning of the paragraph. It
may be found in the middle of the first and the last sentence or at the end. If
it is found at the end of the paragraph, it may be used as a clinching or
concluding sentence.
 Supporting details – they give the paragraph life as it elaborates on the
scope given by the topic sentence.
 Clinching sentence – it closes your paragraph. According to Dagdag
(2010), this “may be a restatement of the topic sentence, a summary, or a
conclusion based on the supporting details.”

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 Lesso Reading & Thinking
n Strategies: Narration
1.2
WHAT IS IT?
 Narration, from the root word narrates, originated from the Latin word
narrare— which means related or told.
 It gives a written account of an event or story, or simply, storytelling. The
sequence of events is told in chronological order.
 It usually contains the following: the who, what and when.
 A narrative must have “vivid” description of details, a consistent point of
view and verb tense, and a well-defined point or significance.” (Tiongson,
2016).
 At the end of writing it, it must send a clear message to its readers
through the story.

A narrative paragraph simply tells what happened and establishes facts. It

is sharing of personal experiences that offer lessons and insights. It is more
than just a chronological sequence of events that happen to the different
characters. It also contains elements of drama and tension.

Narration is the most common type of paragraph development. It has the

following elements:
1. Setting. It is the time and location in which a story takes place.
2. Characters. The life-giving element of the story.
3. Plot. It is the logical series of events in the story.
The five essential parts of the plot are:
a. Exposition. It is the part of the story where the characters and
the setting are revealed.
b. Rising Action. It is where the events in the story become
complicated and the conflict in the story is exposed.
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 c. Climax. This is the highest point of interest and the turning
point of the story.
d. Falling Action. The events and complications begin to resolve
themselves.
e. Denouement. The final resolution of the plot in the story.

4. Point of View. It is the perspective of the writer in narrating the

story.
a. First person point of view. The story is told by the
protagonist or one of the characters using pronouns I , me ,
we.
b. Second person point of view. The author tells the story in
second point of view using the pronouns you , yours, and
your.
c. Third person point of view . The narrator is not part of the story but
describes the events that happen. The writer uses the pronouns he, she
, him, and her.
Example:

Palace liaison in Congress Jesus Ayala has an incident to share with

friends, after meeting a world-renowned missionary, Mother Teresa of
Calcutta, India last week. When Mother Teresa , dubbed a “ living saint “ in
religious circles, paid a courtesy call on President Aquino at the
Malacanang Premier Guest House Thursday afternoon last week, Chito was
one among the palace staff members who eagerly lived up to have a
glimpsed of the 79-year-old nun. It was a blessing that Chito even had the
chance to kiss Mother Teresa’s hands. And, on bended knees, Chito publicly
confessed. “Bless me, Mother Teresa for I have many sins, “ he whispered
to her. (Reprinted from: Philippine Daily Inquirer “Not Necessary from the
Beat”)

Lesso Reading & Thinking

n Strategies: Description
1.3
WHAT’s new
 Description gives information of what a person, an object, a place or a
situation is like.
 It appeals to the reader’s senses.5
 A descriptive paragraph has concrete and specific details, which are
carefully chosen by a writer to paint a picture in the mind of the reader.
 Descriptive writing emphasizes a reader’s ability to paint vivid pictures using
words on a reader’s mind. This relies on the writer’s ability to appeal to his/her five
senses: the sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing.

To rouse feelings, emotions and reactions from the readers is what

descriptive paragraphs aim for. Simple adjectives will not simply cut it for readers
desiring for appropriate description of an event, thing, place or person.

According to Dagdag (2010), there are two types of description: objective

and subjective. Objective description is a factual description of the topic at hand.
This relies its information on physical aspects and appeals to those who crave for
facts. Meanwhile, subjective description allows the writer to explore ways to
describe an emotion, an event, a thing, a place or person, appealing to emotions.
Often, this is an artistic way of describing things, mostly from the eye and
perspective of the writer.

Here is a word bank of sensory words to refer to when you want to add
descriptive details to your paragraphs:
SIGHT SOUND SMELL TOUCH TASTE
sparkling yelp musty sticky spicy
gloomy shriek rotten grainy sweet
glossy whisper fragrant smooth sour
bright hiss fresh satiny bitter
dazzling screech pungent pointy bland
cloudy chortle fruity clammy creamy
blurred sneeze stinky furry delectable

Example:
The Internet is an incalculable tool for research. It is a network of thousands of
computers cross the world. Researchers, students, government agencies,
schools, businesses, and individuals have left multigigabytes of free information
on these computers, available to anyone with a computer and an Internet
connection. There are thousands of "web sites", as they are called, with text,
pictures, sounds, and movie clips. You can see this material by simply sending out
the appropriate Internet address, and after a few moments, it appears on your
screen. You can type in the address directly, or you can automatically invoke an
address by tapping on an icon or an underlined "link" on the home page of a web
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site that you already have on your screen. Often the information can be printed or
downloaded (copied) directly to your local computer and saved on your own
diskette. (english.glendale.cc.ca.us/topic11.html).

Lesso Reading & Thinking

n Strategies: Definition
1.4
What’s new
 Definition explains a concept, term or subject. Its main purpose is to tell
what something is.
 It consists of three parts: (1) the term, concept or subject to be defined;
(2) the general class to which it belongs; and (3) the characteristics that
differentiate it from the other members of its class.
 A definition explains what a term means. When you want your
readers to know exactly how you are using a certain term or an
unfamiliar concept , you use definition.
 It appeals to the reader’s senses.

Definition is the main constituent of any dictionary. In developing a

paragraph by definition, you should take account of these things:
a) the term to be defined
b) the class to which the term belongs
c) the characteristics that distinguish the term from the other
members of its class.
Take a look at this example of a definition:
An owl is a bird with a large head, strong talons and has a
nocturnal habit.
Owl – is the term to defined
Bird – is the class where the owl belongs
with a large head, strong talons and has a nocturnal habit – are the
characteristics that distinguish the owl from the other birds.
The following are the different types of definitions:
1. Formal Definition. The definitions provided in dictionaries.

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 2. Informal Definitions. The three common informal definitions are
operational definitions, synonyms, and connotations.
a. Operational Definitions gives the meaning of an abstract
word for one particular time and place.
b. Synonyms or words that mean the same as another word.
c. Denotation is the exact meaning of the word
d. Connotation is an idea or meaning suggested by or
associated with a word or things.
3. Definition Paragraph. It is a definition sentence which is
extended into a paragraph by adding meanings, descriptions,
narrations , and other kinds of paragraph development to make
clear the term being defined.

Example:
Anger
Anger is having a feeling of hatred towards someone or
something. It is one of our basic emotions and can be most dangerous
if it is not carefully controlled. A person can become angry when he
cannot fulfill some basic needs or desire that is important to him. For
example, a child may become angry when he cannot play outside with
his friends. An adult may become angry when he does not receive a
raise in pay that he expected. Mentally, anger can interfere with our
thoughts, making it difficult to think clearly. Physically, it may cause
violent reactions in the muscles and in the nervous system. This cause
an angry person to flush and tremble and to show other signs of
disturbance. A person can be dangerous if he is an angry mode
because he can develop feelings of hostility and hatred toward another
person, which can then often turn violent.
(source:https://www.sinclair.edu/centers/tlc/pub/handouts_worksheets/
english/07 5sample-paragraph-definition-pdf)

Lesso Reading & Thinking

8
n Strategies: Classification
1.5
What’s new

 Classification paragraphs group items into categories, to

establish a clear distinction.
 If the topic encompasses a large body of information, one effective
way of elaborating it is through classifying things of distinct
features into groups/classes.
 Classification groups items into categories to establish a clear
distinction between related or similar ideas. Similar items are
grouped into categories for the readers to better understand and
analyze the material at hand.

In a classification paragraph you tell readers how a collection of items can

be sorted into categories. It is an activity of sorting items (people, things ,
ideas ) into categories.
1. Terms that signal classification
aspects kinds qualities traits
areas levels systems types
2. Transitional Expressions

can be divided can be categorized

can be classified the first type
Example:
Types of Friends

Friends can be classified according to their honesty , loyalty , the type

that fits you into their schedule , or the type that finds time for you when
they need something. An honest friend tells you the truth even if it’s not
always what you want to hear. In the long run , that honest friend may
have saved you from embarrassment or possible rejection. They give you
constructive criticisms overall. The loyal friend is the type of friend that will
be there for you through thick and thin. They don’t care how good or bad
you may look one day; they are sensitive to your feelings , they respect
you and the other people in your life, and most of all they will never let
you down when times are hard. They may be what you call a best friend.
The third group, the person that fits you into their schedule , is the type of
person that is always on the go. They barely have time for themselves let
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alone another person. More than likely they will not be there for you when
you need them most, because they are so wrapped up in their busy ,
hectic life. Then you have the self-absorbent type of friend that finds time
for you only when they need something. This type of person isn’t what you
would call a friend. This person may always be extremely nice to you
because they know that from being nice they will more than likely get what they
want. They will call you every once in a while when it is almost time for
them to use that person again. It may be for a ride to work, home or
they just want somebody to hangout with because they have no other
friends. If the person that is being used is smart they will eventually realize
that they are getting used and will stop being there for that person. ( Amy
Neil, 2005)

Lesso Reading & Thinking

n Strategies: Comparison &
1.6 Contrast
What’s new
 A comparison tells how two things are similar. A contrast tells
how they are different.
 A paragraph developed by comparison and contrast has a
unifying idea or purpose of attempting to weigh decisions
between two ideas or subjects.
 A comparison and contrast paragraph must be balanced in such
a way that there is an equal amount of information for each
subject to avoid bias.

There are two ways in writing a comparison and contrast paragraph.

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 1. Subject – by - Subject Method. You present all of the facts and
supporting details about one topic , and then you give all the facts
and supporting details about the other topic.

2. Point – by - Point Arrangement. You discuss each point for both

subjects before giving on the next point.
Example:
There are several similarities and differences between being a senior and junior
high school student. Being a senior and junior high school student both require
you to study hard to be able to get desirable outputs and decent grades. Subjects
are equally important to be given attention. It’s just that some subject areas may
be easier to deal with depending on different factors. The subjects in senior high
school (SHS) and junior high school (JHS) differ in a way that SHS subjects are
more specific areas that are deemed essential for the track and strand you chose
while in JHS, subjects are the general ones that we have since first grade, just
increasing in complexity. Another similarity is that when you enter SHS and JHS,
you have to prepare yourself to be a responsible part of the institution that you will
enroll in. You should be ready to follow the policy that the school implements.
Being a “senior” high student doesn’t mean you are superior or anything and
being a “junior” high student doesn’t mean that you are under those in the SHS.
The difference comes when there may be slight changes in the way rules and
regulations are applied and the gravity of reprimands you may receive as you step
up to higher grade levels or as you encounter different situations. In general,
whether there are similarity or difference in being a Senior or Junior high school
student, it’s is still up to you how you will handle it.

Lesso Reading & Thinking

n Strategies: Cause and Effect
1.7
What’S NEW
 A cause is what makes a particular thing happen.
 An effect is what results from a particular situation, activity, or behavior.
 A paragraph developed by causal analysis must not only raise the question why,
but also give answers to the satisfaction of the reader.

Cause and Effect paragraphs are written for the following purposes:
 to discuss why a certain phenomenon occurs
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  to discuss the results of a phenomenon, event, feeling or action
 to understand a situation
 to solve a problem
 to predict an outcome
 to entertain
 to persuade
Some of the signal words used in this type of paragraph are the following:
 For
 Because
 Since
 Due to
 So
 But
 For this reason
 As a result
 Consequently
 Otherwise
 Therefore
Example:
The Influence of Video Games to Children
Video games have been a part of children’s life for the past few decades. It all
started when Atari came up with its first gaming consul, which included a very
simple game of tennis. The controller had just 1 stick and 1 button to play with.
Now, we have many different types of consuls available in the market with very
complex games that requires controllers with two or more sticks and a variety of
buttons. Video games are almost second nature to the modern children and they
are more comfortable playing them. Playing video games can have many different
effects (both positive as well as negative) on children. Some of this effects include
increasing hand eye coordination and increasing dexterity mental skills; a
decrease interest in other interest such as studies and sports ; and a very
negative effect of inducing violence.

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 One of the most positive effects of video games is increasing the dexterity of a
child and improving his or her hand eye coordination. As mentioned earlier, the new
video games that are coming out are extremely complex and they involve the
movement of many different kinds of sticks and buttons on the controllers. These can
be very good for children as they learn to make the fast connections between what
they see and what their hands and fingers are doing. This allows them to think quickly
and improves their reflexes. The newest games are very precision-based and it takes
very minute and accurate movements for the children to control the characters. This
helps in making the children much more a depth at handling and operating real-life
machinery and objectives.
Another effect that playing video games have on children is that they tend to get
addicted to playing this games and give them foremost priority. This takes the children
away from their other responsibilities, such as doing house chores, homework, and
other physical activities. Children also end at spending more time playing video
games in front of television screens than playing real and actual sports that involve
physical exercise. This in turn can have many health related problems for children, as
they can get obese if they don’t exercise ad stay home playing video games. This is
perhaps the worst negative effect that video games can have on children. Parents and
educators all over the world are concern about this phenomenon and they are urging
the children to not spend so much time playing video games. Many new video games
consuls, such as the new Nintendo WII have come out with games that require users
to actually get up and move.
Many researchers have talked about the effects of viewing violence in the media
and how it affects children. Video games takes this to another level, where the
children are actually participating in being violent in the video games. There are many
games out there that allow children to play arm bearing characters who can kill
anyone that they want, steal cars, and commit many different kinds of crime. These
games can have negative implications on the children as they get immune to the idea
of committing crime and end up believing that it is alright. Research still on going on
this negative effect and it has not entirely been proven or disproven as of yet.
We find that plain video games can have various effects on children, both positive
as well as negative. Even though children can benefit by increasing their dexterity and
improving their reflexes, the cost of them losing out on their physical exercise and
homework, as well as their becoming prone to violent acts, are way too much. It is
important that the parents and educators take up this problem seriously and enable
certain rules and regulations that allow children to divide their time responsively
between playing video games and completing their studies and other responsibilities.
(Source: www.tailoredessays.com/samples/video-games-affect-children-essay.htm)

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 Lesso Reading & Thinking
n Strategies: Problem -
1.8 Solution

 In composition writing, problem-solution is a method for

analyzing and writing about a topic by identifying a problem and
proposing one or more solutions.
 Problem-solution paragraphs as the term implies, presents and
identifies a problem and proposes possible solution/s.

In composing this type of essay, you must present an argument or stand and
support it with reliable evidence in order to persuade the readers to make a
particular move or action (Kemper et.al, 2016).
According to Soles (2010), topics for problem-solution essays “are typically
framed in the form of questions.” Problem-solution essay can provide answers to
5W and 1H (who, what, when, where, why, and how) questions. Soles (2010)
added that this type of essay has essentially two parts: “a full explanation of the
nature of the problem, followed by an analysis of solutions and their likelihood of
success.”

Structure of paragraphs in a problem-solution essay:

Nordquist (1995) suggested the following structure of a problem-solution

paper that may serve as a guide on what to include in this type of essay:
1. Introduction. At the forefront of the essay, the introduction must serve to
capture the reader’s attention. This may contain the thesis statement
wherein the problem or topic at hand is presented. This is where the
problem is defined, and the reason why it is significant to a specific group
of people (or the target audience).
2. Problem Paragraph. This paragraph/s will dwell on the elaboration of the
problem, effectively conveying the importance of a solution. You may
present reliable sources and evidence to support your stand.
3. Solution Paragraph. Present and describe a concrete solution to the
problem. Explain how this solution is better than other probable solutions.
4. Conclusion. Conclude the essay with connection between the problem
and its proposed solution.
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Example:
Deforestation is a serious problem because it destroys forests—and forests
and trees are not just pretty to look at, they do an important job making the earth´s
environment suitable for life. They clean the air, store water, preserve oil, and
provide homes for animals. They also supply food, fuel, wood products, and paper
products for humans. In the past fifty years, more than half of the world´s
rainforests have been destroyed.

Today, all around the world, deforestation continues, the world´s climate may
change, floods may become more common, and animals will die. One solution to
the problem of deforestation is to use less paper. If you use less paper, fewer trees
will be cut for paper making. How can you use less paper? One answer is to
reduce your paper use by using both sides of the paper when you photocopy, write
a letter, or write an essay. A second answer is to reuse old paper when you can,
rather than using a new sheet of paper. The backs of old envelopes are perfect for
shopping list or phone messages, and when you write a rough draft of an essay,
write it on the back of something else. A final answer is to recycle used paper
products instead of throwing them away. Most schools, offices, and districts have
some kind of recycling center. If you follow "the three Rs"- reduce, reuse, and
recycle-you can help save the world´s forest.

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 Lesso Reading & Thinking
n Strategies: Persuasion
1.9
WHAT’S NEW
 A persuasive paragraph tries to convince the reader that a particular
point of view is worthy of consideration. It wants you to consider both sides
of an issue, but it reveals a bias in favor of one side over another.
 A persuasive paragraph intends to convince readers to do or believe in
something.
 Knowing how to write a persuasive paragraph allows you to express your
personal conviction or opinion about an issue or topic and make the
readers agree with or adopt your conviction or opinion.

Much like problem-solution essays, persuasion essays seek to urge readers

to take a particular action (Forlini, et.al, 1990). The main goal of persuasive essays
is to convince the reader to agree to the writer’s opinion or at the very least, take it
into serious consideration.
According to Forlini (1990), “the purpose of persuasive writing is to obtain the
reader’s agreement on a matter of opinion.”
The statements given in persuasive essays are heavy on opinion while based
on facts. The opinions of the writer must be (a) controversial enough or something
that would inspire conversation and debate, (b) significant and interesting, and (c)
supported by evidence. (Forlini, 1990).
It is also vital that in order to prove your stand, you must thoroughly research
about the issue you are about to discuss. Make a list of your strongest arguments
composed of facts and data. Introduce a new reason or fact with every paragraph.
Some of the transitional expressions used in persuasive paragraphs are the following:
GIVE REASONS ANSWER THE OPPOSITION DRAW CONCLUSION
first (second, third, etc.) of course therefore
another, next some may say nevertheless thus
last, finally on the other hand hence
because, since, for consequently
although

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 WHAT I HAVE LEARNED
 A paragraph is a collection of related sentences with one central idea.
Each sentence shows connection to other sentences in the paragraph.
 A paragraph has a topic sentence, supporting details, and a clinching
sentence.
 There are many ways of developing a paragraph, such as: narration,
description, definition, classification, comparison and contrast, cause
and effect, problem-solution and persuasion.

Lesson Properties of a Well-Written

2 Texts

Knowledge of the aspects that make a well-written text will enable you to ensure
the quality of your work. More importantly, the message you want to communicate
will effectively come through if your work is well- developed by observing good
organization, arranging ideas logically, using acceptable language, and applying
correct conventions in writing.

Lesson
Organization
2.1

 Organization is about the arrangement of ideas, incident, details

evidence and order. It is achieved when ideas are logically and
accurately arranged. Knowledge of the parts of a composition is a great
help in adhering to the correct organization of ideas. The sentences
within a paragraph must also be organized logically.

 Organization is the structural framework for writing. It is important to

effective writing because it provides readers with a framework to help
them fulfil their expectations for the text. This is the logical progression
and completeness of ideas in a text.

Text without Organization Text with Organization

Thomas Edison was simply the Although it is widely believed that
17
one who created the first Thomas Edison invented the light
commercially viable light bulb. It bulb, in reality he was simply the
is widely believed that he one who creates the first
invented the light bulb. What commercially viable light bulb.
made Edison’s light bulb Along with his team, Edison
successful was his use of improve the previous works of
carbonized bamboo as the investors who also worked on the
filament. This made the bulb last same project. Compared to
longer and it was cheap enough previous versions, what made his
to be available for the masses. light bulb successful was his use
He only improved on previous of carbonizes bamboo as
works of inventors who also filament. This made the bulb last
worked on the same project. longer and it was cheap enough
to be available for the masses.

Text organization is the way a text is organized that helps to guide the
reader logically through it. This property makes a text readable and its message
clear. Organization can be achieved through the following techniques:

1. Physical Format
The format is an aspect of the organization that is immediately apparent to
the reader. It is seen in how the text physically appears like headings and
subheadings, bullet points or font emphasis. However, use this technique with
discretion as improper or superfluous formatting can be confusing.
 Example:
Marxist ideology has three main theories. Historical materialism purports that
all the features of society can historically be traced back to economic activity.
Social class in capitalist societies is what produces unjust structures of power
that exist today. Socialism would be the next rational step for the development
of human society.
 Explanation:
The words in bold are the three most important Marxist theories that the first
sentence is referring to. By emphasizing these words, the reader can
identify the correct term for the concepts along with their definitions; this would
also aid in remembering the theories since they stick out from the rest of the
text.

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2. Signal Words
Signal words are textual cues that readers can use to follow a text. They can
“signal” the transition from one point to another, the ordering of events
and concepts, or the writer’s chosen text type (e.g., linear narration, question
and answer).
Example:
Chuck Palahniuk’s novel Fight Club greatly influenced me as a fictional
writer. First, his use of the unreliable narrator fascinated me, and I have written
similar characters in my works. Second, the theme of patriarchal oppression can
also be found in the stories I write. Third, the novel’s stunning twist is something
that I have been trying to recreate. Thus, I am extremely grateful to have
encountered Palahniuk’s genius early in my writing career.
Explanation:
By using sequential signal words (first, second and third) before the beginning of
every sentence, the reader can follow what seems to be the writer’s list of three
reasons why the novel influenced him. The word thus also signals the conclusion
and the end of the list.

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 3. Structure
The structure provides the framework upon which the text is organized. It
consists of the following:
Beginning: introduction, thesis statement, hook
Middle: supporting details
End: conclusion, summary, final message
Example:
Ancient philosophies believe that a person has an “aura,” this appears
as a rainbow of light around the body that can be seen by individuals with
clairvoyant abilities. The colors change depending on one’s mood, health,
and thoughts. Some scientists believe that the existence of the aura has
something to do with the electromagnetic fields produced by cells and
tissues in the human body. Whether auras are real or not, the fact
remains that there are forces everywhere that are real even though we
cannot see them.
 Explanation:
Organization in this paragraph is not readily noticeable as it does not use cues
like formatting or signal words. However, the text is organized in this way:
 Beginning: Introduce topic of aura
 Middle: Definition and evidence of existence of auras
 End: Ending message about forces in the world

Lesson
Coherence and Cohesion
2.2
Coherence and Cohesion are achieved when ideas are logically, clearly,
and smoothly linked to one another; without it, the reader may not be able to
comprehend your composition. Although these two concepts are interrelated,
they are distinct. Coherence occurs when ideas are connected at the
conceptual level or idea level. It can be seen through well-defended
arguments and organized points. Unlike coherence, cohesion is the
connection of ideas at the sentence level. It can readily be seen in a text
through the smooth flow of the sentences and the connection of the ideas.
Cohesion can be applied using three techniques. The first one is through the
use of pronouns to refrain from using a specific word repeatedly. The second
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technique is through the use of transitional devices to connect sentences with
linked ideas. The last technique employs a repetition of keywords to tie up the
paragraphs subtly.

Text without Coherence and Text with Coherence and Cohesion

Cohesion
Amelia Earhart was a legendary Amelia Earhart was a legendary
woman who made her name in aviation woman who made her name in aviation
by setting various records. In 1928, she by setting various records. In 1928, she
became famous as the first woman became famous as the first woman who
who flew across Atlantic Ocean. She flew across Atlantic Ocean. However,
was only a passenger, with pilot Wilmer during this trip she was only a
Stultz and co-pilot/mechanic Louis passenger, with pilot Wilmer Stultz and
Gordon manning the controls. In 1932, co-pilot/mechanic Louis Gordon
she flew on her own over the Atlantic. manning the controls. In 1932, she
She flew from Honolulu Hawaii to finally got to fly on her own over the
Oakland California. She became the Atlantic. She set another record when
first person to fly over both the Atlantic she flew from Honolulu Hawaii to
and Pacific Oceans. Between 1930 and Oakland California in 1935, thus
1935, Earhart set seven women’s becoming the first person to fly over
speed and distance aviation through both the Atlantic and pacific Oceans.
different aircrafts. She disappeared in Between 1930 and 1936, Earhart set
1837 while attempting to fly around the seven women’s speed and distance
world. On board her plane was her only aviation through different aircrafts.
crew member, Fred Noonan. Extensive
search efforts were not able to find a
trace of both aviators.

Remember the following when trying to evaluate if your text has cohesion and
coherence:
A text with cohesion but no coherence is difficult to follow.
A text with coherence but no cohesion has no definite point.
A text with both cohesion and coherence is logically sequenced and stays on
topic.

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 Lesson
Language Use
2.3

Language Use refers to the acceptable style of language for a particular form of
text. The way language is used is one of the clearest indicators of a well-written
text. It enables the writer to effectively communicate ideas without confusing the
reader.
Informal language is usually used in writing for oneself or in writing to family,
friends, and colleagues. On the other hand, formal language is used in writing
academic, business, and official texts.
Examples:
 We asked the secretary to call the professor and get her
permission for us to continue our research.
 We requested that the secretary contact the professor and obtain
her permission for us to continue our research.
You should also be sensitive enough to use unbiased language so that
you will not offend any individual or any particular group of people.
Unbiased language is language that is free of racial bias, free of religious bias,
and free of gender bias.
Examples:
 A teacher should make it a point to motivate her students.
 Teachers should make it a point to motivate their students
Proper Language Use
Proper language use allows you to capture the message that you want to convey
to your readers. It is all about choosing the right words that accurately capture your
ideas.
However, writers sometimes encounter problems with the following:
 Misused Words
 Words with Unwanted Connotations
 Technical or Highfalutin Words
Misused Words
A writer might sometimes use a word incorrectly, and this occurs when the
word does not mean what he or she thinks it does. So, it is important to be
certain of the definition of a word before using it; this often happens with
words that sound or look alike.

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Example:
There are many behaviors that past societies considered legal but are now
deemed amoral including slavery, sexism, and racism.
Explanation:
The writer confused the word “amoral” with “immoral.” The former means
neither moral nor immoral (without moral quality) while the latter means not
moral. Sometimes, it is easy to guess the correct meaning of a word just by
looking at how it is spelled. The prefix a- signals that something is without such
as in “anarchy” (without a government) or “atypical” (without typical features).
On the other hand, the prefix im- simply means not such as in “imperfect” (not
perfect) or “impossible” (not possible).
Words with Unwanted Connotations
There are words that take on a meaning specific to a context. Some writers
might not be aware of these connotations, so they end up using language that
is unintentionally confusing, comical or even offensive to readers.
Example:
The coast guard salvaged Priscilla and her sister after their fishing boat was
damaged in the storm.
Explanation:
The word “salvage” means to save usually from the wreckage of a marine
vessel. However, the Philippine media and police often use the term to mean a
violent killing, which is opposite from its traditional English meaning. It comes
from the Spanish word “salvaje” that has a meaning similar to “savage.” Thus, if
the writer produced this text for a Filipino audience, the meaning that he or she
intended would be lost. Using the word “saved” or “rescued” would remedy the
issue.
Technical or Highfalutin Words
Writers want to sound smart by using words that are very technical or have
deep meanings. Though some writing genres require the use of such words,
writers should still be careful about using them since they make readers
work harder to understand texts.
Example:
There is an ongoing discourse about the antidisestablishment assemblage and
the administrative political body.
Explanation:
The text is complicated because it is filled with words that are difficult to
understand. If the terms are important to use, then the writer could define what
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they mean. Otherwise, the sentence could be rewritten simply this way: There
is an ongoing discussion between the opposition and the government. This
sentence still “sounds smart” but it is easier for most people to understand and
it does not change the meaning of the original sentence in any way.
Importance of Language
As a writer and speaker, it is important not only to think about what you
say, but how you say it. To communicate effectively, it is not enough to have
well organized ideas expressed in complete and coherent sentences and
paragraphs. One must also think about the style, tone and clarity of his/her
writing, and adapt these elements to the reading audience.
Therefore, one must avoid sentence like this:
Instructor to student: "I have never had a student who was so confused with
this material. Perhaps you should take an easier course from an easier
professor. It makes no difference to me."
REMEMBER:
When you use words improperly, readers are left confused as to what you are
trying to say. So, always choose words according to their correct definition and
connotation. Also, keep your language simple enough to make your text easier for
readers to understand.
Effective language used is achieved by observing the following time-tested
principles in writing.
a. Use clear and concise sentences. On average, a sentence is 18 words long.
Note that this does not require every sentence to be composed of exactly 18
words.
b. Avoid redundancies, wordiness, cliches, and high falutin language.
c. Avoid excessive use of “there” and “it” structures.
d. Use precise vocabulary.
e. Be consistent with your pronoun’s point of view.
f. Avoid sexist language. This issue can be addressed by using articles (a,
an, the), using plural pronouns, using his or her instead of his, writing through a
second person point of view, or using gender-neutral nouns.
g. Use appropriate level of formality. The more formal texts use an academic
tone while less formal ones usually use a personal or colloquial tone.

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 Lesson
Mechanics
2.4
Mechanics refers to the conventions of writing which includes capitalization,
punctuation, spelling, numerals, abbreviations, acronyms, and contractions.
In academic and more formal texts, the following should be observed.
a. Always use standard English.
b. Avoid contractions. (e.g. shouldn’t)
c. Avoid exclamation marks unless they are part of a direct quotation.
d. Mention the full name of an institution or organization with the abbreviation
in parenthesis, in first mention. Thereafter, use the abbreviation.
e. Numbers from zero to ten should be spelled out while numbers higher than
ten should be written in figures.
f. Generally, citations are used in academic and formal texts. However, they
are sparingly used in business texts.

Text without Mechanics Text with Mechanics

Pluto was demoted to a dwarf planet in Pluto was demoted to a dwarf planet in
2006 after the General Assembly of the 2006 after the general assembly of the
IAU, as it only met 2 out of the International Astronomical Union (IAU),
association’s three requirements to as it only met two out of the
qualify as a Planet (Library of association’s three requirements to
Congress). The dispute started when qualify as a planet (Library of
Caltech astronomy prof Mike Brown Congress). The dispute started when
discovered an Asteroid bigger than Mike Brown, a professor of astronomy
Pluto in 2005 (Cain, 2012). The science at the California Institute of Technology
community went wild! Brown’s findings (Caltech), discovered an asteroid
sparked a debate on whether this new bigger than Pluto in 2005 (Cain, 2012).
planet, which he named Eris, should be Brown’s findings sparked a debate on
added to the roster of 9 Planets. The whether this new planet, which he
controversy prompted the International named Eris, should be added to the
Astronomical Union to meet up and roster of nine Planets. The controversy
delineate what a ‘planet’ is. They came prompted the IAU to meet up and
up with three requirements to classify a delineate what a
celestial body as a planet and removed ‘planet’ is. They came up with three
the Planet Status of Pluto based on the requirements for classifying celestial
new definition. bodies as planets and removed the
planet status of Pluto based on the new
definition.
Source: Academic Reading and Writing by Jessie s. Barrot Ph

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26
Lesson Text and Context
3 Connections: Claims in a
Written Text
WHAT’S NEW

To properly evaluate the ideas you have gathered while reading, you
must be able to know the different kinds of information which are explicit
information and implicit information.
Two Kinds of Information:
 Explicit Information is the information stated in the text. Readers
can see the piece of information stated in the given passage.
 Implicit information is the information not directly presented in the
text. As readers, we need to read between the lines to understand the
details that the writer is trying to tell us.
Critical reading enables you to distinguish the explicit and implicit information
provided by the author. Explicit information is information that is clearly stated in the
text. Implicit, on the other hand, are ideas suggested in the text but not directly stated.
This is where the ability to make inferences based on clues within the text is applied.

Through proper identification of explicit and implicit information, the critical

reader can properly evaluate the claim/s made by an author. Claims state the point or
position of an author regarding a certain topic. The claim statement is further proven by
supporting details from various resources and reliable evidence.

Tiongson (2016) gave the following characteristics of good claims:

1. A claim should be argumentative and debatable. It is expected for a written text

to yield objections and opposite perspectives to appear for readers of a text that
supports a certain stand on a topic. Completely factual texts are not considered
debatable.
2. A claim should be specific and focused. With the statement of claim limiting the
scope of the written text, it must be noted that claims must be focused on a
single topic alone to arrive at an equally concise and specific result or
conclusion.

3. A claim should be interesting and engaging. It should capture the interest of

readers at first glance and encourage a healthy discussion on the topic.

4. A claim should be logical. The evidence supporting the claim must be reasonable
at its best.

Lesson Text and Context

3.1 Connections: Claim of Fact
WHAT’S NEW
Claims of Fact are pieces of information which are grounded on reliable authority such as science
or history.
Claims of Fact relate to statements that can be easily verified and not dependent on a person's
preference. It also asserts that a condition has existed, is existing, or will exist and is based on
facts or data.
Facts that are universally accepted are not considered claim of fact but instead a statement of fact.

Claims of Fact are often qualified by such terms as generally, probably, or as a

rule. And, to verify whether these statements are claim of fact or not, ask these
questions:
Is it debatable? Is it verifiable? Is it specific? Can it be solved objectively?
Types of factual claims (generally "objective")
1. Factual / historical
2. Relational - causal connections
3. Predictive

Proof requires:
• sufficient and appropriate grounds
• reliable authority
• recent data
• accurate, typical data
• clearly defined terms -no loaded language
• a clear distinction between fact and inference

EXAMPLES OF CLAIMS OF FACT

 The oldest known disease in the world is leprosy.
 Generally, obesity causes health problems.
 The earth is warming rapidly.

Text and Context

Lesson
Connections: Claim of Policy
3.2
WHAT’S NEW

 The Claim of Policy calls for some form of action.

 It states what the reader should or ought to do about a particular situation/topic.
The Claim of Policy advocates a specific course of action. It asserts that
specific policies should be instituted as solutions to problems.
Claims of policy argue that certain conditions should exist. Almost always
"should" or "ought to" or "must" are included in this claim.
Claims of Policy are specific statements on procedures or laws that need to be
modified based on certain issues or conditions.
Most of the time, claims of policy ask for plans of action to solve current
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problems.
Proof requires:
 Making proposed action (clear), need (justification), plan (must be workable),
benefit (advantages) consider opposition / counter arguments.
Consider this statement, for example:

To attract more non-traditional students, this college must review and revise
its course offerings.
The given statement above is an example of a claim of policy. It calls on action
for the college referred to, regarding its course offerings to arrive at a workable
conclusion which is to attract more non-traditional students. The author may choose
to elaborate on this course of action to prove that this claim can work for the college.
EXAMPLES OF CLAIMS OF POLICY
 The mayor should suspend the classes today.
 You must send your children to public schools.
 The government should legalize medicinal marijuana.
 The Boy Scouts should not have to include gay scout leaders.
 Local Malls should not open during the general community quarantine.

WHAT’S NEW

 Claims of Value refer to statements that appeal to a person’s taste

and morals or the sense of what’s good and what’s bad.
 This type of claim weighs the values according to which is more
desirable. Claim of value deals with topics concerning moral,
philosophical, or aesthetic aspects.
Claims of Value involve judgments and evaluations. It judges whether
something is good/bad, right/wrong, just/unjust, ethical/non-ethical, and
others. We judge the worth of something. It attempts to prove that some
things are more or less desirable than others.

Some claims of value are simply expressions of taste, preferences,

and prejudices. The most important in proving claim of value is by
establishing standards of evaluation.

Proof requires:
• Establishing standards of evaluation (i.e. a warrant that defines
what constitutes instances of the relevant value)
• note the priority of the value in this instance
• Establish the advantage (practical or moral) of your standards
• Use examples to clarify abstract values
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  Use credible authorities for support

The famous saying, honesty is the best policy, is one good

example of a claim of value. To prove the statements validity, the author
may elaborate on the examples that show how honesty holds advantage
over other policies and how it has been proven to be effective.

EXAMPLES OF CLAIMS OF VALUE

 It is better to be feared than loved.
 Cheating is not good.
 Gay marriage is immoral.
 Buying a house is a lot better than building it.
 Rock music sucks.
 The government is doing a great job during the Covid-19
pandemic.

CHECK THIS OUT!

Claim of Fact Claim of Value Claim of Policy
Facebook is better Facebook must be doing
Generally, Facebook than Twitter and well considering the
received most visits than Instagram. number of visitors it has
Twitter and Instagram.
every day.

debatable, verifiable, Requires a “standard” Suggests a solution or a

specific, objective to verify policy

WHAT I HAVE LEARNED

 A claim is a statement that is not considered accepted by all. It may be unverified
or controversial to a certain degree.
 There are claims rooted in history or science (claims of fact).
 There are claims that demand action because the present conditions for certain
policies are no longer effective (claims of policy).
 There are claims that assert the morality of an idea based on certain standards or
preferences (claims of value).

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