COMPUTER MEMORY

The computer’s memory stores data and instructions required during the
processing of data, and output results. Storage may be required for a limited
period of time, instantly, or, for an extended period of time. Different types
of memories, each having its own unique features, are available for use in a
computer. The cache memory, registers, and RAM are fast memories and
store the data and instructions temporarily during the processing of data and
instructions. The Secondary Memory such as magnetic disks and optical
disks has large storage capacities and store the data and instructions
permanently, but are slow memory devices. The memories are organized in
the computer in a manner to achieve high levels of performance at the
minimum cost. In this lecture, we discuss different types of memories, their
characteristics and their use in the computer.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY MEMORY OF COMPUTER

Computer memory is simply the computer’s brain where data and
information are stored for easy retrieval. Memory is the computer’s storage
space that temporarily or permanently stores data or programs. There are
two types of computer memories. These include primary and secondary
memories.

Primary memory is the computer's main memory and stores data

temporarily, while Secondary memory is the external memory and saves
data permanently. Data stored in primary memory can be directly accessed
by the CPU, which cannot be accessed in secondary memory.

1. Primary/Main Memory: Primary memory is the computer memory that

is directly accessible by CPU. It is comprised of DRAM and provides the
actual working space to the processor. It holds the data and instructions that
the processor is currently working on.

2. Secondary Memory/Mass Storage: The contents of the secondary

memory first get transferred to the primary memory and then are accessed
by the processor; this is because the processor does not directly interact
with the secondary memory.

Memory system can be divided into 4 categories:

 CPU register
 Cache memory
 Primary memory
 Secondary Memory (Mass Storage)
COMPARISON BETWEEN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY MEMORIES
Primary Memory Secondary Memory
Primary memory is temporary. Secondary memory is permanent.
Primary memory is directly accessible Secondary memory is not directly
by Processor/CPU. accessible by the CPU.
Nature of Parts of Primary memory It’s always Non-volatile in nature.
varies RAM:volatile in nature. ROM:Non-
volatile.
Primary memory devices are more Secondary memory devices are
expensive. less expensive.
The memory devices used for primary The secondary memory devices
memory are semiconductor memories. are magnetic and optical
memories.
Primary memory is also known as Main Secondary memory is also known
memory or Internal memory. as External memory or Auxiliary
memory.
Examples: RAM, ROM, Cache memory, Examples: Hard Disk, Floppy Disk,
PROM, EPROM, Registers, etc. Magnetic Tapes, etc.

MEMORY REPRESENTATION
The computer memory stores different kinds of data like input data, output
data, intermediate results, etc., and the instructions. Binary digit or bit is the
basic unit of memory. A bit is a single binary digit, i.e., 0 or 1. A bit is the
smallest unit of representation of data in a computer. However, the data is
handled by the computer as a combination of bits. A group of 8 bits form a
byte. One byte is the smallest unit of data that is handled by the computer.
One byte (8 bit) can store 28 = 256 different combinations of bits, and thus
can be used to represent 256 different symbols. In a byte, the different
combinations of bits fall in the range 00000000 to 11111111. A group of
bytes can be further combined to form a word. A word can be a group of 2, 4
or 8 bytes.

1 bit = 0 or 1
1 Byte (B) = 8 bits
1 Kilobyte (KB) = 210 = 1024 bytes
1 Megabyte (MB) = 220 = 1024KB
1 Gigabyte (GB) = 230 = 1024 MB = 1024 *1024 KB
1 Terabyte (TB) = 240 = 1024 GB = 1024 * 1024 *1024 KB

CHARACTERISTICS OF MEMORIES
Volatility
 Volatile {RAM}
 Non-volatile {ROM, Flash memory}

Mutability
 Read/Write {RAM, HDD, SSD, RAM, Cache, Registers…}
 Read Only {Optical ROM (CD/DVD…), Semiconductor ROM}

Accessibility
 Random Access {RAM, Cache}
 Direct Access {HDD, Optical Disks}
 Sequential Access {Magnetic Tapes

MEMORY HIERARCHY
The Internal Memory and External Memory are the two broad categories
of memory used in the computer. The Internal Memory consists of the CPU
registers, cache memory and primary memory. The internal memory is used
by the CPU to perform the computing tasks. The External Memory is also
called the secondary memory. The secondary memory is used to store the
large amount of data and the software.

In general, referring to the computer memory usually means the internal

memory.

INTERNAL MEMORY
The key features of internal memory are:
1. Limited storage capacity.
2. Temporary storage.
3. Fast access.
4. High cost.

Registers, cache memory, and primary memory constitute the internal

memory. The primary memory is further of two kinds: RAM and ROM.
Registers are the fastest and the most expensive among all the memory
types. The registers are located inside the CPU, and are directly accessible
by the CPU. The speed of registers is between 1-2 ns (nanosecond). The sum
of the size of registers is about 200B. Cache memory is next in the hierarchy
and is placed between the CPU and the main memory. The speed of cache is
between 2-10 ns. The cache size varies between 32 KB to 4MB. Any program
or data that has to be executed must be brought into RAM from the
secondary memory. Primary memory is relatively slower than the cache
memory. The speed of RAM is around 60ns. The RAM size varies from 512KB
to 64GB.

SECONDARY MEMORY
The key features of secondary memory storage devices are:
1. Very high storage capacity.
2. Permanent storage (non-volatile), unless erased by user.
3. Relatively slower access.
4. Stores data and instructions that are not currently being used by CPU but
may be required later for processing.
5. Cheapest among all memory.

To get the fastest speed of memory with largest capacity and least cost, the
fast memory is located close to the processor. The secondary memory, which
is not as fast, is used to store information permanently, and is placed
farthest from the processor.

With respect to CPU, the memory is organized as follows:

 Registers are placed inside the CPU (small capacity, high cost, very high
speed)
 Cache memory is placed next in the hierarchy (inside and outside the
CPU)
 Primary memory is placed next in the hierarchy
 Secondary memory is the farthest from CPU (large capacity, low cost, low
speed)

The speed of memories is dependent on the kind of technology used for the
memory. The registers, cache memory and primary memory are
semiconductor memories. They do not have any moving parts and are
fast memories. The secondary memory is magnetic or optical memory
has moving parts and has slow speed.
Computer Memory Hierarchy Diagram
CPU REGISTERS
Registers are very high-speed storage areas located inside the CPU. After
CPU gets the data and instructions from the cache or RAM, the data and
instructions are moved to the registers for processing. Registers are
manipulated directly by the control unit of CPU during instruction execution.
That is why registers are often referred to as the CPU’s working memory.
Since CPU uses registers for the processing of data, the number of registers
in a CPU and the size of each register affect the power and speed of a CPU.
The more the number of registers (ten to hundreds) and bigger the size of
each register (8 bits to 64 bits), the better it is.

Computer Registers
 Data Register(DR) : hold the operand(Data) read from memory
 Accumulator Register(AC) : general purpose processing register
 Instruction Register(IR) : hold the instruction read from memory
 Temporary Register(TR) : hold a temporary data during processing
 Address Register(AR) : hold a memory address, 12 bit width
 Program Counter(PC) :
o hold the address of the next instruction to be read from memory after
the current instruction is executed
o Instruction words are read and executed in sequence unless a branch
instruction is encountered
o A branch instruction calls for a transfer to a nonconsecutive instruction
in the program
o The address part of a branch instruction is transferred to PC to become
the address of the next instruction
 Input Register(INPR) : receive an 8-bit character from an input device
 Output Register(OUTR) : hold an 8-bit character for an output device

The following registers are used in Mano’s example computer.

Register Numbe Register Register

r
symbol of bits name Function
DR 16 Data register Holds memory operands
AR 12 Address register Holds address for memory
AC 16 Accumulator Processor register
IR 16 Instruction register Holds instruction code
PC 12 Program counter Holds address of instruction
TR 16 Temporary Holds temporary data
register
INPR 8 Input register Holds input character
OUTR 8 Output register Holds output character
CACHE MEMORY

Cache memory is placed in between the CPU and the RAM. Cache memory is
a fast memory, faster than the RAM. When the CPU needs an instruction or
data during processing, it first looks in the cache. If the information is
present in the cache, it is called a cache hit, and the data or instruction is
retrieved from the cache. If the information is not present in cache, then it is
called a cache miss and the information is then retrieved from RAM.

Type of Cache memory

Cache memory improves the speed of the CPU, but it is expensive. Type of
Cache Memory is divided into different levels that are L1, L2, L3:

Level 1 (L1) cache or Primary Cache

L1 is the primary type cache memory. The Size of the L1 cache very small
comparison to others that is between 2KB to 64KB, it depends on computer
processor. It is an embedded register in the computer microprocessor
(CPU).The Instructions that are required by the CPU that are firstly searched
in L1 Cache. Example of registers are accumulator, address register,
Program counter etc.

Level 2 (L2) cache or Secondary Cache

L2 is secondary type cache memory. The Size of the L2 cache is more
capacious than L1 that is between 256KB to 512KB. L2 cache is located on
computer microprocessor. After searching the Instructions in L1 Cache, if not
found then it searched into L2 cache by computer microprocessor. The high-
speed system bus interconnecting the cache to the microprocessor.

Level 3 (L3) cache or Main Memory

The L3 cache is larger in size but also slower in speed than L1 and L2, its size
is between 1MB to 8MB. In Multicore processors, each core may have
separate L1 and L2, but all core share a common L3 cache. L3 cache double
speed than the RAM.
Cache Memory Arrangement Diagram

The advantages and disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:

Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows:
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.
COMPUTER CORE MEMORY

Core memory was a common form of random access memory (RAM)

from the mid-1950s to the mid-'70s, and it was developed at MIT in
1951. The memory made use of magnetic rings called cores that had wires
passing through them for selecting and detecting the contents of the cores.

CRT (CATHODE-RAY TUBE)

A cathode-ray tube (CRT) is a specialized vacuum tube in which images
are produced when an electron beam strikes a phosphorescent surface. Most
desktop computer displays make use of CRTs. The CRT in a computer display
is similar to the "picture tube" in a television receiver.

A cathode-ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube containing one or more

electron guns, which emit electron beams that are manipulated to
display images on a phosphorescent screen. The images may represent
electrical waveforms (oscilloscope), pictures (television set, computer
monitor), radar targets, or other phenomena.

In CRT television sets and computer monitors, the entire front area of the
tube is scanned repeatedly and systematically in a fixed pattern called a
raster. In color devices, an image is produced by controlling the intensity of
each of three electron beams, one for each additive primary color (red,
green, and blue) with a video signal as a reference. In modern CRT monitors
and televisions the beams are bent by magnetic deflection, using a
deflection yoke. Electrostatic deflection is commonly used in oscilloscopes.

The rear of a 14-inch color cathode-ray tube showing its deflection coils and
electron guns
Typical 1950s United States monochrome television set

Snapshot of a CRT television showing the line of light being drawn from left
to right in a raster pattern

Animation of the image construction with interlacing method

Color computer monitor electron gun

A CRT is a glass envelope which is deep (i.e., long from front screen face to
rear end), heavy, and fragile. The interior is evacuated to 0.01 pascals
(1×10−7 atm) to 0.1 micropascals (1×10−12 atm) or less, to facilitate the free
flight of electrons from the gun(s) to the tube's face without scattering due
to collisions with air molecules. As such, handling a CRT carries the risk of
violent implosion that can hurl glass at great velocity. The face is typically
made of thick lead glass or special barium-strontium glass to be shatter-
resistant and to block most X-ray emissions. CRTs make up most of the
weight of CRT TVs and computer monitors.
Since the mid-late 2000's, CRTs have been superseded by flat-panel display
technologies such as LCD, plasma display, and OLED displays which are
cheaper to manufacture and run, as well as significantly lighter and less
bulky. Flat-panel displays can also be made in very large sizes whereas 40 in
(100 cm) to 45 in (110 cm) was about the largest size of a CRT.

A CRT works by electrically heating a tungsten coil which in turn heats a

cathode in the rear of the CRT, causing it to emit electrons which are
modulated and focused by electrodes. The electrons are steered by
deflection coils or plates, and an anode accelerates them towards the
phosphor-coated screen, which generates light when hit by the electrons
REFERENCES
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/difference-between-primary-and-
secondary-memory/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube