Lecture Notes 3

MATHEMATICAL MODELS
Primary System Variables and Impedance
3.1 Objectives of the lecture
The main objectives of this chapter are:

1. To define the system and its primary components.

2. To formulate the mathematical model using fundamental necessary assumptions

based on physical laws.

3. To develop the ability to write the equations of motion for models of simple
physical systems.

4. To investigate a mechanical system by means of an electrical analogy.

Main physical systems are classified as

• Electrical Systems

• Mechanical Systems

• Fluid Systems

• Thermal Systems
In each case we shall first discuss physical models, and then derive the
equations of motion. The principal feature that distinguishes the study of one
physical system from that of another is, of course, the specific cause-and-
effect phenomena exhibited by its elements. In addition, the kinds of
approximations made in physics modeling will be different; the details of
selecting variables and writing equilibrium relations will also depend on the
system. There is much in common, however, in the process of deriving
equations of motion, as we shall note repeatedly in our studies.
3.2. Linear and Nonlinear Models

• A system is nonlinear if the principle of superposition does not apply. Thus, for a
nonlinear system the response to two inputs cannot be calculated by treating one
input at a time and adding the results (This is the advantage of linear systems).

• In practice, most electromechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic systems and so on,

involve nonlinear relationships among the variables. For example the output of a
component may saturate for large input signal such as actuators can operate
between certain limits of inputs (Force, voltage, etc.) or springs can be deformed
after some excess force applications.
• In order to simplify analysis, systems can be considered linear in
limited operating ranges. If the global mathematical model of the
system is nonlinear, we can linearize it around the operating conditions
which give us a good approximation of the global behavior around that
operating point. However, if the operating range increases, the linear
model does not represent the dynamical behavior of the system and
cannot be used for the analysis and control design anymore.
3.3. Linear approximation of Nonlinear
Mathematical Models
To obtain a linear mathematical model for a nonlinear system, we assume that the variables
deviate only slightly from some operating condition. Consider a system whose input is 𝑥(𝑡)
and output is 𝑦(𝑡). The relationship between the input and output of the system can be
represented mathematically as

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) (3.1)

If the normal operating condition corresponds to 𝑥ҧ and 𝑦,

ത then Eq. (3.1) may be expanded
into a Taylor series about this point as follows:

𝑑𝑓 1 𝑑2𝑓
𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥ҧ + 𝑥 − 𝑥ҧ + (𝑥 − 𝑥)ҧ 2 + ⋯ (3.2)
𝑑𝑥 2! 𝑑𝑥 2
If the variation 𝑥 − 𝑥ҧ is small, we may neglect the higher order terms ((𝑥 − 𝑥)ҧ 𝑛 ≈ 0, 𝑛 ≥ 2)
 𝑑𝑓
The derivative ቚ is evaluated at the operating point. Equation (3.2) may be written as
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑥ҧ

𝑦 = 𝑦ത + 𝐾(𝑥 − 𝑥)ҧ (3.3)

𝑑𝑓
where 𝐾= ቚ and 𝑦ത = 𝑓(𝑥)ҧ
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑥ҧ

hence 𝑦 − 𝑦ത = 𝐾(𝑥 − 𝑥)ҧ (3.4)

which indicates that 𝑦 − 𝑦ത is proportional to 𝑥 − 𝑥ҧ (linear relationship).

If we expand the above term around the operating points 𝑥ҧ1 , 𝑥ҧ2 , … , 𝑥ҧ𝑛 using Taylor series

𝑦 = 𝑦𝑖 + 𝐾1 𝑥1 − 𝑥ҧ1 + 𝐾2 𝑥2 − 𝑥ҧ2 + ⋯ + 𝐾𝑛 (𝑥3 − 𝑥ҧ3 ) (3.6)

𝜕𝑓
where, 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑥ҧ1 , 𝑥ҧ2 , … , 𝑥ҧ𝑛 ) and 𝐾𝑖 = ቚ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛.
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝑥 =𝑥ҧ ,𝑥 =𝑥ҧ ,…,𝑥 =𝑥ҧ ,
1 1 2 2 𝑛 𝑛
Example:
Consider the pendulum oscillator model shown in Fig. (3.1a)

8
Nonlinear
6 Linear

Torque (T)
- pi/4
0
- pi pi/4 pi
-2

-4

-6

-8
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Angle (Teta)
Fig. 3.1a. Pendulum oscillator Fig. 3.1b. Linear vs nonlinear behavior
Torque on the mass M is

𝑇 = 𝑀𝑔𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑔 is the gravity constant. The equilibrium condition for the mass is 𝜃ҧ = 0𝑜 . The nonlinear
relationship between T and 𝜃 is shown in Fig. (3.1b).

Using Taylor series expansion

𝑑(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
𝑇 ≅ 𝑇ത + 𝑀𝑔𝐿 ቤ 𝜃 − 𝜃ҧ
𝑑𝜃 𝜃=𝜃ഥ

Where 𝑇ത = 0. Then we have,

𝑇 = 𝑀𝑔𝐿 cos 0𝑜 𝜃 − 0𝑜 = 𝑀𝑔𝐿𝜃

This approximation is reasonably accurate for − 𝜋Τ4 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋Τ4.

3.4. Transfer Functions of Systems
Transfer functions are used to characterize the input-output relationships of Linear Time-Invariant
(LTI) systems. The transfer function of a LTI system can be obtained from the ratio of the Laplace
transform of the system output to the Laplace transform of the input under the assumption of all the
initial conditions are zero. Let us consider the LTI system given in the differential equation form

𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑚 𝑥 𝑑 𝑚−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎𝑛 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 + 𝑎0 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑚 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 + 𝑏0 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Here 𝑛 ≥ 𝑚, y(t) is the output variable and x(t) is the input variable or a test signal. The transfer
function of this system is

𝑌(𝑠) 𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 … + 𝑏1 𝑠 + 𝑏0

𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑋(𝑠) 𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑠 + 𝑎0
Some properties of Transfer functions are
1. The transfer function is a property of a system itself, independent of the magnitude and nature of the input.

2. The transfer function includes the units necessary to relate the input to the output; however, it does not contain any
information related to the physical structure of the system. Hence, many physically different systems may have identical
transfer functions.

3. The transfer function of a system may also be represented in the following way

𝑌(𝑠) 𝑠 − 𝑧1 𝑠 − 𝑧2 … (𝑠 − 𝑧𝑚 )
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑋(𝑠) 𝑠 − 𝑝1 𝑠 − 𝑝2 … (𝑠 − 𝑝𝑛 )

where 𝑝𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛 are the poles and 𝑧𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑚 are the zeros of the system. Poles of the system determine the
stability of a system, whereas the zeros have effect on the performance of the system only, not the stability. We can say that
the system is stable if all the system poles are negative and if the system has even one positive pole, the system shows
unstable dynamics.

4. If the transfer function of a system is known, the output of the system can be studied for a view toward understanding
the nature of the system by using various input signals. However, if the transfer function is unknown it may be
established by using some known inputs such as impulse input, etc. This process is called as System Identification.
 Example: Consider the pendulum system given in the previous example. Tc is the external torque
applied to the system (the input) and the output is the angle of the mass 𝜃. The equation of motion
of the pendulum can be found by applying Newton’s law for rotational systems

σ 𝑇 = 𝐼 𝜃,ሷ where I is the moment of inertia about the pivot

points.
𝑇𝑐 − 𝑀𝑔𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐼 𝜃ሷ
for hanging mass 𝐼 = 𝑀𝐿2 . As it can be seen we have a
nonlinear system, however we have linearized the system’s
nonlinear term for small oscillations so that the linearized
system is
𝑇𝑐 − 𝑀𝑔𝐿𝜃 = 𝑀𝐿2 𝜃ሷ

Fig. 3.2. Pendulum oscillator with an external applied Torque

This is the mathematical model of the system in the differential equation form. If we take
the Laplace transform of both sides assuming that all the initial conditions are zero,
𝑇𝑐 𝑠 𝑔
− 𝜃 𝑠 = 𝑠2𝜃 𝑠
𝑀𝐿2 𝐿

The transfer function is the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace
transform of the input, therefore the transfer function of the pendulum system is

1
𝜃(𝑠) 𝑀𝐿 2
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑇𝑐 (𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 𝑔
𝐿
3.5. Classification of System variables and Basic
System Elements
The dynamic behavior of physical systems results from the interchange of energy between potential
and kinetic forms and from the loss of energy through dissipation.

Almost every physical system, just like electrical systems, can be modeled by passive components
including resistance, capacitance, and inductance. Each of these physical elements is associated with
an element-across variable and an element- through variable.

• Element-across variable (E, Effort): An across variable, e, is measured between distant entries,
and it is not necessary to make any severing entry into the system. That is, variables that are
measured with a gauge connected in parallel to an element. Potential difference in electrical
systems; Translational velocity or rotational velocity in mechanical systems, pressure difference in
fluid systems and Temperature difference in Thermal systems are element-across variable.
• Element-through variable (R, Rate, flow): A through variable, r, is measured at one subsystem
entry only, and to measure such a variable directly we must sever the system at that entry and insert
the measuring instrument between the entry and the remainder of the system. That is, variables that
are measured with a gauge connected in series to an element. Current in electrical systems; Force
or Torque (moment) in Translational/Rotational mechanical systems; Flow rate in Fluid systems;
and heat flow rate in Thermal systems are element-through variable.

The flow of energy between two elements is always characterized by two variables, of which the
product is power. The product of Across and Through is always Power (P). We call such a pair of
variables power conjugated variables. For example voltage and current are used for electrical
networks and force and velocity are used for mechanical (translational) systems.
The following table lists the Through and Across variables associated
with each type of physical domain.

Table 3.1. Through and Across variables of the physical systems

System Across Variable Through Variable

Electrical e (Voltage, ν) I (Current)

Translational Mechanical v (Velocity) F (Force)

Rotational Mechanical  (Angular velocity) T (Torque, Moment)

Fluid P (Pressure difference) q (Flow rate)

Thermal  (Temperature difference) qt (Heat Flow rate)

• With the exception of thermal systems, the product of the effort and rate
variables 𝑒 and 𝑟 is power 𝑃. For example, electrical power is the product of
voltage and current; mechanical power is the product of force and velocity.
So, except for thermal systems, “We could have chosen entropy flow rate as
the rate variable in thermal systems, since its product with temperature does
give power. However, this choice has rarely been used in practice”.

Power = across variable x through variable

P = E.R (3.7)
Since energy (E) is the time interval of power, we have

𝐸 = ‫𝐸 ׬ = 𝑡𝑑𝑃 ׬‬. 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 (3.8)

For example, the force-deflection relation of a linear mechanical spring is 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥. Hence,
with effort, E = v = dx/dt and rate, R = F (3.8) gives the expression for the potential
energy 𝑃𝐸 stored in the spring.
𝑑𝑥 1
𝑃𝐸 = ‫𝐹 ׬‬ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑘 ‫ 𝑥𝑘 = 𝑥𝑑𝑥 ׬‬2 (3.9)
𝑑𝑡 2

Similarly, the expression for the kinetic energy 𝐾𝐸 stored in a mass 𝑚 moving with velocity
𝑣 can also be found from (3.8). By using E= 𝑣 and R = F and 𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡 from
Newton’s law, we obtain
𝑑𝑣 1
𝐾𝐸 = ‫ 𝑣𝑚 = 𝑡𝑑 𝑣𝑚 ׬ = 𝑡𝑑𝑣𝐹 ׬‬2 (3.10)
𝑑𝑡 2
The power expression (3.7) can also be used to compute the power dissipation in a system. For an electrical
resistor, the effort e is the applied voltage 𝑣, and the rate is the current 𝑖. So the power dissipated by a resistor is

𝑃 = 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑖 2 𝑅 (3.11)

where 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅.

Expressions for potential and kinetic energy storage and power dissipation can be obtained for other system
types in a similar way.

It is readily observable that many similarities exist between electrical and mechanical systems in terms of the
equations considered and this makes possible the investigation of a mechanical system by means of an electrical
analogy or vice versa. One big advantage of employing the mechanical to electrical analogy is that the
mechanical network under consideration may well be large, expensive and potentially dangerous whereas its
electrical analog will most likely be a cheap bench-top exercise with the inherent safety that affords.

Methods are considered in which variables from one system type can be regarded as being analogous to those
from another system type, showing how the study of control systems brings together the various engineering and
physical disciplines by means of a common mathematical toolbox.
 Direnç Kapasite İndüktans
R C L
Elektrik
Sistemleri
1
e=Ri e= i e =Ls i
Cs
The table Doğrusal Damper Kütle Doğrusal Yay
F
F b
m F
shows the k
1 1 1 s
elements of Mekanik
v= b F v = ms F v=
k
F
systems and Sistemler Döner Damper Atalet Torsiyon Yayı
T
T b T J
their transfer k
functions  = 1b T = 1
T =1 sT
Js k

q
Akışkan q q
Sistemler
1
p = RH q p= q p = L Hs q
CHs
qt
Isıl 1 2
Sistemler 1
 = R t qt = q
Cts t
System Elements not storing and dissipating
energy:
These are elements which just transform or convert the form of an energy into
another form, such as translational mechanical to rotational mechanical,
electrical to mechanical, electrical to electrical and so on.
• Electrical Transformers (elektriksel değiştiriciler) (transformatörler)
• Mechanical Transformers (mekaniksel değiştiriciler) (dişli takımları)
• Electro-mechanical Transformers (Elektrik motorları)
• Signal Transformers (Transducer, sensor)
http://barnabyisright.com/2013/07/06/electro-physics-the-theory-of-economic-warfare/ 03.11.2013
General Energy Concepts
In the study of energy systems, there always appear three elementary concepts. These are potential energy, kinetic energy, and energy
dissipation. And corresponding to these concepts, there are three idealized, essentially pure physical counterparts called passive
components.
In the science of physical mechanics, the phenomenon of potential energy is associated with a physical property called elasticity or stiffness,
and can be represented by a stretched spring.
In electronic science, potential energy is stored in a capacitor instead of a spring. This property is called capacitance instead of elasticity or
stiffness.
In the science of physical mechanics, the phenomenon of kinetic energy is associated with a physical property called inertia or mass, and
can be represented by a mass or a flywheel in motion.
In electronic science, kinetic energy is stored in an inductor (in a magnetic field) instead of a mass. This property is called inductance
instead of inertia.
In the science of physical mechanics, the phenomenon of energy dissipation is associated with a physical property called friction or
resistance, and can be represented by a dashpot or other device which converts energy into heat.
In electronic science, dissipation of energy is performed by an element called either a resistor or a conductor, the term “resistor” being the
one generally used to describe a more ideal device (e.g., wire) employed to convey electronic energy efficiently from one location to another.
The property of a resistance or conductor is measured as either resistance or conductance reciprocals.
In economics these three energy concepts are associated with:
Economic Capacitance – Capital (money, stock/inventory, investments in buildings and durables, etc.)
Economic Conductance – Goods (production flow coefficients)
Economic Inductance – Services (the influence of the population of industry on output)
All of the mathematical theory developed in the study of one energy system (e.g., mechanics, electronics, etc.) can be immediately applied in
the study of any other energy system (e.g., economics).
3.6. Electrical System Elements

Basic laws governing electrical circuits are Kirchhoff's current law and voltage law.
Kirchhoff's current law (node law) states that the algebraic sum of all currents entering and
leaving a node is zero. (This law can also be stated as follows: The sum of currents entering
a node is equal to the sum of currents leaving the same node.) Kirchhoff's voltage law (loop
law) states that at any given instant the algebraic sum of the voltages around any loop in an
electrical circuit is zero. (This law can also be stated as follows: The sum of the voltage
drops is equal to the sum of the voltage rises around a loop.) A mathematical model of an
electrical circuit can be obtained by applying one or both of Kirchhoff's laws to it.
 i(t) A R B

3.6.1. Resistive Elements e(t)

Fig. 3.3. Circuit model of a resistor.
Resistance is a property that opposes the flow of current. Circuit model of a resistor is shown in Fig.
3.3.

For a wide variety of materials and conditions, the electrical resistance does not depend on the
amount of current through or the potential difference (voltage) across the object, meaning that the
resistance R is constant for the given temperature and material. Mathematical model of a resistor is
given by the Ohm’s law
e(t) = i(t) ∗ R
If we apply voltage on a resistor as an input, we obtain current as an output, which can be represented
in the transfer function format as
E(s)
G s = =R
I(s)
 i(t) A C B

3.6.2. Capacitive Element e(t)

Fig. 3.4. Circuit symbol of a capacitor

A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive two-

terminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric field. Circuit
symbol of a capacitor is shown in Fig. 3.4.

When there is a potential difference (voltage) e(t), the relationship between

the electric charge q(t) (coulomb) and capacitance C is given as
q t = C ∗ e(t)
If we take the derivative of both sides with respect to time
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑒 1
=𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐶 or 𝑒 𝑡 = ‫𝑖׬‬ 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶

Transfer function for the capacitive element when voltage is input is given as

𝐸(𝑠) 1
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝐼(𝑠) 𝐶𝑠

Similarly, when the current is input and voltage is output, the transfer
function becomes

𝐼(𝑠)
𝐺 𝑠 = = 𝐶𝑠
𝐸(𝑠)
 i(t) A L B

3.6.3. Inductive Element e(t)

Fig. 3.5. Circuit representation of an inductor
An inductor or a reactor is a passive electrical component that can store
energy in a magnetic field created by the electric current passing through it.
An inductor's ability to store magnetic energy is measured by its inductance
L, in units of Henries. Inductance can be thought of as the property that
allows the storage of kinetic energy. Typically an inductor is a conducting
wire shaped as a coil, the loops helping to create a strong magnetic field
inside the coil due to Ampere's Law. Circuit symbol of a capacitor is shown in
Fig. 3.5.
Due to the time-varying magnetic field inside the coil, a voltage is induced,

𝑑𝑖 1
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝐿 or 𝑖 𝑡 = ‫𝑡𝑑 )𝑡(𝑒 ׬‬
𝑑𝑡 𝐿

where ‫ 𝑡𝑑 𝑒׬‬is called flux linkages 𝛹(𝑡).

Transfer function for the capacitive element when voltage is input is given as

𝐸(𝑠)
𝐺 𝑠 = = 𝐿𝑠
𝐼(𝑠)

Similarly when the current is input and voltage is output, the transfer function becomes

𝐼(𝑠) 1
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝐸(𝑠) 𝐿𝑠
 3.7. Mechanical Systems
Mechanical systems obey Newton’s law that the sum of the
forces equals zero; that is, the sum of the applied forces must
be equal to the sum of the reactive forces. Mechanical systems m b k
can be divided into two basic systems.

(a) Translational systems and (b) Rotational systems

We will consider these two systems separately and describe

(a) (b) (c)
these systems in terms of three fundamental linear elements.
Symbolically, this element is represented by a block as shown Fig. 3.6 Passive linear elements
of translational motion (a)
in Fig. 3.6. Mass (b) Dashpot (c) Spring.
3.7.1. Resistive Elements (for mechanical system)
The following analysis includes only linear functions which is the damping, or viscous, friction.
Static friction, Coulomb friction, and other nonlinear friction terms are not included.

(a) Translational systems:

(c)
A damper or dashpot is a mechanical element that dissipates energy in the form of heat instead of
storing it (shown in Fig 3.6b). When the friction is viscous friction, the frictional force is proportional

k
to velocity, v(t). This force is also known as damping force and written as

𝑑𝑥

(b)
𝐹𝑏 = 𝑏𝑣 = 𝑏
𝑑𝑡

b
where b is the damping coefficient (N.s/m). The transfer function is

𝑉(𝑠) 1 𝑋(𝑠) 1 1
𝐺1 𝑠 = = 𝑜𝑟 𝐺2 𝑠 = = and mechanical resistance is 𝑅𝑚 =
𝐹𝑏 (𝑠) 𝑏 𝐹𝑏 (𝑠) 𝑏𝑠 𝑏

(a)
m
(a) Rotational systems:

Rotational dashpot creates a frictional torque which opposes the rotational motion is given by

𝑑𝜃
𝑇𝑏 = 𝑏𝑡 𝜔 = 𝑏𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Where 𝑏𝑡 is the rotational damping coefficient, ω is the angular velocity and θ is the angular
displacement. Transfer function for rotational systems is

𝜔(𝑠) 1 𝜃(𝑠) 1
𝐺1 𝑠 = = 𝑜𝑟 𝐺2 𝑠 = =
𝑇𝑏 (𝑠) 𝑏𝑡 𝑇𝑏 (𝑠) 𝑏𝑡 𝑠

and mechanical resistance is

1
𝑅𝑚 =
𝑏𝑡
3.7.2. Capacitive Elements (for mechanical system)
(a) Translational systems:

Mass: This represents an element which resists the motion due to inertia. Inertia may be defined as
the change in force (torque) required to make a unit change in acceleration (angular acceleration).
According to Newton's second law of motion, the inertia force is equal to mass times acceleration.

𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑥 m b
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 =𝑚 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Where a, v and x denote acceleration, velocity and displacement of the body, respectively.

Symbolically, this element is represented by a block as shown in Fig. 3.6(a). The transfer function in
(a)
terms of across and through variable ( V(s) , Fm(s) ) and in terms of X(s) and Fm(s) are (b)
𝑉(𝑠) 1 𝑋(𝑠) 1
𝐺1 𝑠 = = 𝑜𝑟 𝐺2 𝑠 = =
𝐹𝑚 (𝑠) 𝑚𝑠 𝐹𝑚 (𝑠) 𝑚𝑠 2

and mechanical capacity is 𝐶𝑚 = 𝑚

(a)Rotational systems:
The capacitive element in rotational systems is called moment of inertia, J
(kg*m2) of rotating mass. Equation of motion for rotational mass is given by

𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜔
𝑇𝑚 = 𝐽𝛼 = 𝐽 2 = 𝐽
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Where α (rad/s2) is the angular acceleration. The transfer function of the
equation for rotational mass system is

𝜔(𝑠) 1 𝜃(𝑠) 1
𝐺1 𝑠 = = 𝑜𝑟 𝐺2 𝑠 = =
𝑇𝑚 (𝑠) 𝐽𝑠 𝑇𝑚 (𝑠) 𝐽𝑠2

and mechanical capacity is 𝐶𝑚 = 𝐽

 (a)

m
3.7.3. Inductive Element (for mechanical system)
(a)Translational systems:

b
(b)
A spring is an elastic object used to store mechanical energy in terms of potential energy
(shown in Fig. 3.6c). The restoring force of a spring is proportional to the displacement in
linear springs. However, in practice most of the springs behave nonlinearly after a certain

k
deformation. For linear spring

(c)
𝐹𝑘 = 𝑘𝑥

where k is the stiffness of the spring or simply spring constant. The transfer function for
spring element is

𝑉(𝑠) 𝑠 𝑋(𝑠) 1
𝐺1 𝑠 = = 𝑜𝑟 𝐺2 𝑠 = =
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑘 𝐹(𝑠) 𝑘

1
and mechanical inductance is 𝐿𝑚 =
𝑘
(a)Rotational systems:
Rotational counterpart of spring element is torsional or rotational spring. Equation
of motion for torsional spring is
𝑇𝑘 = 𝑘𝑡 𝜃

and its transfer function is

𝜔(𝑠) 𝑠 𝜃(𝑠) 1
𝐺 𝑠 = = 𝑜𝑟 𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑇𝑘 (𝑠) 𝑘𝑡 𝑇𝑘 (𝑠) 𝑘𝑡

and mechanical inductance is

1
𝐿𝑚 =
𝑘𝑡
3.8. IMPEDANCE
So far, we have discussed properties of individual physical elements. In
this section we will explain the way in which the elements can be
interrelated to form the physical model of a complete system.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_impedance 03.11.2013

Electrical impedance is the measure of the opposition that a circuit presents to a current when a
voltage is applied. In quantitative terms, it is the complex ratio of the voltage to the current in an
alternating current (AC) circuit. Impedance extends the concept of resistance to AC circuits, and
possesses both magnitude and phase, unlike resistance, which has only magnitude. When a circuit is
driven with direct current (DC), there is no distinction between impedance and resistance; the latter
can be thought of as impedance with zero phase angle.
3.8.1. Introduction

If the through and across variables correspond to the system input and
output variables respectively, the impedance of a system is defined to be
the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace transform
of the input, under the assumption that all initial conditions are zero.

The magnitude of the impedance Z acts just like resistance, giving the
drop in voltage amplitude across an impedance Z for a given current I.
Deriving the device specific impedances
What follows below is a derivation of impedance for each of the three basic circuit
elements, the resistor, the capacitor, and the inductor.

The impedance of the basic circuit elements in this more general notation is as
follows:

Resistance 𝑒(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡) 𝐸(𝑠) = 𝑅𝐼(𝑠) 𝑍𝑅 (𝑠) = 𝑅

1 𝑡 1 1
Capacitance 𝑒(𝑡) = ‫𝑡𝑑)𝑡(𝑖 ׬‬ 𝐸(𝑠) = 𝐼(𝑠) 𝑍𝐶 (𝑠) =
𝐶 0 𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑠
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
Inductance 𝑒(𝑡) = 𝐿 𝐸(𝑠) = 𝐿𝑠𝐼(𝑠) 𝑍𝐿 (𝑠) = 𝐿𝑠
𝑑𝑡

acrossvariable
Transfer Function: 𝑇(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑍(𝑠) =
throughvariable
Components of an electrical circuit can be connected in many ways. The
two simplest of these are called series and parallel and occur very
frequently. A circuit composed solely of components connected in series
is known as a series circuit; likewise, one connected completely in
parallel is known as a parallel circuit. The total impedance of many
simple networks can be calculated using the rules for combining
impedances in series and parallel.
3.8.2. Electrical Impedance Analysis
Series combination:

For components connected in series along a single path, the current through each circuit element is the same; the
total impedance is simply the sum of the component impedances. In a series circuit, the current through each of
the components is the same, and the voltage across the components is the sum of the voltages across each
component.

Consider the electrical circuit shown in Figure 3.7. The circuit consists of an inductance L (Henry), a resistance
R (ohm), and a capacitance C (farad). Applying Kirchhoff's voltage law to the system, we obtain the following
equations:
ER EL EC

R L C

E
Fig. 3.7. Series connection
In series connection;

• Through variable is same for each component

• Across variable is different for each component

Total potential difference across the nodes of the circuit in Fig. 3.7 is

1
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑅 + 𝐸𝐿 + 𝐸𝐶 and hence, 𝐸 = 𝑅 + 𝐿𝑠 + 𝐼
𝐶𝑠

Total impedance is

1
𝑍 = 𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝐶 and hence, 𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝐿𝑠 +
𝐶𝑠
Parallel combination:

For components connected in parallel, the voltage across each circuit element is the same;
the ratio of currents through any two elements is the inverse ratio of their impedances. In a
parallel circuit, the voltage across each of the components is the same, and the total current
is the sum of the currents through each component.
I

E R L C

IR IL IC

Fig. 3.8 Parallel connection

• across variable is same for each component

• through variable is different for each component

Hence the inverse total impedance is the sum of the inverses of the
component impedances:
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝐶

1 1 1
𝐼= + + 𝐶𝑠 𝐸 𝐸= 1 1 𝐼
𝑅 𝐿𝑠 + +𝐶𝑠
𝑅 𝐿𝑠

1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑍= 1 1 = 1 1 1 = + +
+ +𝐶𝑠 + + 𝑍 𝑍𝑅 𝑍𝐿 𝑍𝐶
𝑅 𝐿𝑠 𝑍𝑅 𝑍𝐿 𝑍𝐶

in the parallel connection;

3.8.3. Mechanical Impedance Analysis
F (t)

Mechanical impedance is a measure of how much a structure resists motion when

subjected to a given force. It relates forces with velocities acting on a mechanical system.
The mechanical impedance of a point on a structure is the ratio of the force applied to the
k
point to the resulting velocity at that point.

Impedance analysis is commonly used to analyze electrical circuits. By means of

equivalent circuits, we can use the same analysis methods for mechanical systems. We will m
show the analogy of series and parallel connection in mechanical systems this in detail with
examples.
b
Example 1: Determine the equations of motion the spring-dashpot-mass system shown in
Figure right side. Set up its mechanical network and its equivalent electrical circuit.
Calculate mechanical impedance of the system.
Solution: The system is constrained to have vertical oscillations. At this stage F (t)
we will ignore gravity by assuming that the spring/mass system is resting on a
A
frictionless horizontal plane. The arrow indicates the positive direction of the
force. .
xa

The given system is two-degree-of-freedom spring-dashpot-mass system.

k
Degrees of Freedom: By degrees of freedom is meant the number of
coordinates required to specify the position of all the elements in a mechanical
system. One of the methods of determining the equation of operation of B
mechanical systems is to write the force balance at each coordinates. m .
xb
In order to use Newton's second law of motion it is necessary to determine the
forces acting on a body so that the resultant force (F) can be found. Thus a
system of objects such as springs and masses should be divided up into its b
separate components.
In the equilibrium position the spring would be unstretched and the mass at rest. When the
mass is displaced x(t) from this position the spring is stretched an amount x(t). Thus there
are equal and opposite forces (F) at the ends of the spring. The force F is given by F(t) =
kx(t).

Newton's third law states that for every force there is an equal and opposite reaction. Thus
there is a force F also acting on the mass as shown.
Fk Fb

Fk

Free body diagrams: k b m

Fm=ma

Fb

Fk Fb
If we now apply Newton's second law we obtain the equation of motion of the mass as, x''(t) is the
acceleration in the positive downwards direction defined by x(t).

𝑘
𝐹𝑘 = 𝑥ሶ 𝑎 − 𝑥ሶ 𝑏 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑘 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ⇒
𝑠 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑘 −−−−−− −1
𝐹𝑏 = 𝑏𝑥ሶ 𝑏 ൢ σ 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑚 −−−−−− −2
ൟ 𝐹𝑘 − 𝐹𝑏 = 𝐹𝑚
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑚𝑠𝑥ሶ 𝑏 σ 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑘 − 𝐹𝑏 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

(*) and (**) represents Mathematical model of the system (Governing equation of the system)
(two degrees of freedom means two equations):

𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑘 ⇒ 𝐹 = 𝑥ሶ 𝑎 − 𝑥ሶ 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑥ሶ − 𝑥ሶ = 𝐹 −−−−−− −(∗)
𝑠 𝑠 𝑎 𝑠 𝑏

𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
𝐹𝑘 − 𝐹𝑏 = 𝐹𝑚 ⇒ 𝑥ሶ 𝑎 − 𝑥ሶ 𝑏 − 𝑏𝑥ሶ 𝑏 = 𝑚𝑠𝑥ሶ 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑥ሶ − + 𝑏 + 𝑚𝑠 𝑥ሶ 𝑏 = 0 −−−−− −(∗∗)
𝑠 𝑠 𝑎 𝑠
Its mechanical network and equivalent electrical circuit are obtained as
follows;
using 1 and 2 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑘 = 𝐹𝑚 + 𝐹𝑏
1 1
𝑖→𝐹 𝑒 → 𝑥ሶ 𝑅 → 𝑅𝑚 = 𝐿 → 𝐿𝑚 = 𝐶 → 𝐶𝑚 = 𝑚
𝑏 𝑘

Fm
m
F=Fk A
k
B
b
Fb
.x
F
.x
b

a
Equivalent electrical circuit of the system:

Cm= m
iC
i A B
1
R m= b
1
L m= k iR

i eb
ea
One can get the impedance using algebraic relations such that: 𝑍𝑏 =?

𝐹 = 𝐹𝑘
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑘 = 𝐹𝑚 + 𝐹𝑏
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑚 + 𝐹𝑏

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑠𝑥ሶ 𝑏 + 𝑏𝑥ሶ 𝑏 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏 𝑥ሶ 𝑏

1 1
𝑥ሶ 𝑏 = 𝐹 ⇒ 𝑍𝑏 =
𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏 𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏

𝑍𝑎 =?

𝑘 𝑘 1 𝑠 1
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑘 = 𝑥ሶ 𝑎 − 𝑥ሶ 𝑏 𝐹= 𝑥ሶ 𝑎 − 𝐹 𝐹 = 𝑥ሶ 𝑎 − 𝐹
𝑠 𝑠 𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏 𝑘 𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏
𝑠 1 𝑠 1 𝑚𝑠 2 +𝑏𝑠+𝑘
𝑥ሶ 𝑎 = 𝐹 + 𝐹 𝑥ሶ 𝑎 = 𝐹 + 𝑥ሶ 𝑎 = 𝐹
𝑘 𝑚𝑠+𝑏 𝑘 𝑚𝑠+𝑏 𝑘 𝑚𝑠+𝑏

(Impedance with respect to the point where the force is applied. Kuvvetin uygulandığı
noktaya göre empedans):
𝑚𝑠 2 +𝑏𝑠+𝑘
𝑍𝑎 =
𝑘 𝑚𝑠+𝑏
Also, the Impedance of the system across the nodes a and b:
Use Cramer method:
𝑘
𝐹 −𝑠
𝑘 𝑘
0 − 𝑠 + 𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏 −𝐹 𝑠 + 𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏 𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘 𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘
𝑥ሶ 𝑎 = = = 𝐹 ⇒ 𝑍𝑎 =
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏 𝑘 𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏
−𝑠 + 𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏 −
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝑘 𝑘
𝑠 − 𝑠 + 𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏

𝑘 •
𝑠 𝐹
𝑘 𝑘
0 −𝐹 𝑠 1 1
𝑥ሶ 𝑏 = 𝑠 = = 𝐹 ⇒ 𝑍𝑏 =
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏 𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏
−𝑠 + 𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏 −
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝑘 𝑘
− + 𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏
𝑠 𝑠
Example 2: Determine the equations of motion the spring-dashpot-mass
system shown in Figure below. Set up its mechanical network and its
equivalent electrical circuit. Calculate mechanical impedance of the system.

F m
k b
The given system is three-degree-of-freedom spring-dashpot-mass
system.
x x1 x2

F x x x m
k b
Free body diagrams (Serbest Cisim Diyagramı):

Fk Fk
k Fb m

Fb Fb Fm=ma
b
 Fk Fk

𝑘 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑘 k Fb m

𝐹𝑘 = 𝑥ሶ − 𝑥ሶ 1 ൠ Fb Fb Fm=ma

𝑠 𝐹𝑘 = 𝐹𝑏 b

𝐹𝑏 = 𝑏 𝑥ሶ 1 − 𝑥ሶ 2 ൢ σ 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑚 ⇒ 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑘 = 𝐹𝑏 = 𝐹𝑚 serial connection
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑚𝑠𝑥ሶ 2 ൠ
𝐹𝑏 = 𝐹𝑚

Its mechanical network is given below.

F i
x x m
1 1
k b L m= k R m= b C m= m
F i
• Equations (1), (2) and (3) below represent mathematical model of the system
𝑘
𝐹= 𝑥ሶ − 𝑥ሶ1 −−−−−− −(1)
𝑠
𝐹 = 𝑏 𝑥ሶ1 − 𝑥ሶ 2 −−−−−− −(2)
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑠𝑥ሶ 2 −−−−−−−−− −(3)
𝑠
𝑥ሶ − 𝑥ሶ1 = 𝐹
𝑘
1
𝑥ሶ1 − 𝑥ሶ 2 = 𝐹𝑏 Mechanical impedance of the
𝑏
system is
1
𝑥ሶ 2 = 𝐹𝑚 𝑠 1 1
𝑚𝑠 𝑍(𝑠) = + +
𝑘 𝑏 𝑚𝑠
𝑠 1 1
𝑥ሶ = 𝐹 + +
𝑘 𝑏 𝑚𝑠
Example 3: Determine the equation of motion the spring-dashpot-mass system shown in
Figure below. Set up its mechanical network and its equivalent electrical circuit. Calculate
mechanical impedance of the system.

k
F
F F

m m

m
b k b b k

(a) (b) (c)

Solution:

The given system is one-degree-of-freedom spring-dashpot-mass system. Figure (a) and

(b) are the same and are equal to that of the system as shown in Figure (c).
Let’s investigate the representation (b). Free If you investigate the representation (a). Free
body diagrams: body diagrams:
Fk Fb
Fk Fb

Fk F
F

k b m
k b m

Fm=ma Fm=ma

Fk Fb Fb

Fk Fb Fk Fb

R : Bileşke kuvvet ( Resultant) R : Bileşke kuvvet ( Resultant)

R = F m = F − Fk − Fb R = F m = F − Fk − Fb
 𝑑 𝑥ሶ
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
𝑘
𝐹𝑘 = 𝑥ሶ 𝐹𝑏 = 𝑏𝑥ሶ 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑚𝑠𝑥ሶ
𝑠
𝑑 𝑥ሶ 𝑑 𝑥ሶ 𝑘
𝑚
ถ = 𝐹 − 𝐹𝑘 − 𝐹𝑏 𝑚 =𝐹− 𝑥ሶ − 𝑏𝑥ሶ
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑠
𝑚𝑎 σ𝑅
𝑑 𝑥ሶ 𝑘
Equation of the motion of the system is 𝑚 + 𝑥ሶ + 𝑏𝑥ሶ = 𝐹
𝑑𝑡 𝑠
Its mechanical network and equivalent electrical circuit are obtained as
follows;
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑚 + 𝐹𝑘 + 𝐹𝑏
Since the through variable (F) varies across the connection nodes of the
spring, damper and mass, it is connected parallel.
 Cm= m
Fm iC
m
1
F A Fk k i A
iL L m= k

b 1
Fb iR R m= b
F i
.x e

Impedance:
1 1 1
𝑍= 𝑍= 𝑥ሶ = 𝐹
1 1 𝑘 𝑘
+ + 𝐶𝑠 𝑏 + + 𝑚𝑠 𝑏 + + 𝑚𝑠
𝑅 𝐿𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
Example 4: Determine the equation of motion the spring-dashpot-mass system shown in
Figure below. Set up its mechanical network and calculate mechanical impedance of the
system
F F

k1 k1

m
m
b k2
b k2

(a) (b)
Solution:
The given system is two-degree-of-freedom spring-dashpot-mass system.
F F

A A

x x
k1 k1

B B

m
y y m
b k2
b k2

(a) (b)
Let’s investigate case (a).
Governing equations of the system:
𝑘1
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑘1 𝐹= 𝑥ሶ − 𝑦ሶ −−−−−−−−−− − 1
𝑠
𝑘1 𝑘2
𝐹𝑚 = 𝐹𝑘1 − 𝐹𝑘2 − 𝐹𝑏 𝑚𝑠𝑦ሶ = 𝑥ሶ − 𝑦ሶ − 𝑦ሶ − 𝑏𝑦ሶ −−−− −(2)
𝑠 𝑠

Impedance calculation :
𝑘2
𝐹𝑘1 = 𝐹𝑚 + 𝐹𝑏 + 𝐹𝑘2 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑠𝑦ሶ + 𝑏𝑦ሶ + 𝑦ሶ 𝑠
ൠ 𝑠 ቋ 𝑦ሶ = 𝐹 (A)
𝐹𝑘1 = 𝐹 𝑦ሶ = 𝑍𝐵 𝐹 𝑚𝑠2 +𝑏𝑠+𝑘2

𝑠
𝑍𝐵 (𝑠) = 𝑍𝐵 𝑠 : Impedance
𝑚𝑠2 +𝑏𝑠+𝑘2
Note: The relation between y and F is known as Transfer function but the relation
between 𝑦ሶ and F is known as Impedance. Transfer Function concept is subject of the
next chapter.
1
𝑦ሶ = 𝑦𝑠 𝑦= 2
𝐹 𝑦 = 𝐺(𝑠)𝐹
𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘2
𝐺(𝑠): Transfer Function
𝑘1
𝐹𝑘1 = 𝑥ሶ − 𝑦ሶ 𝑠
𝑠 ൡ 𝑦ሶ = 𝑥ሶ − 𝐹 --------------- (B)
𝐹𝑘1 = 𝐹 𝑘 1

A and B are the governing equation of the system.

Using A and B 𝑥ሶ = 𝑍𝐴 𝐹 𝑍𝐴 (𝑠): Impedance
𝑚𝑠 2 +𝑏𝑠+𝑘1 +𝑘2 𝑚𝑠 2 +𝑏𝑠+𝑘1 +𝑘2
𝑥ሶ = 𝑠 𝐹 Z𝐴 = 𝑠
𝑘1 𝑚𝑠 2 +𝑏𝑠+𝑘1 𝑘1 𝑚𝑠 2 +𝑏𝑠+𝑘1

𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
𝑥ሶ = 𝑥𝑠 𝑥= 2
𝐹 𝑥 = 𝐺(𝑠)𝐹
𝑘1 𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘1
 Fm
m

F A Fk 1 k1
B Fk 2 k2

b
Fb
F .y
.x
Example 5: Determine the
equation of motion the
spring-dashpot-mass system b1 k1
shown in Figure below. Set
F
up its mechanical network.
m1

b2 k2

m2
 Solution: The given system is two-degree-of-freedom spring-dashpot-mass system.

b1 k1 Fk 1 Fb1 Fk 2 Fb 2

F Fk 1 Fb 1 F Fk 2 Fb2
A

m1
x1 m1 m2
k1 b1 k2 b2
Fm 1=m1a1 Fm 2=m2a2

b2 k2 Fk 2 Fb2

B Fk 1 Fb 1 Fk 2 Fb 2

m2
x2
 𝐹𝑚1 = 𝐹 − 𝐹𝑘1 − 𝐹𝑏1 − 𝐹𝑘2 − 𝐹𝑏2
Fk 1 Fb1 Fk 2 Fb 2 𝐹𝑚2 = 𝐹𝑘2 + 𝐹𝑏2
Fk 1 Fb 1 F F F
𝑘1
k2 b2
𝐹𝑘1 = 𝑥ሶ 1
𝑠
m1 m
𝐹𝑏1 = 𝑏1 𝑥ሶ 1
k1 b1 k2 b2 2
Fm 1=m1a1 F =m a m2 𝐹𝑚1 = 𝑚1 𝑠𝑥ሶ 1
2 2

𝑘2
Fk 2 Fb2 𝐹𝑘2 = 𝑥ሶ 1 − 𝑥ሶ 2
𝑠
Fk 1 Fb 1 Fk 2 Fb 2 𝐹𝑏2 = 𝑏2 𝑥ሶ 1 − 𝑥ሶ 2
𝐹𝑚2 = 𝑚2 𝑠𝑥ሶ 2

σ 𝐹 = 𝑚1 𝑎 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑚1 + 𝐹𝑘1 + 𝐹𝑏1 + 𝐹𝑘2 + 𝐹𝑏2

𝑘1 𝑘2
𝐹 = 𝑚1 𝑠𝑥ሶ 1 + 𝑥ሶ 1 + 𝑏1 𝑥ሶ 1 + 𝑥ሶ 1 − 𝑥ሶ 2 + 𝑏2 𝑥ሶ 1 − 𝑥ሶ 2
𝑠 𝑠
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
𝐹 = 𝑚1 𝑠 + 1 + 𝑏1 + 2 + 𝑏2 𝑥ሶ 1 − 2 + 𝑏2 𝑥ሶ 2 -------- (A)
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
෍ 𝐹 = 𝑚2 𝑎 𝐹𝑚2 − 𝐹𝑘2 − 𝐹𝑏2 = 0
𝑘2
𝑚2 𝑠𝑥ሶ 2 − 𝑥ሶ 1 − 𝑥ሶ 2 − 𝑏2 𝑥ሶ 1 − 𝑥ሶ 2 = 0
𝑠
𝑘2 𝑘2
𝑚2 𝑠 + + 𝑏2 𝑥ሶ 2 − + 𝑏2 𝑥ሶ 1 = 0 ----------------------------- (B)
𝑠 𝑠
Fm 1
A and B are the governing equation of the system. m1

Fk 1 k1
F
b1
Fb 1

Fk 2 k2
Fm 2
F m2 b2
Fb 2

𝐹 = 𝐹𝑚1 + 𝐹𝑘1 + 𝐹𝑏1 + 𝐹𝑘2 + 𝐹𝑏2

𝐹𝑚 ൡ 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑚1 + 𝐹𝑘1 + 𝐹𝑏1 + 𝐹𝑚2
𝐹𝑚2 = 𝐹𝑘2 + 𝐹𝑏2
Example 6: Determine the equations of motion for the mass-spring-damper
system given below and draw the equivalent mechanical diagram.

k1

m1

k3
k2

F
b

m2
 Solution:

The given system is three-degree-of-freedom spring-dashpot-mass system.

Fk 1 Fk 2 Fk 3 Fb

k1 Fk 1 Fk 2 F Fb

m1 m1 m2
k1 k2 k3 b
x1 Fm 1=m1a1 Fm 2=m2a2

Fk 2 Fk 3
k3
k2
Fk 1 Fk 2 Fk 3 Fb
F
b x3

m2
x2
 𝑘1
𝐹𝑘1 = 𝑥ሶ 1 𝐹𝑏 = 𝑏 𝑥ሶ 2 − 𝑥ሶ 3
𝑠
𝑘2 𝑘3
𝐹𝑘2 = 𝑥ሶ 2 − 𝑥ሶ 1 𝐹𝑚1 = 𝑚1 𝑠𝑥ሶ 1 𝐹𝑘3 = 𝑥ሶ 3 − 𝑥ሶ 1 𝐹𝑚2 = 𝑚2 𝑠𝑥ሶ 2
𝑠 𝑠
Mathematical model of the system:
𝐹𝑚1 = 𝐹𝑘2 + 𝐹𝑘3 − 𝐹𝑘1 ⇒ 𝐹𝑚1 + 𝐹𝑘1 = 𝐹𝑘2 + 𝐹𝑘3 ⇒
𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3
𝑚1 𝑠𝑥ሶ 1 + 𝑥ሶ 1 = 𝑥ሶ 2 − 𝑥ሶ 1 + 𝑥ሶ 3 − 𝑥ሶ 1
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

𝐹𝑚2 = 𝐹 − 𝐹𝑘2 − 𝐹𝑏 ⇒ 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑚2 + 𝐹𝑘2 + 𝐹𝑏 ⇒

𝑘2
𝐹 = 𝑚2 𝑠𝑥ሶ 2 + 𝑥ሶ 2 − 𝑥ሶ 1 + 𝑏 𝑥ሶ 2 − 𝑥ሶ 3
𝑠

𝑘3
𝐹𝑘3 = 𝐹𝑏 ⇒ 𝐹𝑘3 = 𝐹𝑏 ⇒ 𝑥ሶ 3 − 𝑥ሶ 1 = 𝑏 𝑥ሶ 2 − 𝑥ሶ 3
𝑠
 Fm 2
m2

F
Fk 2 k2 Fm 1
m1

F Fk 3 k3 Fb b
Fk 1 k1
Example 7: Determine the
equations of motion for each k1 k1

mass-spring-damper system
given below and draw their
equivalent mechanical diagram. m1 m1

Compare the result between

case (a) and (b), is there any b1
F1
b1

difference? Think about that.

m2 m2

F
2

k2 k2

b2 b2

(a) (b)
• case (a):
k1

m1 xa
Fk2 Fb2
Fk1 Fb1

Fk1 Fb1 F1(t)

b1
F1

k1 b1 m1 k2 b2 m2
m2 xb .. ..
Fm1 =m 1 xa Fm2 =m 2 xb

Fb1 Fk2

Fk1 Fb1
k2 Fk2 Fb2

xc
b2
 𝑘1 𝑘2
𝐹𝑘1 = 𝑥ሶ 𝑎 𝐹𝑘2 = 𝑥ሶ 𝑏 − 𝑥ሶ 𝑐
𝑠 𝑠
𝐹𝑏1 = 𝑏1 𝑥ሶ 𝑏 − 𝑥ሶ 𝑎 𝐹𝑏2 = 𝑏2 𝑥ሶ 𝑐
𝐹𝑚1 = 𝑚1 𝑠𝑥ሶ 𝑎 𝐹𝑚2 = 𝑚2 𝑠𝑥ሶ 𝑏
Mathematical model of the system:
𝑘1
𝐹𝑚1 = 𝐹𝑏1 − 𝐹𝑘1 ⇒ 𝑚1 𝑠𝑥ሶ 𝑏 = 𝑏1 𝑥ሶ 𝑏 − 𝑥ሶ 𝑎 − 𝑥ሶ 𝑎 ------------------------ (1)
𝑠
𝑘2
𝐹𝑚2 = 𝐹1 − 𝐹𝑘2 − 𝐹𝑏1 ⇒ 𝑚2 𝑠𝑥ሶ 𝑏 = 𝐹1 − 𝑥ሶ 𝑏 − 𝑥ሶ 𝑐 − 𝑏1 𝑥ሶ 𝑏 − 𝑥ሶ 𝑎 -- (2)
𝑠
𝑘2
𝐹𝑘2 = 𝐹𝑏2 ⇒ 𝑥ሶ 𝑏 − 𝑥ሶ 𝑐 = 𝑏2 𝑥ሶ 𝑐 ---------------------------------------------- (3)
𝑠
m2

k2 b2

b1 m1

F1 k1
• case (b):
k1

xa

m1
Fk1 Fb1 Fk2 Fb2

Fk1 Fb1
b1 .. ..
Fm1 =m 1 xa Fm2 =m 2 xb
xb
k1 b1 m1 k2 b2 m2

m2

Fb1 Fk2 F2(t)

F
2
Fk1 Fb1 Fk2 Fb2
k2

xc

b2
 𝑘1 𝑘2
𝐹𝑘1 = 𝑥ሶ 𝑎 𝐹𝑘2 = 𝑥ሶ 𝑏 − 𝑥ሶ 𝑐
𝑠 𝑠
𝐹𝑏1 = 𝑏1 𝑥ሶ 𝑏 − 𝑥ሶ 𝑎 𝐹𝑏2 = 𝑏2 𝑥ሶ 𝑐
𝐹𝑚1 = 𝑚1 𝑠𝑥ሶ 𝑎 𝐹𝑚2 = 𝑚2 𝑠𝑥ሶ 𝑏
Mathematical model of the system:
𝑘1
𝐹𝑚1 = 𝐹𝑏1 − 𝐹𝑘1 ⇒ 𝑚1 𝑠𝑥ሶ 𝑏 = 𝑏1 𝑥ሶ 𝑏 − 𝑥ሶ 𝑎 − 𝑥ሶ 𝑎 ---------------------------- (1)
𝑠
𝑘2
𝐹𝑚2 = 𝐹2 − 𝐹𝑘2 − 𝐹𝑏1 ⇒ 𝑚2 𝑠𝑥ሶ 𝑏 = 𝐹2 − 𝑥ሶ 𝑏 − 𝑥ሶ 𝑐 − 𝑏1 𝑥ሶ 𝑏 − 𝑥ሶ 𝑎 ------ (2)
𝑠
𝑘2
𝐹𝑘2 = 𝐹𝑏2 ⇒ 𝑥ሶ 𝑏 − 𝑥ሶ 𝑐 = 𝑏2 𝑥ሶ 𝑐 -------------------------------------------------- (3)
𝑠
m2

k2 b2

b1 m1

F2 k1