Lecture Notes 5

System Dynamics
5.1 Objectives

This section explains how

1. To demonstrate mathematical modeling of physical systems.

2. To obtain the transfer function of a system from the differential

equation model.
5.2. Modeling Steps
An accurate mathematical model that describes a system completely must be
determined in order to analyze a dynamic system. The derivation of this model is based
upon the fact that the dynamic system can be completely described by known differential
equations or by experimental test data. The ability to analyze the system and determine its
performance depends on how well the characteristics can be expressed mathematically.

A control system may be composed of various components including mechanical,

thermal, fluid, pneumatic, and electrical; sensors and actuators; and computers. In this
chapter, we review basic properties of these systems, otherwise known as dynamic
systems.
 A physical model is one that physically represents dynamic system under
reasonable assumptions. Physical modeling refers to the design and implementation of
systems that are based on or derived from physical phenomena. A physical model is
expressed as a set of natural laws, e.g. Newton's laws of motion or voltage law for
electrical circuits.

Using the basic modeling principles such as Newton's second law of motion or
Kirchoff's law, mathematical models are obtained in the form of differential equations.

Once such a model is obtained, various methods are available for the analysis of
system performance.
 It is not difficult to understand that the analytical and computer simulation of
any system is only as good as the model used to describe it. It should also be
emphasized that the modern control engineer should place special emphasis on the
mathematical modeling of systems so that analysis and design problems can be
conveniently solved by computers.

DYNAMIC Reasonable PHYSICAL Physical MATHEMATICAL Proper

SOLUTION
SYSTEM Assumptions MODEL laws MODEL Evaluation

The basic physical laws are given for each system, and the associated
parameters are defined. Examples are included to show the application of the basic
laws to physical model. The result is a differential equation, or a set of differential
equations, that describes the system.
5.3 Worked Example
Example 1: Armature Voltage Controlled DC Servo Motors

An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into

mechanical energy. In a DC motor, an armature rotates inside a magnetic field. Basic
working principle of DC motor is based on the fact that whenever a current carrying
conductor is placed inside a magnetic field, there will be mechanical force experienced by
that conductor. A DC servo motor is used as an actuator to drive a load. The speed of a
permanent magnet DC (PMDC) motors can be controlled by applying variable armature
voltage. These are called armature voltage-controlled DC servo motors. The physical model
of an armature-controlled DC servo motor is given in Fig. 5.2.
Fig. 5.1.a) Real photo of the armature controlled DC motor. b)cross-sectional view of a PMDC motor
 R L

(output)

J
e (input)
v

Fig. 5.2. Physical system of the armature-controlled DC motor.

Note: Input is e(t), L [e(t)]=E(s)

Output is, ω(t) L [ω(t)]=Ω(s)

J : moment of inertia (J is the inertia of the combination of the

motor, load, and gear train referred to the motor shaft)
e : input voltage
ω : angular velocity
T : Torque
v : back electromotive force (e.m.f.)
 The armature winding has a resistance R and inductance L. When the armature is
supplied with a DC voltage of 𝑒 volts, the armature rotates and produces a back e.m.f 𝑣.
The armature has a moment of inertia J. The angular displacement of the motor is 𝜃.

• Torque generated at the DC-motor shaft is given by.

𝑇 = 𝑘1 𝑖 (1)

where 𝑘1 is the motor torque constant (N.m/Amp ) and i is the armature current (Amp).

• The back emf is proportional to the speed of the motor and hence

𝑣 = 𝑘2 𝜔 (2)

(for an armature-controlled DC-motor, the back e.m.f. induced in the armature due to
armature rotation is directly proportional to the armature angular velocity)
• According to the Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, at any given instant of time, the algebraic sum
of voltages around any loop in any electric network is zero. Application of the Kirchhoff’s
Voltage Law to the armature circuit yields

𝑑𝑖
𝑒 − 𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 ,
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖
𝐿 The inductance L in the armature circuit is usually small and maybe
𝑑𝑡
neglected. If L is neglected, the equation is reduced to

𝑒 − 𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖 (3)

• Newton’ second law for rotational motion states that

𝑑𝜔
𝑇=𝐽 (4)
𝑑𝑡
Expression relating the applied voltage with the angular velocity for the armature-
controlled DC servomotor is obtained by equating above 4 equations as follows

𝑑𝜔 𝑘1 𝑘1 𝑑𝜔(𝑡) 𝑘1
𝑇=𝐽 = 𝑘1 𝑖 = (𝑒 − 𝑣) = (𝑒 − 𝑘2 𝜔) ⇒ 𝐽 = 𝑒(𝑡) − 𝑘2 𝜔(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑅
Then, the mathematical model of the mechanical system is given by,

𝑑𝜔 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘1
+ 𝜔= 𝑒
𝑑𝑡 𝐽𝑅 𝐽𝑅
Assuming that all initial conditions are zero, and taking the Laplace transforms of
the above differential equation, we obtain the transfer function of the DC motor as;
𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘1
𝑠𝛺(𝑠) + 𝛺(𝑠) = 𝐸(𝑠)
𝐽𝑅 𝐽𝑅

𝑘1
𝛺(𝑠) 𝐽𝑅
= 𝑘 𝑘 : Transfer function of DC motor.
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑠+ 1 2
𝐽𝑅

1
𝛺(𝑠) 𝑘2
= : Standard form of the Transfer Function
𝐸(𝑠) 𝜏𝑠+1

𝐽𝑅
𝜏= : Time constant of the system
𝑘1 𝑘2

System type: Time constant type (first order system)

Example 2: Deriving the physical model of an automobile suspension system

Suspension system aims at benefiting-

1:- Ride comfort

2:- Long life of vehicle

3:-Stability of vehicle

Purpose: Calculation of the vertical motion of a car, and optimum design of a suspension
system.

As the car moves along the road, the vertical displacements at the tires act as the motion
excitation to the automobile suspension system. Figure 5.3 shows an automobile as a
dynamic system.
 V

x 1(t) x 2(t)

Figure 5.3. An Automobile depicted as a dynamical system

Assuming that the motion xi(t) is the input to the system and the vertical motion xa(t), of the body is the
output, obtain the transfer function Xa ( s ) /Xi ( s ) . ( Consider the motion of the body only in the vertical
direction.) Displacement x, is measured from the equilibrium position in the absence of input 𝑥𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1,2,3,4.
 F
• A very simplified version of the suspension system is shown a

in Figure 5.4.
m
𝑚: Total mass of the automobile

𝑘: Equivalent spring constant for the suspension springs and

k b
tires of the car.

𝑏: Equivalent damping coefficient of the suspension dampers.

It is calculated from this simple model:

a) xa vertical displacement of the car

V
b) Spring and dashpot force of the suspension system
x(t)
Figure 5.4. A simple physical model of a suspension system.
• A more detailed version of the suspension F
a
system is shown in Figure 5.5.
m

mt : Total mass of the axel and wheel systems

k b
kl : Equivalent wheel spring coefficient.

mt

x(t)
Figure 5.5. More detailed physical model of the car suspension system
• A better version of the suspension system is shown in Figure 5.5:

In this model m is the mass of the car, J is the mass moment of inertia of the car.

x 1(t) x 2(t)

Figure 5.6. Half car model

The motion of this system consists of a translational motion of the center of mass and a rotational motion about
the center of mass. The inputs 𝑥1 (𝑡) and 𝑥2 (𝑡) are displacement inputs.
• The most developed version of the suspension system is shown in Figure 5.6:
Mathematical modeling of the complete system is quite complicated.

Figure 5.7. Full car model

More Examples:
1- A simplified model of a military vehicle is given. This model can be
used to obtain information about bounce and pitch modes of the vehicle.
If the total mass of the vehicle is m and the mass moment of inertia
about its center of gravity is J0, the equations of the vehicle can be
derived based on 2 DOFs.

Military battle tank

2- A three degree-of-freedom
model of a human hand and
upper arm squeezing a handle
used in robotics.
5.4 Obtaining Transfer Function and Block
Diagram of the Physical Systems
5.4.1. Electrical Systems Examples:
a) Electrical Resistance:
The transfer function for many elements is simply a constant which
indicates proportionality between the output and the input. The block
which represents such an element is called a proportional block.
𝐿
𝑒(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡) 𝐸(𝑠) = 𝑅𝐼(𝑠)

i(t) A R B

e(t)
Fig. 5.8. Electrical Resistance
If we apply voltage on a resistor as an input we obtain current as an output,
which can be represented in the transfer function format as

𝐼(𝑠) 1
= : constant
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑅

Block diagram of the system is:

E(s) 1 I(s)
R

As it can be seen, the transfer function of a resistance is a proportional

type.
b) Electrical Capacitance
Electrical capacitance represents an integrating type transfer function for
which a constant input produces a constant time rate of change of the output.

i(t) A C B

e(t)
Fig. 5.9. Circuit symbol of a capacitor

When there is a potential difference (voltage) e(t), the relationship between

the electric charge q(t) (coulomb) and capacitance C is given as
𝑞(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑒(𝑡)

If we take the derivative of both sides with respect to time

 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑒 1 𝐿 1
=𝑖 𝑡 =𝐶 , 𝑒(𝑡) = න𝑖𝑑𝑡 𝐸(𝑠) = 𝐼(𝑠)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝐶𝑠

Transfer function for the capacitive element when voltage is input is given as

𝐸(𝑠) 1
=
𝐼(𝑠) 𝐶𝑠

In the above equation 1/𝑠 denotes the integration operation. It integrates the
input current and results in voltage output. Block diagram of the system is:
System type: Capacitive system. I(s) E(s)
1
Cs
c) RC Circuit E(s) +
L ER(s) System Block Diagram Representation:
𝑒 = 𝑒𝑅 + 𝑒𝐶 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑅 + 𝐸𝐶 -
Ec(s)
E(s) + ER(s) I(s) EC(s)
ER(s)
1 1
1 I(s)
L R CS
𝑒𝑅 = 𝑅𝑖 𝐸𝑅 = 𝑅𝐼 R
-
1 L 1 I 1
E (s)
C
(s)

𝑒𝐶 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡 𝐸𝐶 = 𝐼 Cs
𝐶 𝐶𝑠
Analytical way to obtain Transfer Function: Obtaining the Transfer Function using block
E = RI + EC ⎯ ⎯ I = Cs EC diagram reduction method:
1 1
E = RCs EC + EC E =  RCs + 1 EC EC ( s ) R
= R Cs
E (s) 1 1
EC ( s ) 1 1+
= R Cs
E ( s ) RCs + 1 EC ( s ) 1
= e (input) C e
RCs + 1
(output)
E (s) C

𝑅𝐶 = 𝜏, 𝜏 : Time constant, (in second) i

𝐸𝐶 (𝑠) 1
𝐸(𝑠)
= 𝜏𝑠+1: Standard form of First Order Transfer Function Fig. 5.10. RC circuit

System type: Time Constant type system.

 R L

e (input) C e C
(output)

d) RLC Circuit i

Fig. 5.11. RLC circuit

If e is assumed to be the input and 𝑒𝑐 is the output, then the transfer

function of this system is found to be
E L(s)
e = eR + eC + eL ⎯⎯→ E = ER + EC + EL
L E(s) +
- System Block Diagram
ER(s)
-
Ec(s)
Representation:
ER(s) I(s)
eR = R i ⎯⎯→ ER = R I
L 1 E L(s)
R LS
di I(s) E L(s) -
eL = L ⎯⎯
L
→ EL = L s I E(s) + ER(s) EC(s)
Ls 1 I(s) 1
dt R CS
1 1 I(s) EC(s)
-
eC =  i dt ⎯⎯
1
L
→ EC = I Cs
C Cs
 2
Analytical way to obtain Transfer Function: 1 1
𝐿𝐶 = , 𝜔𝑛 = ,
E = ER + EL + EC 𝜔𝑛 𝐿𝐶
E = RI + LsI + EC
𝜔𝑛 : Undamped natural frequency
E = ( R + Ls ) I + EC ⎯
⎯ I = Cs EC
E = ( R + Ls ) Cs EC + EC E = ( R + Ls ) Cs + 1 EC 𝑅𝐶 = 2𝜁/𝜔𝑛 , 𝜁: damping ratio

𝐸𝑐 (𝑠) 1 𝐸𝑐 (𝑠) 2
𝜔𝑛
= 𝑠2 2𝜁
= 2
EC ( s ) 1 𝐸(𝑠) + 𝑠+1 𝐸(𝑠) 𝑠 2 +2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠+𝜔𝑛
= 𝜔2
𝑛 𝜔𝑛
E ( s ) LCs 2 + RCs + 1
𝐸𝑐 (𝑠) 2
𝐾𝑠 𝜔𝑛
= 2
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑠 2 +2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠+𝜔𝑛

𝐾𝑠 : Gain of the Sytem, 𝐾𝑠 =1 (for LRC circuit)

System type: Vibration type system.

Systems whose transfer functions are the above type is considered as vibration type transfer function and it represents a
second order differential equation with constant coefficients.
Note: An important property of this circuit is its ability to resonate at a specific frequency 𝑓0 , which is called the resonance frequency. Frequencies are
measured in units of hertz. Then the natural frequency is 𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓0 .
Resonance occurs because energy is stored in two different ways: in an electric field as the capacitor is charged and in a magnetic field as current flows
through the inductor. Energy can be transferred from one to the other within the circuit and this can be oscillatory. A mechanical analogy is a weight
suspended on a spring which will oscillate up and down when released.
5.4.2. Mechanical Systems Examples
a) An example of RC circuit type (time constant type) Mechanical
System
The rotating system shown in Fig. 5.12 will be used as an example.

(output)

T J
(input) b

Fig. 5.12. A rotating mechanical system

The applied torque T is the input and the rotating speed 𝜔 is the output. The appropriate
system equation is

𝑑𝜔
𝐽 = 𝑇 − 𝑏𝜔
𝑑𝑡

which can be written as

𝑑𝜔(𝑡) 𝑏 1 𝐿 𝑏 1
+ 𝜔(𝑡) = 𝑇(𝑡) 𝑠𝛺(𝑠) + 𝛺(𝑠) = 𝑇(𝑠)
𝑑𝑡 𝐽 𝐽 𝐽 𝐽
𝑏 1
𝛺 𝑠 𝑠+ = 𝑇 𝑠
𝐽 𝐽
𝛺(𝑠) 1/𝐽 𝛺(𝑠) 1/𝑏
= 𝑏 = 𝐽
𝑇(𝑠) 𝑠+ 𝐽 𝑇(𝑠) 𝑠+1
𝑏

where the time constant τ=J/b .

System type: Time Constant type system.

 a) An example of RLC circuit type (vibration type) Mechanical System

Fk Fb
k
F
F F
A A F
A
m m

m k b m
b b k b k
Fm=ma

Fk Fb

(a) (b) (c)

Fk Fb

Fig. 5.13. A vibrating mechanical system

 ෍ 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑚 𝑋(𝑠) 1 𝑋(𝑠) 1/𝑘
= =
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘 𝐹(𝑠) 𝑚 𝑠 2 + 𝑏 𝑠 + 1
𝑘 𝑘
𝐹 − 𝐹𝑘 − 𝐹𝑏 = 𝐹𝑚
𝑚 1 2 𝑘
= , 𝜔𝑛 = , 𝜔𝑛 : Undamped Natural frequency
𝑘 𝜔𝑛 𝑚
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑚𝑥ሷ , 𝐹𝑘 = 𝑘𝑥 and 𝐹𝑏 = 𝑏𝑥ሶ
𝑏 2𝜁
Then, = , 𝜁 ∶ 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑘 𝜔𝑛
It can also be written as
𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑏𝑥ሶ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑡).
𝑋(𝑠) (1/𝑘)𝜔𝑛2
=
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
If we take the Laplace transform of both
sides
𝑋(𝑠) (1/𝑘)𝜔𝑛2 2
𝐾 𝜔𝑛
𝑠
= 𝑠2 +2𝜁𝜔 = 𝑠2 +2𝜁𝜔
𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘 𝑋(𝑠) = 𝐹(𝑠) 𝐹(𝑠) 2
𝑛 𝑠+𝜔𝑛
2
𝑛 𝑠+𝜔𝑛

𝐾𝑠 : Gain of the Sytem, 𝐾𝑠 = 1/𝑘 (for this system)

Then the transfer function is: System type: Vibration type system.
MODELLING PROBLEMS
1. Obtain the transfer function of given system examples. Derive the
physical equations and calculate the necessary system parameters.

M=12.5 kg
k=0.2 N/m
b= 0.035 N/(m/s)
 ෍ 𝐹(𝑡) = 𝑚𝑎

𝑑 2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
𝐹(𝑡) = 𝑀 2
+𝑏 + 𝑘𝑦(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
↓
𝑌(𝑠) 1 1/𝑀 (1/𝑘)𝜔𝑛2
TF → = = = 2
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑀𝑠 + 𝑏𝑠 + k 𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘 𝑠 + 2𝜉𝑤𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
2
𝑀 𝑀

𝑌(𝑠) 1/12.5 0.08 𝐾𝑠 𝜔𝑛 2

= = 2 ≡ 2 2
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 0.035 0.2 𝑠 + 0.0028𝑠 + 0.016 𝑠 + 2𝜉𝜔 𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛
𝑠+
12.5 12.5
2
0.08
𝝎𝒏 = 0.016 = 0.126 rd/sn, 𝐾𝑠 𝜔𝑛 = 0.08 ⇒ 𝑲𝒔 = =5
0.016
0.0028
2𝜉𝜔𝑛 = 0.0028 ⇒ 𝝃 = = 0.011 < 1
2 0.126
The behavior of the system is oscillatory and damped
2

෍ 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑚𝑎

𝑑 2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑏𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑀 + + 𝑘𝑦(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑌(𝑠) 1 1/𝑀 (1/𝑘)𝜔𝑛2
= = ≡
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑀𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘 𝑠 2 + 𝐵 ⋅ 𝑠 + 𝑘 𝑠 2 + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
𝑀 𝑀
𝑌(𝑠) 1/2000 0.0005
= ≡
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 5000 𝑠 + 16500 𝑠 2 + 2.5𝑠 + 8.25
2000 2000
2.5
𝝎𝒏 = 8.25 = 2.87rd/sn , 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 = 2.5 ⇒ 𝝃 = = 0.435
2.2.87
1 1
𝑲𝒔 = = 103 = 6.06 ⋅ 10−5 N/N
𝐾 16.5
PROBLEM 1: Yanda verilen mekanik sistemde:
a) Serbest cisim diyagramını kullanarak hareket denklemini elde ediniz.
b) 𝑓(𝑡)𝑦𝑖 giriş, 𝑥(𝑡)′ 𝑦𝑖 çıkış alarak transfer fonksiyonlarını elde ediniz.
c) Dinamik davranış sabitlerini gösteriniz.
çözüm: a) Serbest cisim diyagramını çizersek:

• Newton'un II hareket yasasından:

Σ𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑡) − 𝑓𝐵1 (𝑡) − 𝑓𝐵2 (𝑡) − 𝑓𝐾1 (𝑡) − 𝑓𝐾2 (𝑡) = 𝑚𝑎
𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑2𝑥
𝑓(𝑡) − 𝐵1 − 𝐵2 − 𝐾1 𝑥(𝑡) − 𝐾2 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑚 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

b) Bu ifadeye Laplace dönüşümü uygularsak transfer fonksiyonu:

F(s) − B1 sX(s) − B2 sX(s) − K1 X(s) − K 2 X(s) = ms 2 X(s)
F(s) = ms 2 + B1 + B2 s + K1 + K 2 X(s)
X(s) 1
=
F(s) ms s 2 + B1 + B2 s + K1 + K 2
K1 + K 2 K1 + K 2
𝜔n2 = ⇒ 𝜔n =
biçiminde elde edilir. m m
c) Sistemi öz yapısal denklemi transfer fonksiyonunun paydası olduğundan: B1 + B2 B1 + B2
2𝜉𝜔n = ⇒𝜉=
𝐵1 + 𝐵2 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 m 2 K1 + K 2 m
𝑠2 + 𝑠+ ≡ 𝑠 2 + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
𝑚 𝑚
şeklinde elde edilir.
PROBLEM 2: Şekilde bir motor ile tahrik edilen dönel kütle sistemi verilmiştir. Bu sistem
birbirine esnek bir mil ile birleştirilmiş iki diskten ibarettir. Mil boyunca iletilen döndürme
momenti; 𝐾 𝜃1 (𝑡) − 𝜃2 (𝑡) dir. Burada 𝜃1 (𝑡) ve 𝜃2 (𝑡) sırasıyla üst ve alt diskin açısal yer
değiştirmesidir. Yataklardaki sürtünme ihmal edilecektir.
a) Sistemin temel denklemlerini yazınız
b) Döndürme momenti 𝑇(𝑡)′ 𝑦𝑖, giriş ve 𝜃1 (𝑡)𝑖 çıkış kabul eden ifadeyi elde ediniz.
c) Döndürme momenti 𝑇(𝑡)′ 𝑦𝑖, giriş ve 𝜃1 (𝑡)𝑦 ' çıkış kabul eden transfer fonksiyonunu elde
ediniz.
ÇÖZÜM:a) Motorun alttaki diske ilettiği kuvvet:

T(t) T2 (t) R2
f(t) = = ⇒ T2 (t) = T(t) (1)
R R2 R

diğer taraftan bu moment alttaki diski hareket ettirmeye ve esnek milde harcanacağından;

d2 𝜃2 (t)
T2 (t) = J2 + K 𝜃2 (t) − 𝜃1 (t) (2)
dt2

Ayrıca esnek mil tarafından üstteki diske iletilen kuvvet:

𝑑 2 𝜃1 (𝑡) 𝐽1 𝑑 2 𝜃1 𝑡
𝐾 𝜃2 (𝑡) − 𝜃1 (𝑡) = 𝐽1 ⇒ 𝜃2 𝑡 = + 𝜃1 𝑡 (3)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐾 𝑑𝑡 2

b) (2) nolu denklemde (3) nolu ifadeyi yerine koyarsak:

𝑑2 𝐽1 𝑑2 𝜃1 (𝑡) 𝐽1 𝑑2 𝜃1 (𝑡)
𝑇2 (𝑡) = 𝐽2 2 + 𝜃1 (𝑡) + 𝐾 + 𝜃1 (𝑡) − 𝜃1 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝐾 𝑑𝑡 2 𝐾 𝑑𝑡 2
 𝐽1 𝐽2 𝑑4 𝜃1 (𝑡) 𝑑2 𝜃1 (𝑡) 𝑑2 𝜃1 (𝑡)
• 𝑇2 (𝑡) = + 𝐽1 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝐽2 𝑑𝑡 2
𝐾 𝑑𝑡 4

• (1) nolu ifadeyi de içine alırsak:

𝑅2 𝐽1 𝐽2 𝑑4 𝜃1 (𝑡) 𝑑2 𝜃1 (𝑡) 𝑑2 𝜃1 (𝑡)

• 𝑇(𝑡) = + 𝐽1 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝐽2 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑅 𝐾 𝑑𝑡 4

• 𝑇(𝑡) ile 𝜃1 (𝑡) arasındaki ilişki bulunur. Sıfır başlangıç koşulları altında 𝐿 dönüşümü uygularsak:

R2 J1 J2
• T(s) = s4 + J1 + J2 s 2 𝜃1 ( s)
R K

• 𝑇(𝑠) ile 𝜃1 (𝑠) arasındaki ilişki şeklinde elde edilir.

c) Sistemin transfer fonksiyonu çıkışın girişe oranı olduğu için:

𝑅2 𝑅2
𝜃1 (𝑠)
• = 𝐽1 𝐽2 4
𝑅
= 𝐽 𝐽
𝑅
𝑇(𝑠) 𝑠 + 𝐽1 +𝐽2 𝑠 2 𝑠 2 1𝐾 2 𝑠 2 + 𝐽1 +𝐽2
𝐾

• şeklinde elde edilir.

A Simple System; Cruise Control Model
1. Write the equations of motion for the speed
and forward motion of the car shown in Fig.
2.1, assuming the engine imparts a force 𝑢 as
shown. Take the Laplace transform of the
resulting differential equation and find the
transfer function between the input 𝑢 and the
output 𝑣.
2. Use Matlab to find the response of the velocity
of the car for the case in which the input
jumps from being 𝑢 = 0 at time 𝑡 = 0 to a
constant 𝑢 = 500 N thereafter. Assume the car
mass 𝑚 is 1000 kg and viscous drag
coefficient, 𝑏 = 50 N ⋅ sec/m.
• Solution
1. Equations of motion: For simplicity, we assume the rotational inertia of the wheels is
negligible, and that there is friction retarding the motion of the car that is proportional to the
car's speed with a proportionality constant, 𝑏. The car can then be approximated for
modeling purposes using the free-body diagram seen in Fig. 2.2, which defines coordinates,
shows all forces acting on the body (heavy lines), and indicates the acceleration (dashed
line). The coordinate of the car's position, 𝑥, is the distance from the reference line shown
and is chosen so positive is to the right. Note in this case, the inertial acceleration is simply
the second derivative of 𝑥 (that is, 𝐚 = 𝑥ǃ ) because the car position is measured with respect
to an inertial reference frame. The friction force acts opposite to the direction of motion;
therefore it is drawn opposite to the direction of positive motion and entered as a negative
force. The result is
𝑢 − 𝑏𝑥Ǘ = 𝑚𝑥ǃ
𝑏 𝑢
𝑥ǃ + 𝑥Ǘ = .
𝑚 𝑚
For the case of the automotive cruise control where the variable of interest is the speed, 𝑣(= 𝑥),
Ǘ
the equation of motion becomes
𝑏 𝑢
𝑣Ǘ + 𝑣 =
𝑚 𝑚
 𝑏 𝑢
𝑣Ǘ + 𝑣 =
𝑚 𝑚
The essence is that you assume a solution of the
form 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 given an input of the form 𝑢 = 𝑈𝑜 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 .
Then, since 𝑣Ǘ = 𝑠𝑉𝑜 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 , the differential equation can
be written as
𝑏 1
𝑠+ 𝑉𝑜 𝑒 = 𝑈𝑜 𝑒 𝑠𝑡
𝑠𝑡
𝑚 𝑚

The 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 term cancels out, and we find that

1 Fig. 2.2
𝑉𝑜 𝑚
=
𝑈𝑜 𝑠 + 𝑏
𝑚
Tis often written using capital letters to signify that it is the
"transform" of the solution, or
1
𝑉(𝑠)
= 𝑚
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 + 𝑏
𝑚
This expression of the differential equation is called the transfer
function. Note that, in essence, we have substituted 𝑠 for 𝑑/𝑑𝑡 in
differential equation This transfer function serves as a math
model that relates the car's velocity to the forces propelling the
car, that is, inputs from the accelerator pedal. Transfer functions
of a system can be used to design feedback controllers such as a
cruise control device found in many modern cars.
2. Time response: The dynamics of a system can be
prescribed to Matlab in terms of its transfer function as
can be seen in the Matlab statements below that
implements transfer function. The step function in Matlab
calculates the time response of a linear system to a unit
step input. Because the system is linear, the output for this
case can be multiplied by the magnitude of the input step
to derive a step response of any amplitude. Equivalently,
sys can be multiplied by the magnitude of the input step.
The statements calculate and plot the time response of
velocity for an input step with a 500 − N magnitude. The step
response is shown in Fig. 2.3.
Figure 2.3 Response of the car
\% sets up the mode to define the velocity to a step in 𝑢
• s = tf ′s′ ;
transfer function
• sys = (1/1000)/(𝑠 + 50/1000); % defines the transfer
function from with the numbers filled in.

• step(500*sys); % plots the step response for 𝑢 = 500.

Newton's law also can be applied to systems with more than

one mass. In this case, it is particularly important to draw the
free-body