Lecture Notes 6

Transient Response
6.1 Objectives

This section explains how

1. To demonstrate transient response of the systems.

2. To demonstrate steady-state response of the systems.

3. To analyze the transient and steady state response.

This chapter is concerned with system responses to aperiodic signals
(such as step, ramp, acceleration, and impulse functions of time).
6.2 Introduction
It was stated in Chapter 3 that the first step in analyzing a control system
was to derive a mathematical model of the system. Once such a model is obtained,
various methods are available for the analysis of system performance. In practice,
the input signal to a control system is not known ahead of time but is random in
nature, and the instantaneous input cannot be expressed analytically. Only in some
special cases is the input signal known in advance and expressible analytically or by
curves, such as in the case of the automatic control of cutting tools. In analyzing
and designing control systems, we must have a basis of comparison of performance
of various control systems. This basis may be set up by specifying particular test
input signals and by comparing the responses of various systems to these input
signals.
 Many design criteria are based on the response to such signals or on
the response of systems to changes in initial conditions (without any test
signals). The use of test signals can be justified because of a correlation
existing between the response characteristics of a system to a typical test
input signal and the capability of the system to cope with actual input
signals. With these test signals, mathematical and experimental analyses of
control systems can be carried out easily since the signals are very simple
functions of time. Which of these, typical input signals to use for analyzing
system characteristics may be determined by the form of the input that the
system will be subjected to most frequently under normal operation.
Typical Test Signals:
The commonly used test input signals are
f(t)
f(t)

t
t

1. Step functions, r(t)=Au(t) b) Ramp functions, r(t)=At

f(t) f(t)

t
t
• Acceleration (Parabolic) functions, r(t)=At2/2 d) Impulse functions, r(t)=Aδ(t)
f(t)

• Sinusoidal functions, r(t)=A sin(ωt) or r(t)=A cos(ωt)

• The step function is very useful as a test signal since its initial instantaneous
jump in amplitude reveals a great deal about the quickness of the system to
respond.
• If the inputs to a control system are gradually changing functions of time,
then a ramp function of time may be a good test signal. Ramp function is the
ability to test how the system would respond to a signal that changes linearly
with time.
• A parabolic function is one degree faster than a ramp function. In practice,
we seldom find it necessary to use a test signal faster than a parabolic function.
• If a system is subjected to sudden disturbances, a step function of time may
be a good test signal
• If a system subjected to shock inputs, an impulse function may be best.
Impulse function is used to obtain system parameters and system transfer
function experimentally.
• Sinusoidal functions are used to observe steady state behavior of the
control system.
Once a control system is designed on the basis of test signals, the performance of
the system in response to actual inputs is generally satisfactory. The use of such
test signals enables one to compare the performance of all systems on the same
basis.
6.3 Transient Response and Steady-State
Response
The time response of a control system consists of two parts:

➢ The transient response.

➢ The steady-state response.

By transient response, we mean that which goes from the initial state to the final state.

By steady-state response, we mean the manner in which the system output behaves as

t approaches infinity. Thus the system response c(t) may be written as

𝑐(𝑡) = 𝑐𝑡𝑟 (𝑡) + 𝑐𝑠𝑠 (𝑡)

where the first term on the right-hand side of the equation is the transient response and the second term is the
steady-state response.
6.4 Transient and Steady-State Response First-
Order Systems
Consider the first-order system shown in Figure 6-l(a). Physically, this system may
represent an RC circuit, thermal system, or the like. A simplified block diagram is shown
in Figure 6-l(b). The input-output relationship is given by

𝐶(𝑠) 1
= (6.1)
𝑅(𝑠) 𝜏𝑠+1
R(s) + 1 C(s) R(s) C(s)
1
s s+1
-
Figure 6-1 (a) Block diagram of a first-order system; (b) simplified block diagram.
In the following, we shall analyze the system responses to such inputs as the unit-step, unit-
ramp, and unit-impulse functions. The initial conditions are assumed to be zero.
6.4.1 Unit-Step Response of First-Order
Systems
Since the Laplace transform of the unit-step function is l/s, substituting R(s) = 1/s
into Equation (1) and expanding it into partial fractions, we obtain

𝐿 1 1
𝑟(𝑡)=u(𝑡) 𝑅(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑠 𝜏𝑠 + 1

1 1 𝐴 𝐵
𝐶 𝑠 =𝑅 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 𝐶(𝑠) = = +
𝑠 𝜏𝑠+1 𝑠 𝜏𝑠+1
(𝜏𝑠+1) (𝑠)

1 𝐴=1⇒𝐴=1
(𝐴𝜏+𝐵)𝑠+𝐴
= ቊ
𝑠(𝜏𝑠+1) 𝑠(𝜏𝑠+1) (𝐴𝜏
+ 𝐵)𝑠 = 0 ⇒ 𝐵 = −𝜏
1 𝜏 1 1
𝐶 𝑠 = − = − (6.2)
𝑠 𝜏𝑠 + 1 𝑠 𝑠 + (1/𝜏)
• Taking the inverse Laplace transform of Equation (6.2), we obtain

1 𝜏
𝐶(𝑠) = −
𝑠 𝜏𝑠 + 1

1 1 𝐿−1
𝐶(𝑠) = − 1 𝑐(𝑡) = 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 (6.3)
𝑠 𝑠+𝜏

One important characteristic of such an exponential response curve c(t) is that at 𝒕 = 𝝉 ,

the value of c(t) is 0.632, or the response c(t) has reached 63.2% of its total change.
This may be easily seen by substituting 𝒕 = 𝝉 in c(t). That is,

𝑐 𝜏 = 1 − 𝑒 1 = 0.632
 1 The step response of the first order system (which is in
t =0 c(t ) = 1 − 0
=0 time-constant form) at t=0 is zero and it reaches %63.2
e
1 of its final value when t =.
t = c(t ) = 1 − 1 = 0.632
e
When t = 4 the system response reaches the %98.2 of
1
t = 2 c(t ) = 1 − 2 = 0.865 the final value.
e
1 Note that the smaller the time constant  , the faster the
t = 3 c(t ) = 1 − 3 = 0.950
e system response.
1
t = 4 c(t ) = 1 − 4 = 0.982 At t = 3, 4, and 5, the response reaches 95%, 98.2%,
e
.............. ............... and 99.3%, respectively, of the final value (Fig. 6.2).
.............. ............... Thus, for t  4, the response remains within 2% of the
1
t = c(t ) = 1 −  = 1.0 final value. As seen from Equation (5-3), the steady
e
state is reached mathematically only after an infinite
time. In practice, however, a reasonable estimate of the
ess = lim e(t ) = 0 response time is the length of time the response curve
t →
Thus the first-order system under needs to reach and stay within the 2% line of the final
consideration tracks the unit step
value, or four time constants.
input with zero steady state error.
Figure 6-2 Exponential response curve (T = 𝜏).
 Another important characteristic of the exponential response curve is
that the slope of the tangent line at t = 0 is 1/𝜏, since

𝑑𝑐 1 −𝑡/𝜏 1
= 𝑒 ቚ = (6.4)
𝑑𝑡 𝜏 𝑡=0 𝜏

The output would reach the final value at 𝑡 = 𝜏 if it maintained its

initial speed of response. From Equation (6.4) we see that the slope of
the response curve c(t) decreases monotonically from 1/𝜏 at t = 0 to
zero at t =∞.
6.4.2. Unit-Ramp Response of First-Order
Systems
• In this case the input to the system is unit ramp function r(t) and its
Laplace transform is given as

L 1
r(t)=t ⎯⎯ → R( s) =
s2

• We obtain the output of the system above Figure by using partial

fraction expansion method as
1 1 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝐶(𝑠) = = = + + (6.5)
𝑠 2 𝜏𝑠+1 𝑠2 (𝜏𝑠+1) 𝑠 𝑠2 𝜏𝑠+1
where A, B and C are found to be

1 𝑑 1 1
𝐵= ቚ =1 𝐴= ቚ = −𝜏 𝐶= ቚ = 𝜏2
𝜏𝑠+1 𝑠=0 𝑑𝑠 𝜏𝑠+1 𝑠=0 𝑠 2 𝑠=−1
𝜏

If we substitute the coefficients into Eq. (6.5)

𝜏 1 𝜏2
𝐶(𝑠) = − + + (6.6)
𝑠 𝑠2 𝜏𝑠+1

Taking the inverse Laplace transform of Eq. (6.6), we obtain

𝜏 1 𝜏 𝐿−1 −
𝑡
𝐶(𝑠) = − + + 1 𝑐(𝑡) = 𝑡 − 𝜏 + 𝜏𝑒 𝜏 (6.7)
𝑠 𝑠2 𝑠+𝜏

The error signal e(t) is then

𝑡
−𝜏
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑟 𝑡 − 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝜏(1 − 𝑒 )
As t approaches infinity, 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 approaches zero, and thus the error signal e(t) approaches 𝜏 or

𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑒(𝑡) = 𝜏

𝑡→∞
 Figure 6-3 Unit-ramp response of the system.
Thus the first-order system under consideration tracks the unit ramp input with a steady state error 𝜏.
The unit-ramp input and the system output are shown in Figure 6.3. The error in following the unit-
ramp input is equal to 𝜏 for sufficiently large t. The smaller the time constant 𝜏, the smaller the
steady-state error in following the ramp input.
6.4.3. Unit-Impulse Response of First-Order
Systems
Unit impulse input and its Laplace transform is given below:
𝐿
𝑟(𝑡) = 𝛿(𝑡) 𝑅(𝑠) = 1 1
R(s)= C(s)
s+1
The output of the system of above Figure can be obtained as

1 1 1/𝜏 𝐿−1 1 −𝑡/𝜏

𝐶(𝑠) = 1 = = 𝑐(𝑡) = 𝑒
𝜏𝑠 + 1 (𝜏𝑠 + 1) 𝑠 + 1 𝜏
𝜏
Note that the impulse input yields the transfer function of the system as output.
The related response curve is shown in Figure 6.4.
Figure 6.4. Impulse response of a first order system
6.5. Second Order Systems

• Let us consider the second order system given in Figure 6.5.

R(s) + 2n C(s)
s(s+2 n )
-
Figure 6.5. Closed loop block diagram of a second order system

The closed-loop transfer function of this system is

R(s) 2n C(s)

s 2+2n s + 2n
 R(s) 2n C(s)

s 2+2n s + 2n

Here, the constant 𝜁 is called the damping ratio and 𝜔𝑛 is called the natural frequency. The
system above is in fact a standard second order system.

The closed loop poles of this second order system can be obtained from the Characteristic
Equation

𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 = 0

And the roots of the above equation are

𝑠1 , 𝑠2 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2 = −𝜎 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑑 , 𝜔𝑑 = 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦.

Depending on 𝜁, the roots of the characteristic polynomial can be categorized into 4 different
types. If 𝜁 = 0, 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 will be pure imaginary and the transient will not die out. If 0 < 𝜁 < 1,
the closed loop poles are complex conjugates and lie in the left-half s plane. The system is then
called under damped. If 𝜁 = 1, then the system is called critically damped. Overdamped systems
correspond to 𝜁 > 1. Figure 6.6 shows alternative 𝜁’s on s plane and types of the closed-loop
system poles.

Figure 6.6. Representation of 𝜁’s on s-plane and corresponding closed-loop pole types.

𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝜔 𝜔𝑛 1−𝜁 2 1−𝜁 2

𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = = 𝜁 ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝜁 and 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜁𝜔𝑑 = =
𝜔𝑛 𝑛 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝜁
 6.5.1. Unit step response of second-order
systems
1 1 2
𝜔𝑛 1 𝑠+2𝜁𝜔𝑛
Suppose, 𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡), ⇒ 𝑅(𝑠) = ; 𝑌(𝑠) = ⋅ 2 = − 2
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠2 +2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠+𝜔𝑛 𝑠 𝑠2 +2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠+𝜔𝑛
1 𝑠+2𝜁𝜔𝑛 1 𝑠+𝜁𝜔𝑛 +𝜁𝜔𝑛
or, 𝑌(𝑠) = − 2 (1−𝜁 2 ) = −
𝑠 (𝑠+𝜁𝜔𝑛 )2 +𝜔𝑛 𝑠 (𝑠+𝜁𝜔𝑛 )2 +(𝜔𝑛 1−𝜁 2 )2
Performing inverse Laplace transform,
𝜁
𝑦(𝑡) = 1 − 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2 )𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2 )𝑡 ⋅
1−𝜁 2
𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡
or, 𝑦(𝑡) = 1 − 1 − 𝜁 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2 )𝑡 + 𝜁 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2 )𝑡
1−𝜁 2
𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡
or, 𝑦(𝑡) = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃),
1−𝜁 2
where, 𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2 and 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 1 − 𝜁 2 /𝜁 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝜁
𝜔𝑛 −𝜎𝑡
or, 𝑦(𝑡) = 1 − 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃).
𝜔𝑑
The response 𝑦(𝑡) for different 𝜁 is shown in Figure below.

Figure 6.7. Step responses of a second order system for different 𝜁 values.
6.6. Time response specifications
Control systems are generally designed with damping less than one (𝜁 < 1), i.e.,
oscillatory step response. Higher order control systems usually have a pair of complex
conjugate poles with damping less than unity that dominate over the other poles.
Therefore, the time response of second- and higher-order control systems to a step input is
generally of damped oscillatory nature as shown in Figure next (next page).
In specifying the transient-response characteristics of a control system to a unit step
input, we usually specify the following:
1. Delay time, 𝑡𝑑
2. Rise time, 𝑡𝑟
3. Peak time, 𝑡𝑝
4. Peak overshoot, 𝑀𝑝
5. Settling time, 𝑡𝑠
6. Steady-state error, 𝑒𝑠𝑠
1. Delay time, 𝒕𝒅 : It is the time required for the response to reach 50% of the
final value in first attempt.
2. Rise time, 𝒕𝒓 : It is the time required for the response to rise from 0 to
100% of the final value for the underdamped system.
3. Peak time, 𝒕𝒑 : It is the time required for the response to reach the peak of
time response or the peak overshoot.
4. Settling time, 𝒕𝒔 : It is the time required for the response to reach and stay
within a specified tolerance band ( 2% or 5%) of its final value.
5. Peak overshoot, 𝑴𝒑 : It is the normalized difference between the time
response peak and the steady output and is defined as,
𝑐(𝑡𝑝 ) − 𝑐(∞)
%𝑀𝑝 = × 100%
𝑐(∞)
6. Steady-state error, 𝒆𝒔𝒔 : It indicates the error between the actual output and
desired output as ‘t’ tends to infinity.
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 [𝑟(𝑡) − 𝑐(𝑡)].
𝑡→∞
Let us now obtain the expressions for the rise time, peak time, peak overshoot, and settling
time for the second order system:
𝜔
𝑦(𝑡) = 1 − 𝑛 𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝜔𝑑
1. Rise time , 𝑡𝑟 : Put 𝑦(𝑡) = 1 at 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑟 ,
𝜔𝑛 −𝜎𝑡 𝜔𝑛 −𝜎𝑡 𝜔𝑛 −𝜎𝑡
1=1− 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑟 + 𝜃), 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑟 + 𝜃) = 0, 𝑒 ≠0
𝜔𝑑 𝜔𝑑 𝜔𝑑
𝜋−𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑟 + 𝜃) = 0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋 ⇒ 𝑡𝑟 = ; 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝜁.
𝜔𝑑

𝑑𝑦
2. Peak time, 𝒕𝒑 : Put = 0 and solve for 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑝 ;
𝜎𝜔𝑛 −𝜎𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0= 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 + 𝜃) − 𝜔𝑛 𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 + 𝜃)
𝜔𝑑
𝜔𝑑 𝜔𝑛 1−𝜁 2 1−𝜁 2
⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛( 𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 + 𝜃) = = = =𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
𝜎 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝜁
⇒ 𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 + 𝜃 = 𝜃 𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 = 𝑘𝜋 𝑘 = 0,1,2, ⋯
Peak overshoot occurs at k = 1. ⇒ 𝑡𝑝 = 𝜋/𝜔𝑑 = 𝜋/𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2
 𝜔𝑛 −𝜎𝑡 4
3. Settling time, 𝒕𝒔 : For 2% tolerance band, 𝑒 𝑠 = 0.02, ⇒ 𝑡𝑠 ≅ .
𝜔𝑑 𝜎

4. Peak overshoot 𝑀𝑝 : It is the normalized difference between the time response peak and the steady
output and is defined as
𝑐(𝑡𝑝 ) − 𝑐(∞)
%𝑀𝑝 = × 100%
𝑐(∞)

5. Steady-state error, 𝒆𝒔𝒔 : It is found previously that steady-state error for step input is zero.
Let us now consider ramp input, 𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑡.
1 1 2
𝜔𝑛
Then, 𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑠{𝑅(𝑠) − 𝑌(𝑠)} = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑠{ 2 − ⋅ 2}
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠 𝑠2 𝑠 2 +2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠+𝜔𝑛
1 2
𝜔𝑛 1 𝑠 2 +2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠+𝜔𝑛2 −𝜔 2 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 2𝜁
𝑛
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 {1 − 2} = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 2 = 2 = .
𝑠→0 𝑠 𝑠 2 +2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠+𝜔𝑛 𝑠→0 𝑠 2
𝑠 +2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠+𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
2𝜁
Therefore, the steady-state error due to ramp input is .
𝜔𝑛