The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that

explains how different computer systems communicate over a network. OSI

Model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO). The OSI Model consists of 7 layers and each layer
has specific functions and responsibilities. This layered approach makes it
easier for different devices and technologies to work together. OSI Model
provides a clear structure for data transmission and managing network
issues. The OSI Model is widely used as a reference to understand how
network systems function.

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Layers of the OSI Model
There are 7 layers in the OSI Model and each layer has its specific role in
handling data. All the layers are mentioned below:
 Physical Layer
 Data Link Layer
 Network Layer
 Transport Layer
 Session Layer
 Presentation Layer
 Application Layer
Layer 1: Physical Layer
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is
responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. The
physical layer contains information in the form of bits. Physical Layer is
responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When
receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s
and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back
together. Common physical layer devices are Hub, Repeater, Modem,
and Cables.

Physical Layer
Functions of the Physical Layer
 Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of
the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver
thus providing synchronization at the bit level.
 Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate
i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
 Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus topology, star topology,
or mesh topology.
 Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows
between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes
possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full duplex.
Layer 2: Data Link Layer (DLL)
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the
message. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is
error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet
arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the
Host using its MAC address. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as
Frame. Switches and Bridges are common Data Link Layer devices.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
 Logical Link Control (LLC)
 Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames
depending on the frame size of the NIC (Network Interface Card). DLL also
encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP (Address
Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking, "Who has that IP
address?" and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.
Functions of the Data Link Layer
 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for
a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This
can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning
and end of the frame.
 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds
physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the
header of each frame.
 Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error
control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data
may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that
can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
 Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by
multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to
determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.
Layer 3: Network Layer
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the
other located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e.
selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of
routes available. The sender and receiver's IP address are placed in the
header by the network layer. Segment in the Network layer is referred to as
Packet. Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers
and switches.
Functions of the Network Layer
 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable
from source to destination. This function of the network layer is known as
routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the
network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender and receiver’s
IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an
address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
Layer 4: Transport Layer
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes
services from the network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to
as Segments. It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the complete
message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the
successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
Protocols used in Transport Layer are TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP.
At the sender's side, the transport layer receives the formatted data from
the upper layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow and
error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and
Destination port number in its header and forwards the segmented data to
the Network Layer.
 Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or
manually. For example, when a web application requests a web server, it
typically uses port number 80, because this is the default port assigned to
web applications. Many applications have default ports assigned.
At the Receiver’s side, Transport Layer reads the port number from its
header and forwards the Data which it has received to the respective
application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented
data.
Functions of the Transport Layer
 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from
the (session) layer and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the
segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer
at the destination station reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct
process, the transport layer header includes a type of address called
service point address or port address. Thus, by specifying this address,
the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
 Connection-Oriented Service
 Connectionless Service
Layer 5: Session Layer
Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of
connections, management of connections, terminations of sessions between
two devices. It also provides authentication and security. Protocols used in
the Session Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP.
Functions of the Session Layer
 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer
allows the two processes to establish, use, and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are
considered synchronization points in the data. These synchronization
points help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized
properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely, and data
loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full duplex.
Example
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through
some Messenger application running in their browser. The “Messenger”
here acts as the application layer which provides the user with an interface to
create the data. This message or so-called Data is compressed, optionally
encrypted (if the data is sensitive), and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so
that it can be transmitted.
 Communication in Session Layer
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from
the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required
format to transmit over the network. Protocols used in the Presentation Layer
are TLS/SSL (Transport Layer Security / Secure Sockets Layer).JPEG,
MPEG, GIF, are standards or formats used for encoding data, which is part
of the presentation layer’s role.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another
form or code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext, and the
decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting
as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on
the network.
Layer 7: Application Layer
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the
Application layer which is implemented by the network applications. These
applications produce the data to be transferred over the network. This layer
also serves as a window for the application services to access the network
and for displaying the received information to the user. Protocols used in the
Application layer are SMTP, FTP, DNS, etc.

Application Layer
Functions of the Application Layer
The main functions of the application layer are given below.
 Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote
host.
 File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM): This application allows
a user to access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and
manage or control files from a remote computer.
 Mail Services: Provide email service.
 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database
sources and access for global information about various objects and
services.