Protocol and Standards

Protocol
 A protocol is a set of rules that govern/maintain data communications.
 A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated.
 The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.
1. Syntax:
 The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in
which they are presented.
2. Semantics:
 The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
 How are a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on
that interpretation?
3. Timing:
 The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast
they can be sent.
Reference model
 In computer networks, reference models give a conceptual framework that standardizes
communication between heterogeneous networks.
 The two popular reference models are −
1. OSI Model
2. TCP/IP Model
OSI Model
 OSI stands for Open System Interconnection model.
 It was developed by International Standards Organization (ISO) introduced in 1984.
 The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows communication
between all types of computer systems.
 It contains 7 layers. Each layer performs its own functionality.
1. Physical Layer
 It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices (Transmission
medium).
 The physical layer contains information in the form of bits (0’s and 1’s).
 The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node to
another node.
Function
 Representation of bits (0’s and 1’s)
 Line configuration (P2P or Multipoint)
 Topology (Star or mush etc.,)
 Transmission mode (simplex or duplex)

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2. Data link layer
 It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
 It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local network.
 The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another.
 When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it to the Host using its
MAC address.
 It contains two sub-layers:
o Logical Link Control Layer
 The LLC layer controls frame synchronization, flow control and error
checking.
o Media Access Control Layer
 It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
Functions:
 Framing: Stream of bits into manageable data units
 Physical addressing: add MAC address to frames
 Error control: It detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The flow of data is controlled
 Access control: Device has control over the channel (time control)
3. Network layer
 The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other host in different
networks.
 The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
 It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the
number of routes available.
 It acts as a network controller.
Function
o Addressing: is used to identify the device on the internet.
o Routing: it determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths
4. Transport Layer
 The Transport Layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is
responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control.
 The delivery of data packets is managed by the transport layer
 It also manages the flow of data, segmentation and De-segmentation and error control.
 Fragmentation and reassembly of data packets - Fragmentation is the process of breaking a packet into
smaller pieces so that they will fit into the frames of the underlying network. The receiving system
reassembles the pieces into the original packets.
 The two protocols used in this layer are:
Transmission Control Protocol
 It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
 It offers an acknowledgment of the successful data transmission.
 If data lost retransmit the data again (not receive the acknowledgment)
User Datagram Protocol
o It is a connection less between hosts.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol.
o It does not wait for any acknowledgment.
o In this protocol data loss is occurred.
Function
 Service point addressing - port address is necessary for delivery
 Segmentation and reassembly -A message divided into number of segments (sequence of number)
from sender side and receiver reassemble the segment
 Connection control (connection or connection less)
5. Session Layer
 This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,
authentication, and also ensures security.
 Function
1. Session establishment, maintenance, and termination:
 The layer allows the two processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
2. Synchronization:
 Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a sequence.

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  If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission
will take place again from the checkpoint.
 This process is known as Synchronization and recovery.
3. Dialog Controller:
 The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in
half-duplex or full-duplex.
6. Presentation Layer
 A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged
between the two systems.
 The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer.
Function
 Translation:
For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Encryption/ Decryption:
 Data encryption translates the data into another form or code.
 The encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known as plain text.
 A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression:
Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
7. Application Layer
 Application layer interacts with an application program, which is closest to the end-user. It provides user
services.
 It allows users to interact with the software application.
 Example web browser, file transfer, email, remote login, etc.
Function
 Network Virtual Terminal (log on to a remote host)
 FTAM-File transfer access and management (transfer file)
 Mail Services (E-mail)
 Directory Services (to access global information)
OSI Architecture

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TCP/IP Reference Model
 The TCP/IP model refers to the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol Model.
 The first version of TCP/IP was ARPANET (1975), which stands for Advanced Research Projects
Administration Network. The name changed to TCP/IP in 1983, when it became an open standard that
could be used on any network.
 This model is a part of the network domain designed specifically for overseeing efficient and error-free
transmission of data.
 TCP/IP Model helps you to determine how a specific computer should be connected to the internet and
how data should be transmitted between them.
 It helps you to create a virtual network when multiple computer networks are connected together.
 The purpose of TCP/IP model is to allow efficient communication over large distances and error-free
transmission of data.
Four Layers of TCP/IP model

TCP/IP protocol suite

Application Layer

 Application layer interacts with an application program, which is closest to the end-user. It means
application layer allows users to interact with other software application to implement a communicating
component.
 It maintains a smooth connection between the application and user for data exchange.
 Example: file transfer, email, remote login, etc.

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Some of the protocols used in this layer are:
1. HTTP: Hypertext transfer protocol is used for accessing the information available on the internet.
2. SMTP: Simple mail transfer protocol, assigned the task of handling e-mail-related steps and issues.
3. FTP: This is the standard protocol that oversees the transfer of files over the network channel.
4. SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework which is used for
managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol.
5. DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address that is used to identify the connection of a host
to the internet uniquely. However, users prefer to use names instead of addresses for that DNS.
6. TELNET:TELNET stands for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between the local and
remote computer. It established connection in such a manner that you can simulate your local system at the
remote system.
Transport Layer
 This layer is responsible for establishing the connection between the sender and the receiver device and
also performs the task of dividing the data from the application layer into packets, which are then used
to create sequences.
 It also performs the task of maintaining the data, i.e., to be transmitted without error, and controls the
data flow rate over the communication channel for smooth transmission of data.

The protocols used in this layer are:

1. TCP: Transmission Control Protocol is responsible for the proper transmission of segments over the
communication channel. It also establishes a network connection between the source and destination system.
2. SCTP stands for Stream Control Transmission Protocol. It is a connection- oriented protocol in
computer networks which provides a full-duplex association i.e., transmitting multiple streams of data
between two end points at the same time that have established a connection in network.
3. UDP: User Datagram Protocol is responsible for identifying errors, and other tasks during the transmission
of information. UDP maintains various fields for data transmission such as:
 Source Port Address: This port is responsible for designing the application that makes up the
message to be transmitted.
 Destination Port Address: This port receives the message sent from the sender side.
 Total Length: The total number of bytes of the user datagram.
 Checksum: Used for error detection of the message at the destination side.
Internet Layer

 The main work of this layer is to send the packets from any network, and any computer still they reach
the destination irrespective of the route they take.
 The Internet layer offers the functional and procedural method for transferring variable length data
sequences from one node to another with the help of various networks.
Function
1. It is responsible for specifying the path that the data packets will use for transmission.
2. This layer is responsible for providing IP addresses to the system for the identification matters over
the network channel.
Some of the protocols applied in this layer are:
1. IP: This protocol assigns your device with a unique address; the IP address is also responsible for routing
the data over the communication channel.

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 2. ARP: This protocol refers to the Address Resolution Protocol that is responsible for finding the physical
address using the IP address.
3. RARP: The RARP retrieves a computer's logical address from its available server.
4. ICMP: The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a network layer protocol used by network devices
to diagnose network communication issues. ICMP is mainly used to determine whether or not data is
reaching its intended destination in a timely manner.
5. IGMP: The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is a protocol that allows several devices to share
one IP address so they can all receive the same data.
Host to Network

 This layer is the combination of data-link and physical layer.

 It helps you to defines details of how data should be sent using the network.
 The responsible for maintaining the task of sending and receiving data in raw bits (0’s and 1’s), i.e., in binary
format over the physical communication modes in the network channel.
 It uses the physical address of the system for mapping the path of transmission over the network channel.
Advantages
 It supports many routing-protocols.
 TCP/IP model has a highly scalable client-server architecture.
 It can be operated independently.
 Supports a number of routing protocols.
 It can be used to establish a connection between two computers.
Disadvantages
 TCP/IP is a complicated model to set up and manage.
 In this, model the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.
 Replacing protocol in TCP/IP is not easy.
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A Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models
S.NO OSI MODEL TCP/IP MODEL
1. It is developed by ISO (International It is developed by ARPANET (Advanced Research
Standard Organization) Project Agency Network).
2. OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection. TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol.
3. OSI follows a vertical approach. TCP/IP follows a horizontal approach.
4. OSI layers have seven layers. TCP/IP has four layers.
5. Strict layered Loosely layered
6. Model was developed before the development Protocols were developed first and then the model was
of protocols developed
7. It provides a clear distinction between It doesn’t have any clear distinguishing points between
interfaces, services and protocols services, interfaces and protocols.
8. It has separate session and presentation layer It combines the session and presentation layer in
application layer
9. The transport layer in this model provides a In this model, the transport layer does not have any such
packet delivery protocol. protocols.
10. The transport layer guarantees the delivery The transport layer does not guarantee the delivery of
of packets packets
11. The network layer to define routing TCP/IP uses only the internet layer
standards and protocols
12. The data link layer and physical are separate In TCP, physical and data link are both combined as a
Layer single host-to-network layer or network interface
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 Chapter-2: Physical layer: Transmission Media
 Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from the sender to the
receiver.
 Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals or cable wires.

Wired / Guided Media

Transmitted data travels through cabling system (wire) that has a fixed path.
1. Twisted Pair cable
2. Coaxical cable
3. Fibre optic cable
1. Twisted Pair Cable
 A twisted pair cable is a pair of copper wire.
 Copper Wire are the most common wires used for
transmitted signal (good transmitter with low
cost)
 It consists of two conductors (normally copper),
each with its own plastic insulation, twisted
together toform a single media.
 Out of these two only one carries signal, others is
used for ground reference.
 To identify every cable, these cables are colour
coated.

Two Types of Twisted Pair Cable

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable
2. Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

Unshielded Twisted Pair

 It has ability to block interference (crosstalk) and doesn’t depends on a physical shield.
 UTP is widely used in telecommuncation

Advantages Disadvantages
o Least expensive o This cable can only be used for shorter
o Easy to install distances because of attenuation.
o High capacity

Application
o Telephone connection and LAN network.

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Shielded Twisted Pair
 It is a cable that contains the mesh (metal foil covering) surrounding the wire that allows the
higher transmission rate.
 This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference.
Advantages
o It provides high transmission rate
o Easy to install
o Cost is not very high and not very low
o Eliminates crosstalk

Disadvantages
o It has a higher attenuation rate
o It is more expensive compared with
UTP and coaxible cable.
Application
o Extermely Cold Climate (to prevent
from temperature)

2. Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media.
 It transmitted signals may travel longer distances at higher speeds.
 The shield minimizes electrical and radio frequency interference.
 Example:- Cable TV, Telephone and computer network(Internet)

It consists of 4 primary components,as follows:

 A core copper wire as its centre
 This copper wire is surrounded by a plastic insulator or dielectic
 Over this is a mesh shield which is made up of a conducting material.
 This last layer called as the outer jacket is made of Plastic coating
Common cable standard
Coaxical cable designs are categorized by their radio government (RG) rating.
o RG-8 , RG-9, RG-11 -> Used in thick Ethernet
o RG-58 -> Used in the thin Ethernet
o RG-59 -> Used for T.V
Advantages
o It provide excellent noise immunity

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 o Signals can travel longer distances at higher speed
o Easy to install and maintain
Disadvantages
o Expensive as compared to Twisted Pair Cable
o It is bulky
o In case of any damage the entire network goes down as a single cable is used for transmission.

3. Fibre Optical Cable

 A fibre optical cable is made of high quality of thin glass or plastic and is used to transfer Digital
signals are transmitted in the form of light signal.
 Light is lanuched into the fiber at one end using a light source such as Light Emitting
Diode(LED) or Injection Laser Diode(ILD).
 For data transmission, the transmitter must be capable of inducing data bits 0 to 1 into the light
source.At receiver’s end a photodiode is used to transmit this light back into data bits.

 The cable consists of one or more strands of glass, each only slightly thicker than a human
hair.The centre of each strand is called the core, which provides the pathway for light to travel.
 The core is surrounded by a layer of glass called cladding that reflects light inward to avoid loss
of signal and allow the light to pass through bends in the cable.
 No light ecapes the glass core because of this reflective cladding.

Advantages Disadvantages
o High rate signal can be transmit o Optical fibre cables are expensive
o No crosstalk o Difficult to install
o Large bandwidth , Greater Capacity o Maintenance is expensive and difficult
(2Gbps)
o Smaller size and lighter weight
o Lower attenuation
o Immunity to environment
o Highly secure
o Repeaters are not required
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Wireless / Unguided Media
Transmitted data travels through lighting or signal (wireless)
1. Radio waves
2. Micro waves
3. Infrared waves
1. Radio Waves
 Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3kHz to 1GHz are normally called radio
waves.
 When an antenna transmit radio waves in all directions (omnidirectional).
 Radio waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel long distance.
 Radio waves are good at bending around buildings and hills

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2. Microwaves
 Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 to 300 GHz are called
microwaves.
 It travel in straight lines (uni direction), it allows multiple receivers.
 When an antenna transmit microwaves, this means that the sending
and receiving antennas need to be narrowly focused.
 Microwaves are often refracted by the atomspheric layers.

Advantages
o Cheaper than using cables
o It don’t require any land for the installation of cables.
o Communication over oceans
Disadvantages
o Susceptible to weather condition
o Eavesdropping : any malicious user can catch the signal in the air by using its
own.
Application
o Cellular phones
o Television networks

3. Infrared Waves
 Frequencies from 300GHz to 400GHz
(wavelengths from 1mm to 770nm)
 It can be used for short range communication (upto 5 meters)
 Purpose such as television and its remote.
 Infrared cannot cross wall-like obstacles.
 Example:- TV Remote Control, DVD
players,wireless mouse, keyboard,
printer, etc..
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