BCSE422L

Robot Modeling and

Simulation
Path and Trajectory
•The minimal requirement for a manipulator is the capability to move from an
initial posture to a final assigned posture.
•The transition should be characterized by motion laws requiring the actuators to
exert joint generalized forces which do not violate the saturation limits and do
not excite the typically modelled resonant modes of the structure.
•A path denotes the locus of points in the joint space, or in the operational
space, which the manipulator has to follow in the execution of the assigned
motion;
•A path is then a pure geometric description of motion. On the other hand, a
trajectory is a path on which a timing law is specified, for instance in terms of
velocities and/or accelerations at each point.
Trajectory planning in robotics is the process of finding a series of
joint angles that moves a robot from a starting position to a goal
position.
 Joint Space Trajectories
Without any concern to the specific type of mechanical manipulator, it is worth remarking that task
specification (end-effector motion and forces) is usually carried out in the operational space, whereas
control actions (joint actuator generalized forces) are performed in the joint space. This fact naturally leads
to considering two kinds of general control schemes, namely, a joint space control scheme (Fig. 8.1) and an
operational space control scheme (Fig. 8.2). In both schemes, the control structure has closed loops to
exploit the good features provided by feedback, i.e., robustness to modelling uncertainties and reduction
of disturbance effects.
The operational space control problem follows a global approach that requires a greater algorithmic
complexity; notice that inverse kinematics is now embedded into the feedback control loop. Its conceptual
advantage regards the possibility of acting directly on operational space variables; this is somewhat only a
potential advantage, since measurement of operational space variables is often performed not directly, but
through the evaluation of direct kinematics functions starting from measured joint space variables
 Operational Space Trajectories
•A joint space trajectory planning algorithm generates a time sequence of values for the joint variables q(t)
so that the manipulator is taken from the initial to the final configuration, eventually by moving through a
sequence of intermediate configurations.
•The resulting end-effector motion is not easily predictable, in view of the nonlinear effects introduced by
direct kinematics. Whenever it is desired that the end-effector motion follows a geometrically specified path
in the operational space, it is necessary to plan trajectory execution directly in the same space.
•Planning can be done either by interpolating a sequence of prescribed path points or by generating
the analytical motion primitive and the relative trajectory in a punctual way.
•Whenever the path is not to be followed exactly, its characterization can be performed
through the assignment of N points specifying the values of the variables xe chosen to
describe the end-effector pose in the operational space at given time instants tk, for k = 1, .
. . , N., the trajectory is generated by determining a smooth interpolating vector
function between the various path points.
Path Primitives
For the definition of path primitives it is defined as the parametric description of
paths in space. Then let p be a (3 × 1) vector and f(σ) a continuous vector
function defined in the interval [σi, σf ]. Consider the equation
p = f(σ); (4.31)
The above equation follows that to each value of ‘s’ a well determined path
point corresponds, and then the arc length can be used as a parameter in a
different parametric representation of the path Γ:
p = f(s); (4.32)
•The first of such unit vectors is the tangent unit vector denoted by t. This vector
is oriented along the direction induced on the path by s.
•The second unit vector is the normal unit vector denoted by n. This vector is
oriented along the line intersecting p at a right angle with t and lies in the so-
called osculating plane O ; such plane is the limit position of the plane
containing the unit vector t and a point p ∈ Γ when p tends to p along the path.
The direction of n is so that the path Γ, in the neighborhood of p with respect to
the plane containing t and normal to n, lies on the same side of n.
•The third unit vector is the binormal unit vector denoted by b. This vector is so
that the frame (t,n, b) is right-handed
Rectilinear path
Circular path
Actuator
The actuator within a robot is an essential component that works as
the joint for the robot to move the robot rotate, arm up & down & it
changes energy into mechanical motions. The most common energy
source to power actuators is electricity, however pneumatic &
hydraulic energy may also be utilized.
Joint Actuating System
The motion imposed to a manipulator’s joint is realized by an actuating system which in general
consists of:
• a power supply,
• a power amplifier ,
• a servomotor ,
• a transmission.
 Drives
•Used for the actuation of a manipulator’s joints : the electric drives and the hydraulic
drives
Electric Drives
From a modelling viewpoint, a permanent-magnet DC motor and a brushless DC motor
provided with the commutation module and position sensor can be described by the differential
equations. In the domain of the complex variable s, the electric balance of the armature is
described by the equations
Hydraulic Drives - describing the relationship between flow rate and
pressure, the relationship between the fluid and the parts in motion, and the
mechanical balance of the parts in motion.
Let Q represent the volume flow rate supplied by the distributor; the flow rate balance is given by
the equation
Proprioceptive Sensors
The adoption of sensors is of crucial importance to achieve high-performance
robotic systems. It is worth classifying sensors into
1. Proprioceptive sensors that measure the internal state of the manipulator,
and
2. Exteroceptive sensors that provide the robot with knowledge of the
surrounding environment.
In order to guarantee that a coordinated motion of the mechanical structure is
obtained in correspondence of the task planning, suitable parameter identification
and control algorithms are used which require the on-line measurement of
sensors.
Proprioceptive sensors, of the quantities characterizing the internal state of the
manipulatorhas the following , i.e.:
• Joint position
• joint velocities,
• joint torques.
On the other hand, typical exteroceptive sensors include:
• force sensors,
• tactile sensors,
• proximity sensors,
• range sensors,
• vision sensors
Position Transducers
•The aim of position transducers is to provide an electric signal proportional to the
linear or angular displacement of a mechanical apparatus with respect to a given
reference position.
•They are mostly utilized for control of machine tools, and thus their range is wide.
Potentiometers, linear variable-differential transformers (LVDT), and inductosyns may be
used to measure linear displacements.
•Potentiometers, encoders, resolvers and synchros may be used to measure angular
displacements.
•Angular displacement transducers are typically employed in robotics applications since, also
for prismatic joints, the servomotor is of a rotary type.
•In view of their precision, robustness and reliability, the most common transducers are the
encoders and resolvers, whose operating principles are detailed in what follows. On the other
hand, linear displacement transducers (LVDT’s and inductosyns) are mainly employed in
measuring robots.
Encoder
There are two types of encoder: absolute and incremental. The absolute encoder consists of an
optical-glass disk on which concentric circles (tracks) are disposed; each track has an alternating
sequence of transparent sectors and matte sectors obtained by deposit of a metallic film
Exteroceptive Sensors
•Force Sensors
•Strain gauge
•Shaft torque sensor
•Wrist force sensor
•Range Sensors
•Sonars
•Lasers
•Vision Sensors
•A CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) sensor
•A CCD (Charge Coupled Device) senso
•Camera