Thermodynamics I__________________________________________________________________ _ AAiT

Chapter 3
Energy Transport by Heat, Work and Mass
3.1 Energy of a System
Energy can be viewed as the ability to cause change.

Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric,
magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum constitutes the total energy E of a system. The
total energy of a system on a unit mass basis is denoted by e and is expressed as

E
e (kJ / kg ) (3.1)
m

In thermodynamic analysis, energy can be group in to two forms:

 Macroscopic
 Microscopic

Microscopic forms of energy are those related to the molecular structure of a system and the
degree of the molecular activity, and they are independent of outside reference frames.

The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy is called the internal energy of a system and is
denoted by U.

Example:-

 Latent energy
 Chemical energy
 Nuclear energy
 Sensible energy

Internal energy

 A system associated with the kinetic energies of the molecules is called the sensible
energy.
 The internal energy associated with the phase of a system is called the latent energy.

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 The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a molecule is called chemical
energy.
 The tremendous amount of energy associated with the strong bonds within the nucleus of
the atom itself is called nuclear energy.
 The total energy of a system, can be contained or stored in a system, and thus can be
viewed as the static forms of energy.
 The forms of energy not stored in a system can be viewed as the dynamic forms of
energy.
 The only two forms of energy interactions associated with a closed system are heat
transfer and work.
Macroscopic forms of energy are those a system possesses as a whole with respect to some
outside reference frame, such as kinetic and potential energies.
 The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some reference
frame is called kinetic energy (KE) and is expressed as

V2
KE  m (kJ ) (3.2)
2

Per unit mass

V2
ke  (kJ / kg ) (3.3)
2
 The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a gravitational field is
called potential energy (PE) and is expressed as

PE  mgz (kJ ) (3.4)

Per unit mass
pe  gz (kJ ) (3.5)

The magnetic, electric, and surface tension effects are significant in some specialized cases only
and are usually ignored. In the absence of such effects, the total energy of a system consists of
the kinetic, potential, and internal energies and is expressed as

E  U  KE  PE

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V2
E U  m  mgz (kJJ ) (3.6)
2

Per un
nit mass
e  u  ke  pe

V2
eu  gz (kJJ / kg ) (3.7)
2
Most cloosed systemss remain stattionary durinng a processs and thus experience noo change in their
kinetic annd potential energies.
Closed syystems who
ose velocity and elevatioon of the cennter of gravvity remain constant
c durring a
a frequentlly referred too as stationaary systemss. The changge in the totaal energy ∆E
process are E of a
stationaryy system is identical
i t change inn its internall energy ∆U..
to the

3.2 E
Energy trransport by
b heat and
a work
Energy can
c cross the boundary of a closed syystem in twoo distinct form
ms: heat andd work.

Figure 3.1 Energy

E can crooss the boundaaries of a closeed system in thee form of heat and
a work.

Energyy transportt by heat

Heat is defined
d as the form of ennergy that is transferred between twoo systems (orr a system annd its
surrounddings) by virttue of a tempperature diff
fference.

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Figure
F 3.2 Heat
H transferr from hot suurface to coldd surface
That is, an
a energy intteraction is heat
h only if it
i takes placee because off a temperatuure differencce.
Then it follows
fo that there
t cannot be any heatt transfer bettween two syystems that are
a at the sam
me
temperatuure.

A processs during which

w there is no heat transfer
t is called
c an ad
diabatic proocess. The word
adiabaticc comes from
m the Greek word adiabaatos, which means not too be passed.

There aree two ways a process caan be adiabattic: Either thhe system is well insulatted so that only
o a
negligiblle amount of
o heat cann pass throough the booundary, orr both the system andd the
surrounddings are at the same temperature and
a thereforee there is noo driving foorce (temperrature
differencce) for heat trransfer.

Figure 3.3
3 During an
n adiabatic process,
p a syystem exchannges no heat with its surrroundings.

As a form
m of energy,, heat has ennergy units, kJ
k being the most comm
mon one. Thhe amount off heat
transferreed during th
he process beetween two states (statees 1 and 2) is
i denoted by
b Q12, or juust Q.
Heat trannsfer per uniit mass of a system
s is dennoted q and is determineed from

Q
q (kJ / kg ) (3.8)
m
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Sometimes it is desirable to know the rate of heat transfer (the amount of heat transferred per
unit time) instead of the total heat transferred over some time interval.


Figure 3.4 The relationships among q, Q, and Q .

The heat transfer rate is denoted , where the overdot stands for the time derivative, or “per unit
time.” The heat transfer rate has the unit kJ/s, which is equivalent to kW. When varies with
time, the amount of heat transfer during a process is determined by integrating over the time
interval of the process:

t2 
Q   Qdt (kJ ) (3.9)
t1

When remains constant during a process, this relation reduces to


Q  Q t (kJ ) (3.10)
Where: t  t2  t1
Heat is transferred by three mechanisms: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction is
the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interaction between particles. Convection is the transfer of energy
between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid that is in motion, and it involves the combined
effects of conduction and fluid motion. Radiation is the transfer of energy due to the emission of
electromagnetic waves (or photons).

Energy Transport by Work

Work, like heat, is an energy interaction between a system and its surroundings. As mentioned
earlier, energy can cross the boundary of a closed system in the form of heat or work. Therefore,
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If the energy crossing the boundary of a closed system is not heat, it must be work. Work is the
energy transfer associated with force acting through a distance.
Example:-
 A rising piston
 A rotating shaft
Work is also a form of energy transferred like heat and, therefore, has energy units such as kJ.
The work done during a process between states 1 and 2 is denoted by W12, or simply W. The
work done per unit mass of a system is denoted by w and is expressed as

W
w (kJ / kg ) (3.11)
m
The work done per unit time is called power and is denoted by . The unit of power
is kJ/s, or kW.
Heat and work are energy transfer mechanisms between a system and its surroundings, and there
are many similarities between them:
 Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross the boundaries. That is,
both heat and work are boundary phenomena.
 Systems possess energy, but not heat or work.
 Both are associated with a process, not a state. Unlike properties, heat or work has no
meaning at a state.
 Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the path followed during a
process as well as the end states).

Sign convention for energy transported by heat and work

Heat and work are directional quantities, and thus the complete description of a heat or work
interaction requires the specification of both the magnitude and direction. One way of doing that
is to adopt a sign convention. The generally accepted formal sign convention for heat and work
interactions is as follows: heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are positive; heat
transfer from a system and work done on a system are negative. Another way is to use the
subscripts in and out to indicate direction

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Figure 3.5 Specifying the

t directionns of heat and work.

Qin > 0 Heat trannsfer to a sysstem (positivve)

Qout < 0 Heat trannsfer from a system (neggative)

F
Figure 3.6 Process
P from
m stage 1 to 2 Figu
ure 3.7 Proccess from staage 1 to 2

W > 0 work done by the systtem (positive) Figure 3.6

W < 0 work done on the systtem (negativve) Figure 3.7

Path fun
nctions havee inexact diff
fferentials designated
d byy the symbool . Therefoore, a differeential
amount of heat or work is reppresented byy Q or W, respectivvely, insteadd of dQ orr dW.
Propertiees, however, are point functions
fu (i.ee., they depeend on the state
s only, and
a not on how
h a
system reeaches that state),
s and thhey have exaact differentiials designatted by the syymbol d.

A small change
c in vo
olume, for exxample, is reepresented by
b dv, and thee total volum
me change during
d
a processs between staates 1 and 2 is

2
1
dv  v2  v1  v (3.12)

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F
Figure 3.8 Properties
P are point funcctions; but heat
h and worrk are path functions
f
The totall work done during proceess 1–2, how
wever, is
2
1
 W  W12 W )
(not (
(3.13)

That is, the total wo

ork is obtainned by folloowing the process
p pathh and addingg the differeential
amounts of work ( W)
W done alonng the way. The integraal of W is not
n W2 - W1 (i.e., the woork at
state 2 minus
m work at
a state 1), which
w is meanningless sincce work is not
n a propertyy and system
ms do
not posseess work at a state.

3.3 Boundary
B y work
The worrk associated
d with a moving bounddary is called boundaryy work. The expansionn and
compresssion work is often called
c moviing boundaary work or
o simply boundary work.
w
E
Example:- pisston–cylinder device.

F
Figure 3.9 Th
he work assoociated with a moving booundary is called
c bounddary work.
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In this seection, we an
nalyze the moving
m bounndary work for
f a quasieqquilibrium process,
p a proocess
during which
w the system remainss nearly in eqquilibrium at
a all times. A quasi-equiilibrium proccess,
Boundaryy work is do
one by the steeam on the piston
p is calcculated from
m figure 3.10.

Figure 3.10
3 The areea under the process currve on a P-V
V diagram reppresents the boundary work.
w

2
Wb    Wb (3.14)
1

F
 Wb  Fd s  A  PdV
Ads (3.15)
A
2
Wb   PdV (3.16)
1

This inteegral can bee evaluated only if we know the functional

fu reelationship between
b P and
a v
during thhe process.

P= f (V) is simply th
he equation of
o the processs path on a P-V diagram
m. The differential area dA is
equal to PdV. The total area A under thee process curve
c 1–2 iss obtained by adding these
differentiial areas:

2 2
Arrea  A   dA   PdV
V (3.17)
1 1

2
w the aboove ( Wb   PdV ), revveals that thee area undeer the
A compaarison of thiis equation with
1

process curve on a P-v diagraam is equal,, in magnituude, to the work done during a quasi-
q
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equilibriuum expansio
on or comppression proocess of a closed
c system. (On the P-v diagraam, it
representts the boundary work doone per unit mass.)
m

2
Wb   PddV (3.18)
1

Some tyypical pro

ocess
 Boundary
B work
w at constant volu
lume proceess

Figure 3.11 Schemaatic and P-V

V diagram foor constant pressure
p proccess
If the vollume is held constant, =0 and the boundary work
w equation becomes
2
Wb   PdV  0 (3.19)
1

 Boundary
B work
w at constant preessure

Figure 3.122 Schematic and P-v diaagram for constant presssure

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If the prressure is heeld constant the boundaryy work equaation becomees.

2 2
Wb   P
PdV  P  dV
V  P (V2  V1 ) (
(3.20)
1 1

 Boundary
B work
w at constant tem
mperature (Isotherma
( al)

Figurre 3.13 Scheematic and P-V

P diagram
m for a polytrropic processs.
If the tem
mperature off an ideal gass system heldd constant, thhen the equaation of statee provides thhe
pressure volume relaation.

mRT
m
P (3.21)
V

The bounndary work is:

i

2 mRTT
Wb   PdV Buut P  (3.22)
1 V

2 mRT
Wb   dV (3.23)
1 V

L
Let mRT  C  PV

2 dv
Wb  C  (3.24)
1 V

V2
Wb  Cln (3.25)
V1

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Substitute thee value of C

V2 V2
Wb  mRTln
m  PV
1 1 ln (3.25)
V1 V1

V 
Wb  PV
P1 1 ln ln  2  (3.26)
 V1 

 Polytropic
P Process
P
During actual
a expanssion and com
mpression prrocesses of gases,
g pressuure and volum
me are oftenn
related byy PVn = C. where
w n and C are constaants

2
Wb   PdV
V but PVn = C
P
1

2 V  n 1  V1 n 1  PV  PV
Wb   CV  n ddV  C  2   2 2 1 1 (3.27)
1
 n  1  1 n

Since C  PV
1 1  P2V2
n n
V = mRT), thhis equation can also be written
For an iddeal gas (PV w as

mR (T2  T1 )
Wb  n 1 (3.28)
1 n
For the sppecial case of
o n = 1the system
s is isothermal proccess and the boundary work
w becomees
2 2 V2
Wb   PdV   CV  n dV
V  PV ln (3.29)
1 1 V1

Spring Work
When thee length of th
he spring chhanges by a differential
d a
amount dx unnder the influuence of a force
fo
F, the woork done is

Figure 3.14 Elonngation of a spring under the influennce of a forcee.

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2
 Wspriing   Fdx (3.30)
1

But F  kx
1
Wspring  k ( x22  x12 ) (3.31)
2

3.4 Energy
E tra
ansferredd by Masss
Mass flow
w into and out
o of a systeem changes the energy content
c of thhe system. When
W mass enters
e
a controll volume, th
he energy off the controll volume inccrease becauuse the enterring mass caarries
some eneergy with it. Likewise when
w some mass
m leaves the
t control volume,
v the energy contaained
within thhe control vo
olume decreaases becausee some leavinng mass takeeout some ennergy withinn it.

F
Figure 3.14 The
T energy content
c of a control voluume can be changed
c by mass
m flow

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