UNIT III

SOIL-LESS CULTIVATION
Hydroponics, aeroponics, aquaponics: merits and limitations, costs and Challenges,
backyard gardens- tactical gardens- street landscaping- forest gardening, greenhouses,
urban beekeeping

Hydroponics
• Hydroponics is a technique of growing plants in nutrient solutions with or
without the use of an inert medium such as gravel, vermiculite, rock wool, peat
moss, saw dust, coir dust, coconut fiber, etc. to provide mechanical support.
• The term Hydroponics was derived from the Greek words hydro’, which means
water, and ponos’, which means labor and literally means water work.
• The word hydroponics was coined by Professor William Gericke in the
early 1930s describe the growing of plants with their roots suspended in water
containing mineral nutrients.
• Most hydroponic systems operate automatically to control the amount of water,
nutrients, and photoperiod based on the requirements of different plants.
• Due to rapid urbanization and industrialization, not only the cultivable land
decreasing but also conventional agricultural practices causing a wide range of
negative impacts on the environment. Modification in growth medium is an
alternative for sustainable production and to conserve fast-depleting land and
available water resources.
• In the present scenario, soilless cultivation might be commenced successfully
and considered as an alternative option for growing healthy food plants, crops,
or vegetables.
• Agriculture without soil includes hydro agriculture (Hydroponics), aqua
agriculture (Aquaponics) and aerobic agriculture (Aeroponics) as well as
substrate culture.
• Among these hydroponics techniques are gaining popularity because of their
efficient management of resources and food production.
• Various commercial and specialty crops can be grown using hydroponics
including leafy vegetables, tomatoes, cucumbers, peppers, strawberries, and
many more.
 HYDROPONIC STRUCTURES AND THEIR OPERATION
• Hydroponic systems are customized and modified according to the recycling
and reuse of nutrient solutions and supporting media.
Commonly used systems are wick, drip, ebb-flow, deep water culture, and nutrient
film technique (NFT)
Wick System
This is the simplest hydroponic system requiring no electricity, pump, or aerator.
• Plants are placed in an absorbent medium like coco coir, vermiculite, or perlite
with a nylon wick running from plant roots into a reservoir of nutrient solution.
• Water or nutrient solution supplied to plants through capillary action. This
system works well for small plants, herbs, and spices but doesn‘t work
effectively it needs a lot of water.

Ebb and Flow system

This is the first commercial hydroponic system that works on the principle of
flood and drain.
Nutrient solution and water from the reservoir are flooded through a water
pump to grow bed until it reaches a certain level and stay there for a certain period so
that it provides nutrients and moisture to plants.
Besides, it is possible to grow different kinds of crops but the problem of root
rot, algae, and mold is very common therefore, some modified system with filtration
unit is required.
Drip system
• The drip hydroponic system is a widely used method among both home and
commercial growers.
• Water or nutrient solution from the reservoir is provided to individual plant
roots in appropriate proportion with the help of a pump.
Plants are usually placed in an absorbent growing medium so that the nutrient
solution drips slowly. Various crops can be grown systematically with more
conservation of water

Deep-water culture system

In deep water culture, the roots of plants are suspended in nutrient-rich water,
and air is provided directly to the roots by an air stone.
The Hydroponics buckets system is a classical example of this system.Plants
are placed in net pots and roots are suspended in a nutrient solution where they grow
quickly in a large mass.
 • It is mandatory to monitor the oxygen and nutrient concentrations, salinity, and
pH as algae and molds can grow rapidly in the reservoir.
• This system works well for larger plants that produce fruits especially
Cucumbers and tomatoes, grow well in this system.
Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) system
NFT was developed in the mid-1960s in England by Dr. Alen Cooper to overcome the
shortcomings of the ebb and flow system. In this system, water or a nutrient solution
circulates throughout the entire system; and enters the growth tray via a water pump
without a time control

The system is slightly slanted so that nutrient solution runs through roots and
down back into a reservoir. Plants are placed in a channel or tube with roots dangling
in a hydroponic solution.
However, roots are susceptible to fungal infection because they are constantly
immersed in water or nutrients. In this system, many leafy greens can easily be grown
and commercially most widely used for lettuce production.
BENEFITS OF HYDROPONICS
• Recently hydroponic technique is become popular because this is a clean and
relatively easy method and there is no chance of soil-borne disease,
insect or pest infection to the crops thereby reducing or eliminating the use of
pesticides and their resulting toxicity.
• Besides, plants require less growing time as compared to crop grown in field
and the growth of plants is faster as there is no mechanical hindrance to the
roots and the entire nutrients are readily available for plants.
• This technique is very useful for the area where environmental stress (cold,
heat, dessert, etc.) is a major problem.
• Crops in hydroponic systems are not influenced by climate change therefore,
can be cultivated year-round and considered as an off-season.
• Further, commercial hydroponic systems are automatically operated and
expected to reduce labor and several traditional agricultural practices can be
eliminated, such as weeding, spraying, watering, and tilling.
• Hydroponics saves large amounts of water as irrigation and other kind of
sprays are not needed and water logging never occurs.
• The problem of pests and diseases can be controlled easily while weed is
practically non-existent.
• Higher yields can be obtained since the number of plants per unit is higher
compared to conventional agriculture.
LIMITATIONS OF HYDROPONICS
• Technical knowledge and higher initial cost are fundamental requirements
for commercial-scale cultivation.
• Plants in a hydroponics system share the exact same nutrients, and water-
borne diseases can easily spread from one plant to another.
• Hot weather and limited oxygenation may limit production and can result in
the loss of crops.
• Maintenance of pH, EC, and proper concentration of the nutrient solution
is of prime importance.
• Finally, light and energy supply are required to run the system under the
protected structure.
AEROPONICS
• With the increasing population growth the demand for more food and more
land to grow food is ever-increasing.As the world population continues to
grow, the rising demand for agricultural production is significant.
• Prime agricultural land can be scarce and expensive.
• Aeroponics is a technological leap forward from traditional hydroponics.
• Aeroponics-farming are also needed due to the many drawbacks of the
traditional field farming system.
• Some of the drawbacks of the traditional farming system are long time to
harvest hence being sold for more expensive prices to earn back the time.
• Another factor is soil used in traditional systems, the decomposition of organic
materials takes up long time. There is a high risk of getting soil disease.
Pesticides are used, which is harmful to health.
• Whereas, in a developing country like India, it is very important to use
resources like water, sunlight, soil, and money very efficiently.
HISTORY
• Aeroponic research began in the 1920s and progressed steadily as a soilless
growing method.
• In the early 1940s, the technology was largely used as a research tool rather
than an economically feasible method of crop production.
• W. Carter in 1942 was the first to research air culture growing and described a
method of using water vapor at the plant's roots to deliver nutrients to facilitate
examination of roots.
• In 1944, L.J. Klotz was the first to discover vapor-misted citrus plants in
facilitated research of his studies of diseases of citrus and avocado roots.
• In 1952, G.F. Trowel grew apple trees in a spray culture.
• The first commercial aeroponics setup was the Genesis Rooting System,
commonly called the Genesis Machine, by GTi in 1983.
• The device was controlled by a microchip and simply connected to an electrical
outlet and a water faucet.
• During the 1990s, NASA carried out a series of tests in space and on earth
growing biomass with no soil and very little water and this method proved to
be very productive.
• NASA research has shown that aeroponically grown plants have an 80 per cent
increase in dry weight biomass (essential minerals) compared to
hydroponically grown plants.
• Aeroponic techniques have been given special attention from NASA since a
mist is easier to handle than a liquid in a zero-gravity environment.
Aeroponics
• Aeroponics is an alternative for people with limited space to grow plants.
• An aeroponic system is defined as an enclosed air and water/nutrient ecosystem
that fosters rapid plant growth with little water and direct sun and without soil
or media.
• It is an effective and efficient way of growing plants for it requires little water
(requires 95 percent less water than traditional farming methods) and needs
minimal space than even the most efficient system hydroponic system.
• Aeroponic biopharming is used to grow pharmaceutical medicine inside the
plants.
• Using aeroponics for cloning improves root growth, survival rate, growth rate,
and maturation time.
TYPES OF AEROPONICS
a.Low-pressure Units:
In most of the low-pressure aeroponic gardens, the roots of the plant are
suspended above a reservoir of nutrient solution or a channel that is inside and
connected to a reservoir.
The nutrient solution is delivered by a low-pressure pump through jets or by
ultrasonic transducers, which drip or drain the nutrients back into the reservoir.
When plants grow to maturity, then the units suffer from dry sections of the
root systems and thus adequate nutrient uptake is avoided.
These types of units lack features to purify the nutrient solution and remove
debris and unwanted pathogens because of cost.
These units are usually suitable for benchtop growing. It is also used for the
demonstration of principles of aeroponics.
b. High-pressure Devices:
In high-pressure aeroponic devices, mist is created by high-pressure pump(s). It
is generally used in the cultivation of high-value crops. This method includes
technologies for air and water purification, nutrient sterilization, low-mass
polymers, and pressurized nutrient delivery systems.
c. Commercial System:
The commercial system has high-pressure device hardware and biological
systems. An enhancement for extended plant life and crop maturation is included
in the biological systems

Working:
• The aeroponic system is an endless process in a confined space and therefore it
cuts down agricultural labor.
• Aeroponics is based on the possibility of cultivating vegetables whose roots are
not inserted in a substratum (the case with hydroponics) or soil, but in
containers filled with flowing plant nutrition.
• The basic principle of aeroponic growing is to grow plants suspended in a
closed or semi-closed environment by spraying the plant‘s dangling roots and
lower stem with an atomized or sprayed, nutrient-rich water solution.
• The setup for aeroponic includes a proper monitoring and control system for
water and nutrient distribution for utilizing the aeroponic cultivation at its best.
• A distribution system of pipes, spray nozzles, a pump, and a timer to distribute
the spray from a nutrient solution storage tank is required. It uses a small
internal micro jet spray that sprays the roots with a fine, high-pressure mis
containing nutrient-rich solutions from the nutrient reservoir as a fine mist in
the rooting chamber.
• There is a programmable cyclic timer that is used to trigger the high-pressure
aeroponic pump to go on. Nutrients are mixed in with water in a reservoir
basin, this is then filtered and pumped into a pressurized holding tank that is
intermittently misted onto the root system.
• Developed root hairs help in absorbing nutrients from the moisture. It is also
easier to administer all sorts of nutrients to the plant, via the root system.
• Since the spray particles are small in size, there is negligible wastage of
nutrient solution. And with an ample amount of oxygen supply, root rot is
completely avoided.
• The misting is usually done every few minutes around the hanged roots. The
system is normally turned on for only a few seconds every 2-3 minutes.
Because the roots are exposed to the air, the roots will dry out rapidly if the
misting cycles are interrupted.
 • A timer controls the nutrient pump much like other types of hydroponic
systems, except the aeroponics system needs a short cycle timer that runs the
pump for a few seconds every couple of minutes.
• However, the chamber must be lightless materials from everywhere, so that the
roots are in darkness functionally good also to inhibit algal growth that impedes
the growing plants and pollutes the system.
• The droplet size of a nutrient mist is a crucial element in aeroponics. An
oversized droplet may reduce the oxygen supply.
• An undersized droplet may stimulate root hair growth which prevents lateral
root growth which influences the efficiency of an aeroponic system.
• The water droplets must be big enough to carry the nutrients to the roots in
sufficient quantity, but small enough to not immediately precipitate out of the
root mass.
• Unused solution drips down into the base of the unit is strained, filtered, and
pumped back into the reservoir.
An Aeroponics system is that of easy monitoring of nutrients and pH. In
aeroponics, there is minimal contact between the support structure and the
plant, due to which the unconstrained growth of the plant is possible.
DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF AEROPONICS:
Nutrients used in aeroponics: Mainly N-NH4 (0.54 g/L), N-NO3 (0.35 g/L), P(0.40
g/L), K (0.35 g/L), Ca (0.17 g/L), Mg(0.08 g/L), Na(0.04 g/L), Fe (0.09 g/L), Zn (0.03
g/L) and B(0.03g/L) are commercially being used in most of the crops.
Water used in aeroponics: Water to be used in aeroponics should have a low Electric
Conductivity(EC), not exceeding one mS/cm. Water pH is also a useful indicator.
Water sources with a pH of over eight are questionable for aeroponics. It is useful to
have a water chemical analysis; even if EC and pH measures fall to acceptable levels.
The other problem we may have to face is water biological contamination. Water from
deep wells is usually not contaminated. Water from superficial wells, especially near
urban areas, is likely to be contaminated with coli form bacteria, including the Pecto
bacterium. Water from suspicious sources should have a microbiological analysis.
Special filters can minimize this risk. If available, water should be filtered before
going into the nutrient tank. Boiling is also another alternative if no other is available.
The plant material used in aeroponics: Optimum plant material should be used for
aeroponics. In vitro, plants are preferred because of sanitary reasons. However, they
need to be handled with proper care by experienced technicians.
These plants should be of the appropriate age and size and should go through a
thorough acclimatization period before going into the greenhouse.
The presence of any kind of symptom should be a sufficient reason to discard the
whole batch of plants. This should be noticeable when transplanting into the boxes.
The underground part of the tissue coming from the sand trays should be completely
clean and sand-free.
Before placing into aeroponics, plants should be managed in a clean greenhouse
environment.
SOME OF THE KEY BENEFITS OF AEROPONICS:
• Round the year cultivation: Since plants are grown in a controlled
environment crops can be grown year-round without being dependent on the
weather or atmosphere conditions outside.
• Fast plant growth: Plants grow fast because their roots have access to a lot of
oxygen.
• Easy system maintenance: In aeroponics, maintain is the root chamber (the
container housing the roots) which needs regular disinfecting, and periodically,
the reservoir and irrigation channels.
• Less need for nutrients and water: Aeroponic plants need less nutrients and
water on average, because the nutrient absorption rate is higher, and plants
usually respond to aeroponic systems by growing even more roots.
• Mobility: Plants, even whole nurseries, can be moved around without too
much effort, as all that is required is moving the plants from one collar to
another.
• Requires little space and high yield: Aeroponic systems can be stacked up in
layers to build vertical farms that take up much less space than traditional
farming methods
• Great educational value: Plants and root growth study in laboratories is easier
for students and researchers
• Proper root growth: In this system, plant roots have proper space to grow
well. So they don‘t stretch or wilt
• No transplantation shock: Plants can be shifted to any growing media system
without any transplantation shock after root development.
• Easier fruit harvest: Fruits produced from the system are easier to harvest
• Disease-free produce: Due to clean and sterile growing conditions, plant
diseases and infections are reduced to a great extent.
• Production at moon stations: Using this technique, fruits can be grown at
zero gravity i.e. at moon stations.
• Potentially healthier and nutritious plants can be grown at homes; indoors or at
rooftops.
• Nurseries can propagate seeds and cuttings into healthy, harvestable plants in a
fraction of the time of traditional methods.
• Aeroponics systems can reduce water usage by 98 percent, fertilizer usage by
60 percent, and pesticide usage by 100 percent, all while maximizing crop
yields
• Power loss for a small period does not cause any damage to plants.
Drawbacks of aeroponics technology
Every system has its drawbacks, and aeroponics is no exception
• Dependence on the system: A typical aeroponics system is made up of high-
pressure pumps, sprinklers, and timers. If any of these break down, your plants
can be damaged or killed easily.
• Technical knowledge required: Initially some training is required for system
maintenance. You need a certain level of competency in running an aeroponic
system. Knowledge of nutrient amounts required by your plant is essential
because you don‘t have any soil to absorb excess/wrong nutrients supplied.
• Sanitary conditions of the root chamber: The root chamber must not be
contaminated, or else diseases may strike the roots. Therefore, you need to
disinfect the root chamber every so often. Hydrogen peroxide is often used as a
disinfectant.
• High cost: Most aeroponic systems are not exactly cheap. Aeroponic systems
may cost many hundreds of dollars each.
• Power loss: For a long period, power loss may cause irreversible damage.
 AQUAPONICS
• Aquaponics is an integrated fish and plant production technology, essentially
comprising two sub-systems, viz., ‗Aquaculture‘ and ‗Hydroponics‘.
• The underlying principle is to efficiently utilize water to produce two crops
rather than one and to partition and share nutrient resources between fish and
plants.
• This farming system is commonly used in resource-limited and urban areas to
raise both fish and vegetables in an integrated system.
• Aquaponics involves the culture of horticulture plants along with fishes. Many
plants are suitable for aquaponics systems, though which ones work for a
specific system depends on the maturity and stocking density of the fish.
• Green leafy vegetables with low to medium nutrient requirements are well
adapted to aquaponics systems, including capsicum, tomatoes, lettuce, cabbage,
lettuce, basil, spinach, chives, herbs, and watercress.
• It is a Recirculation Culture System, wherein fish are fed with quality floating
pellet feed, and waste generated from fish is pumped into bio-filter troughs
having horticulture plants, the flow rate of water is to be adjusted with the help
of the timer.
• The fishes and plants grown in the aquaponics system are organic.
What is Aquaponics?
• Aquaponics is a method of growing food that combines aquaculture (the
practice of raising fish) and hydroponic (a soilless way of growing plants).
Through the combination of these two growing methods, aquaponics offers a
way to grow food that is resource-efficient, environmentally friendly, and
yields high-quality produce.
Historical Background of Aquaponics
• Aquaponics is not a modern invention; its roots can be traced back to ancient
civilizations.
• One of the earliest known examples comes from the Aztecs, who developed
chinampas, a system of floating gardens that combined fish farming and crop
cultivation.
• In Southeast Asia, rice paddies were often stocked with fish, creating a natural
aquaponics system.
• Modern aquaponics, however, began to take shape in the 1970s when
researchers started experimenting with combining aquaculture and hydroponics
to create more sustainable food production systems.
• Today, aquaponics is practiced worldwide, from small-scale home gardens to
large commercial farms.
How Aquaponics Combines Aquaculture and Hydroponics?
• In a traditional aquaculture system, fish waste accumulates in the water which
creates a toxic environment for the fish if not properly managed. On the other
hand, hydroponics relies on chemical nutrients to feed plants, which can be
costly and require precise management. Aquaponics addresses the challenges
of both systems by using the waste produced by fish as a natural fertilizer for
the plants. Here‘s how it works:
1. Fish Waste as Fertilizer: Fish produce waste, primarily in the form of
ammonia, which accumulates in the water.
2. Bacteria Conversion: Beneficial bacteria in the system convert ammonia into
nitrites and then into nitrates, a form of nitrogen that plants can absorb.
3. Plant Uptake: Plants take up the nitrates through their roots, using them as
essential nutrients for growth.
4. Clean Water: As plants absorb the nitrates, they help to purify the water, which
is then recirculated back to the fish tanks, creating a continuous, self-sustaining
loop.
This symbiotic relationship between fish and plants ensures that both can grow in a
healthy and balanced environment, reducing the need for external inputs like
chemical fertilizers or frequent water changes.
• The Symbiotic Relationship between Fish, Plants, and Bacteria.
• In an aquaponics system, the relationship between fish, plants, and bacteria is
mutually beneficial, creating a balanced and sustainable ecosystem:
• Fish: The fish provide the necessary waste that initiates the nitrogen cycle.
Their health and well-being are vital, as they are the primary source of nutrients
for the plants.
• Plants: Plants act as natural bio filters, absorbing nitrates and other nutrients
from the water, which supports their growth and development. This uptake
helps to maintain water quality and clarity, benefiting the fish.
• Bacteria: Beneficial bacteria are the unsung heroes of the system, facilitating
the crucial process of nitrification. Without these bacteria, the ammonia
produced by the fish would accumulate to toxic levels, endangering both the
fish and plants.
The Benefits of Aquaponics:
• Here are some benefits of aquaponics.
• Sustainability: Aquaponics uses less water than traditional growing methods
and doesn't rely on harmful chemicals or pesticides to produce fresh and
healthy fish harvests, fruits, herbs, and vegetables.
• High Yield: Aquaponics can produce a high yield of fish and plants in a small
space all year round (if done in an indoor setup). Plants grow faster in
aquaponics systems because of their constant access to nutrient-rich water.
• Fresh, Nutritious Produce: Aquaponics systems can grow a variety of fresh
produce that is high in nutrients and free from harmful chemicals. Because the
plants grown in aquaponics are free from fertilizers and other chemicals.
• Water Conservation: Aquaponics is an eco-friendly method of growing food.
It uses up to 90% less water than traditional agriculture because the water is
recycled through the system.
• Reduced Chemical Usage: In the aquaponic realm, fish waste and beneficial
bacteria become the nutritional backbone of plant growth. It's a natural cycle
that sidesteps the need for harmful chemicals or fertilizers.
• Year-Round Gardening: Aquaponics allows you to cultivate produce all year,
regardless of weather conditions. This uninterrupted growing season means a
constant supply of fresh, homegrown goodness.
• Space Efficiency: Aquaponics become your gardening solution if space is a
problem. Its vertical growing potential and compact footprint make it a space-
efficient marvel. You can stack layers of growth, maximizing yield in even the
tiniest of spaces.
 • Cost Savings: Aquaponics cuts down on ongoing costs by eliminating the need
for traditional fertilizers and minimizing water usage. Plus, the potential for a
consistent harvest means fewer trips to the grocery store.
• Sustainable Food Production: In a world striving for sustainable food
sources, aquaponics reduces the strain on conventional agriculture, conserves
resources, and fosters a harmonious coexistence between food production and
the environment.
Planning of Aquaponics system
1. Personal Considerations
Choose an aquaponics system that you want to implement. You can choose between
media-based systems, raft systems, NFT systems, or a combination of these systems.
2. Environmental Considerations
A. Humidity: In an aquaponics system, the water flow is constant, so you must
consider your space's natural evaporation and increased moisture.
B. Water Spillage: Your fish tank or aquarium can leak. Therefore, the area where you
want to create your system is an area that can get wet.
C. Lighting: Plants need light to grow. All plants require sunlight for photosynthesis,
which converts light, oxygen, and water into carbohydrates (energy). Plants need this
energy to produce, bear fruit, and bloom.
Sunlight is the best source of light for plants in an aquaponics system. But with
an indoor aquaponics system, you need to use grow lights to supplement the light
requirements of your plants. Artificial lighting needs to be considered and carefully
selected because plants absorb wavelengths at either end of the light spectrum, which
we cannot see.
3. Location and Space Considerations
• Here are some key considerations when choosing a location for your
aquaponics system.
• Access to natural light: Plants require enough light to grow, so choose a
location where natural light or sunshine is accessible.
• Temperature: Choose a location where the temperature can easily be
regulated. Consider installing a heater or air conditioner to maintain a
consistent temperature.
• Water source and drainage: An aquaponics system requires a constant water
supply, so choose a location near a reliable water source. Also, ensure that the
location has adequate drainage to prevent water from accumulating around the
system.
 • Electrical outlet: The aquaponics system requires an electrical outlet to power
the water and air pumps. So choose a location near an outlet or consider using
an extension cord to reach a nearby outlet.
Ventilation: Proper ventilation is vital to prevent the buildup of humidity and to
ensure that there is adequate airflow for the plants and

Types of Aquaponics Systems

1. Media-Based Systems
• In media-based, plants are grown in a bed filled with a growing medium such
as gravel, clay pebbles, or lava rock.
• The media provides support for the plants and acts as a biofilter, hosting
beneficial bacteria that convert fish waste into nutrients.
• Water from the fish tank is pumped through the grow bed, where it is filtered
by the media before returning to the tank. Media-based systems are simple to
set up and ideal for beginners.
Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) Systems
• NFT systems involve growing plants in channels where a thin film of nutrient-
rich water flows over the roots.
• The water is pumped from the fish tank into the channels and then flows back
into the tank.
• This method ensures that plant roots receive a constant supply of nutrients and
oxygen.
• NFT systems are efficient and suitable for growing leafy greens and herbs but
may require more precise monitoring of water flow and nutrient levels.

Raft System
• Also knows as Deep Water Culture (DWC). In this system plants are grown on
floating rafts with their roots submerged directly in nutrient-rich water.
• The water is continuously circulated between the fish tank and the plant raft,
ensuring a steady supply of nutrients and oxygen.
 • Raft systems are highly productive and can support a wide variety of plants,
making them popular for both home and commercial use.
• Understanding these different types of aquaponics systems can help you choose
the best one for your needs, whether you‘re looking to start a small home
garden or a larger scale farm.

Hybrid Aquaponics System

• A hybrid aquaponics system combines multiple types of aquaponics systems.
Most commercial aquaponics use a hybrid system because of its efficiency and
great use of space. One example of a hybrid system is a combination of raft and
media based systems.

Components of an Aquaponics System

Aquaponics comprises several key components that work in harmony to create a
thriving ecosystem. Let's take a closer look at these components:
• Fish tank - The fish tank provides a home for the fish, so it is important to
choose a fish tank that is made of sturdy and safe material, like food-grade
plastic or glass. The number and type of fish you plan to raise and the size of
your system should determine your fish tank‘s size.
 • Grow bed - The grow bed is where your plants will grow. Ensure that your
grow bed is durable and made of non-toxic materials. The size of your grow
bed should be based on the size of your fish tank and the number and type of
plants you plan to grow.

• Water pump - The pump is responsible for circulating water from the fish tank
to the grow bed. Select a water pump with a flow rate that can support the
needs of your plants.

Air pump - An air pump is used to oxygenate the water in the fish tank.
• Tubing and fittings -Tubing and fittings connect the various components, such
as the water pump, air pump, and grow bed.

• Plumbing: This is the intricate network of pipes and tubes that connect
everything. Plumbing ensures the smooth flow of water from one component to
another, ensuring every part of the system gets its fair share.

• Grow media - Grow media provides a surface for beneficial bacteria to grow.
Common grow media include gravel and expanded clay pellets.
• Aerator and Air Stones - Are used in the fish tank and media beds. Fish need
oxygen. Aeration systems infuse the water with oxygen, keeping your fish
happy and healthy.

• Grow Lights - Optional. This is mainly used in indoor systems.

• Heater - Optional. Using a water heater will depend on your location, fish
species, and target water temperature.

• Monitoring System - A monitoring system is optional equipment that depends

on your budget and how you want to manage your system.
• Timers and Controllers - are mainly used for lighting, pumping, and
temperature control.
The other materials you will need are the following:
Water Quality Test Kit
Cycling Kit
Fish Food
Fish Care Products
Gardening Supplies (gloves, pruning shears, sprayer, etc.)
Seeds and Seed Starting Supplies.
Fish in Aquaponics
Fish are integral to aquaponics, and choosing the right species is essential for
the success of the whole system.
Factors to Consider When Choosing Fish: Before you dive into the
mesmerizing world of fish, consider a few factors to ensure they thrive in your
aquaponics system:
• Water Temperature: Fish, like us, prefer certain water temperatures. It's
crucial to select fish species that match the climate you can provide. Some fish
enjoy warmer waters, while others prefer cooler environments.
• pH Levels: Just as plants have pH preferences, fish do too. Maintaining a pH
range that suits both your chosen fish and plants is vital for harmonious
coexistence.
• Growth Rate: Different fish species grow at different speeds. Some are rapid
growers, while others take their time. Choosing species with similar growth
rates can help maintain balance in your system.
 Popular Fish Choices for aquaponics Systems:
• Tilapia: Tilapia is a warm-water fish popular for aquaponics enthusiasts. They
grow rapidly, reproduce readily, and are known for their hardiness. Their mild
taste also makes them a culinary favorite.
• Catfish: Their efficient scavenging habits help keep your system clean. They
tolerate a range of conditions and thrive in warmer waters.
• Trout: If you are in cooler climes, trout might be your fish of choice. They
require cooler water temperatures and offer a delicious reward for your efforts.
• Koi and Goldfish: These ornamental fish are not just pleasing to the eye; they
also contribute to the system's nutrient cycle. Just remember, they are not for
the dinner plate!
• Perch: Known for their adaptability, perch are a resilient choice for aquaponics
beginners. They are easy to care for and provide a tasty treat as they grow.
• Barramundi: These tropical fish are favored for their rapid growth and
culinary appeal. They adapt well to aquaponics systems and can be a rewarding
choice.
Plants in Aquaponics
• When you're growing plants in an aquaponics setup, a few key considerations
come into play:
• Plant Spacing: Just like a well-orchestrated performance, plants need their
space to shine. Proper spacing ensures they receive adequate light, air, and
nutrients without competing with each other.
• Light Requirements: Plants need light for photosynthesis. Understanding the
light preferences of your chosen plants helps you position them for optimal
growth.
• Nutrient Intake: Plants in aquaponics feast on the nutrients released by the
fish and nurtured by beneficial bacteria. Finding the right balance of these
nutrients is essential to ensure your plants thrive.
• Common Plant Choices for Aquaponics Systems: You can grow almost all
plants in aquaponics, depending on your system.
The Best Plants for Aquaponics
Here are some of the best plants to grow in aquaponics systems:
1. Leafy Greens:
• Lettuce: Fast growing and easy to care for, lettuce thrives in aquaponics
systems.
• Spinach: Another excellent choice, spinach grows quickly and requires
minimal maintenance.
• Kale: Hardy and nutritious, kale is well suited for aquaponics.
2. Herbs:
• Basil: Basil is popular in aquaponics due to its fast growth and high market
value.
• Mint: Hardy and easy to grow, mint can be invasive, so monitor its spread.
• Cilantro: Thrives in cooler temperatures and grows well in aquaponics
systems.
3. Fruit-bearing Plants:
• Tomatoes: Tomatoes require more nutrients and support but yield high-value
crops.
• Peppers: Similar to tomatoes, peppers need ample nutrients and support
structures.
• Strawberries: Strawberries grow well in aquaponics and produce delicious
fruit.
Backyard Gardening
Backyard gardening is the growing of crops in limited space around the home
to provide food for the household.
Home-grown vegetables are:
• fresher
• healthier
• more nutritious
• less expensive
What are the benefits?

• Produces low-cost food

• Produces food year-round
 Saves money
 Engender‘s physical and mental health
 Enhances the aesthetics of your home
Vegetables can be divided into the following types:
• Leaf vegetables, grown for their green leaves, such as spinach, lettuce, and
cabbage.
• Fruit vegetables, grown for their fleshy fruits, such as tomatoes, eggplant,
and sweet pepper
 • Seed vegetables, grown for their dried seeds, such as groundnuts, string
beans, pigeon peas
• Root vegetables, grown for their fleshy roots or lower stems, such as carrots,
cassava, sweet potatoes, and yams.
• Miscellaneous vegetables, such as cauliflower, asparagus, onions
Two Methods of Backyard Farming:
• Open Field Gardening
• Container Gardening

OP• Open Field Gardening

Steps to Open-Field Gardening
Step 1: Site Layout
Select a location: Observe your surroundings during different times of the day and select the best
area where there is at least 6 hours of sunshine. A well-drained soil and not too shallow area will be
ideal. G
Step 2: Land preparation
(It is advisable to get your soil tested for nutrient levels and organic matter content.
This can be done at the Government Laboratory.)
1. Clear the area of any debris or unwanted material
2. Composted livestock manure can be incorporated to improve the nutrient quality,
organic matter level, and water-holding capacity of the soil.
3. Caution must however be observed when using chicken manure.
4. The use of uncomposted chicken manure must be avoided to prevent the spread of
certain pathogens. It must be composted for at least 120 days to prevent the spread of
diseases as well as the destruction of certain diseases.
• Make 1-2ft drains to separate the beds.
• The height of the bed should be approximately 10 inches from the level of the drain.
• Width of beds 3ft- 5ft,1ft-2ft and 3ft- 5ft
Step 3: Planting
Three methods of planting:
1. Direct Seeding
2. Transplant seedling
3. Plant cuttings
Direct Seeding: First, read the directions on the seed package to determine the expiry
date. If the seeds are new, then the germination rate should be high. If seeds are old it
may be best to increase the number per hole to guarantee adequate germination.

Transplanting: To transplant, dig a hole in the soil slightly larger than the cell of the
tray in which the seedling is growing. Carefully remove the seedlings from the tray, it
helps to turn the plant upside down and apply gentle pressure to the bottom and the
plant ball will slide out.
Place the plant in the hole and cover to the first leave.
Plant Cuttings
Sweet Potato: Selection of vine cutting: Tip cuttings of 8-10 inches long should be
insect and disease-free.

Cassava stems cutting: - sticks/pieces 8 – 10 inches long should be cleanly cut from
the middle of the mature plants which are diseased-. free. Younger material tends to
be soft and susceptible to dehydration and soil-borne pathogens.
Step 4: Water
Seedlings should never dry out, so irrigate daily while they are small. Taper off as the
plants get larger.
New transplants also need frequent watering, until their roots become established.
How often you need to water depends on your soil, temperature, and how often it
rains. Water slowly and deeply, so the water soaks in instead of running off into the
street/drain.
To minimize evaporation, water in the early morning or late in the evening. Instead of
running off into the street/drain.
To minimize evaporation, water

in the early morning or late in the

evening. To minimize evaporation, water
in the early morning or late in the
evening.
Step 5: Weed Management
Controlling weeds in your gardening should be ongoing, hand picking, the use of the
hand fork, and mulches should give adequate control. Only use herbicides in difficult
situations.
Mulch To Keep weeds out and water in, cover the soil with a couple of inches
of mulch. Types of mulches are, hay, plastic, coconut/coir.

Step 6: Pest/Disease Management: In controlling pests in a garden always, take into

account its proximity to the family living quarters, hence excessive use of chemicals
should be avoided as much as possible. Natural methods like garden hygiene & crop
rotation should be encouraged.
Ants: Flood ant nest with boiling water, and spray insecticidal soap.
Worms: Handpick or use insecticidal soap. Cover the plant with netting or use row
covers.
Slug and snails: Hunt at night and place in salt water.
Natural Controls: Neem oil, pepper sprayers, sticky traps, soaps.
Container gardening
Steps to container gardening:
Step 1: Choose an area
Choose an area where there is at least 6-8 hours of sunlight and not close to dripping
roofs.
Select containers that were not previously used for harsh chemicals and are not
biodegradable. Type of containers that can be used: Drums, blocks, tires, pots, cans,
plastic containers, and growing bags.
Holes must be punched in the bottom of all containers to allow excess water to drain.
Roots allowed to stay in water are more susceptible to disease and may rot.
Step 3: Preparation of Soil Mix
• One (1) part of topsoil
• One (1) part builder‘s sand
• One (1) part well-rotted pen manure (cow, horse, sheep)
• Fill the container, additional soil mix may be needed after the first planting.

Recommended media depth:

4-6 inches: salad greens, garlic, radish, basil, cilantro, thyme, mint, and marjoram.
8-12 inches: beans, beets, carrots, chard, cabbage, pepper, eggplant, tomato, squash,
rosemary, parsley, lavender, and fennel.
Please avoid containers with harsh chemicals, biodegradable or containers that
release toxins.
Step 4: Planting
Transplant seedlings into damp or moist soils, place seedlings in small holes, and
cover them. Observe spacing requirements.
NB: In container gardening, it is preferable to use seedlings instead of seeds.

Step 5: Watering
Check the soil for moisture, irrigate only when necessary. Do not flood the containers
with water

Step 6: Weed Management

Handpick to remove any weeds.
NB: There is no need for herbicides in container gardening.

Step7: Pest/Disease Management: Use information from open-field gardening

Tips
•Foliar feeding is a method of fertilizing through a plant‘s leaves. This type of
fertilization will give you more vegetables with higher nutrition and better flavour.
•Use compost and organic mulches to improve your soils. Having good soil is key
to successful backyard gardening.
•Harvest rainwater to irrigate your plants.
•Monitor/check your plants especially early in the morning for insects.
•Keep small notes and pictures of your crops to share with the Extension officer if
required.
•Wind breaks help to protect your plants and improve production.
Understanding 3 essential elements during the crop‘s life cycle will ensure your
crops have the right nutrients at each stage of development.
Nitrogen – promotes leafy growth.
Phosphorus – promotes root growth.
Potassium – promotes fruiting and flowering.

Hints on natural pest control for your garden

With the concern for human health and the physical environment, effective sprays can
be prepared from a mixture of different insecticidal plants.
Chilli Pepper mixture
Hot pepper is said to give good control of aphids, flies, ants, and caterpillars. To
prepare the pesticide one should boil about half a kilogram (one pound) of pepper in
about 3 liters (1 gallon) of water for about 15 minutes. Add 30 grams of soap and stir,
add another 3 liters of water, cool, and strain.
Neem
Grind leaves, dilute with water, and strain, this mixture is said to be effective against
caterpillars and weevils.
Marigold
Marigold is said to be effective against blight, mildew, and fungal diseases. They also
are believed to repel aphids, caterpillar flies, and nematodes. When preparing this
pesticide large quantities of flowers and leaves should be soaked in water and left for
5 to 7 days. The mixture should be stirred often so that the material breaks down
evenly. When the material has decayed it should be diluted with an equal amount of
water and some soap added.
Wood Ash
Wood ash is reputed to control cutworms, slugs, and snails. Fresh ash from any wood
can be used. Ash should be sprinkled around seedlings as soon as they sprout to
control cutworms.
Flour
A spray made from two cups of fine white flour, well stirred into 5 to 10 litres of
water is said to be very effective against mites and aphids. The mixture should be
applied in the morning, as the heat of the sun increases, the mixture dries out and the
insects become encrusted where they shrivel and die. The flour will fall from the
leaves or be washed off by rain or irrigation water.
Growing Seedlings:
• Choose an area
Locate an area which provides 8-12 hours of sunlight and is not windy
• Selecting a container
Any container can be used provided its depth is 2-3 inches. It's best to use trays that
are specially designed/made for seedling.

Purchase potting Mix

Choose a potting mix that is made for growing seedlings. Do not use soil from your
garden or re-use potting mix
• Filling container
Fill the container with soil mix to within half an inch of the top of the container. Press
gently to remove any air pockets.
• Planting
Read the label for the expiry date and germination percentage. Place the seed in the
center of the soil in the tray cell and cover with soil. Cover the seed tray with dry
grass and remove
at germination.

• Watering: Keep soil moist but not soggy, use a watering can. Keep a record of the
planting date.
 Tactical gardens
Tactical gardens, also known as "guerrilla gardens" or "survival gardens," are
designed with specific purposes such as providing food security, enhancing
urban spaces, or even for use in survival scenarios.
1. Purpose and Planning
-Food Security: Tactical gardens are often created to ensure a reliable food
supply, particularly in times of crisis or scarcity.
- Space Utilization: They are designed to maximize the use of available space,
often incorporating vertical gardening, container gardening, or small plots.
- Accessibility: These gardens should be easily accessible to those who tend to
them, with a focus on efficiency and productivity.
-Sustainability: The garden should be sustainable, with practices that reduce
the need for external inputs like water or fertilizers.
2. Location and Design
- Urban Spaces: Tactical gardens are often located in urban or suburban areas
where space is limited, such as rooftops, balconies, or small backyards.
- Stealth and Discretion: In some cases, tactical gardens are designed to be
less noticeable, blending in with the environment to avoid detection.
- Resilience: The design should consider the local climate, potential threats
(like pests or theft), and the need for minimal maintenance.
3. Plant Selection
- Nutrient-Dense Crops: Focus on plants that offer high nutritional value, such
as leafy greens, root vegetables, and legumes.
- Companion Planting: Use companion planting to enhance growth, deter
pests, and improve soil health.
- Perennials vs. Annuals: Incorporate a mix of perennials for long-term yields
and annuals for quick harvests.
- Medicinal Plants: Include plants with medicinal properties for first aid and
health benefits.
4. Water Management
- Rainwater Harvesting: Set up systems to collect and store rainwater, which
can be crucial in urban environments.
 - Irrigation Systems: Use efficient irrigation methods, such as drip irrigation
or wicking beds, to conserve water.
- Drought-Resistant Plants: Choose plants that require less water, especially if
the garden is in an area prone to drought.
5. Soil Management
- Composting: Create compost to enrich the soil with nutrients and improve its
structure.
-Mulching: Use mulch to retain moisture, suppress weeds, and regulate soil
temperature.
- Soil Testing: Regularly test soil pH and nutrient levels to maintain optimal
growing conditions.
6. Security and Sustainability
- Fencing and Protection: Depending on the location, consider fencing or
other protective measures to safeguard the garden from theft.
-Crop Rotation: Implement crop rotation to maintain soil health and prevent
the buildup of pests and diseases.
- Seed Saving: Practice seed saving to ensure a continuous supply of crops
and reduce dependence on external sources.
7. Community and Collaboration
- Shared Gardens: Collaborate with neighbors or community groups to share
resources and knowledge.
- Workshops and Education: Conduct workshops to educate others on tactical
gardening techniques.
- Bartering(exchanging) and Sharing: Use the garden's yield to barter or share
with others, fostering a sense of community and mutual aid.
8. Harvesting and Storage
- Preservation Techniques: Learn and apply food preservation methods like
canning, drying, and fermenting to extend the shelf life of your harvest.
- Staggered Planting: Plan staggered planting to ensure a continuous harvest
throughout the growing season.
- Storage Solutions: Set up proper storage for harvested produce to keep it
fresh and usable for as long as possible.
9. Adaptation and Flexibility
- Climate Adaptation: Be prepared to adapt the gardening practices to
changing weather patterns or climate conditions.
- Scalability: Design the garden so it can be easily expanded or downsized
based on needs and circumstances.
- Resourcefulness: Use available resources creatively, repurposing materials
and finding innovative solutions to challenges.

Tactical gardens are not just about growing food; they are about creating
resilient, sustainable, and adaptable systems that can support individuals and
communities in a variety of situations.
 Street landscaping
It is a type of urban farming including grass, landscaping, street trees, and
vegetation that grow in streets in a society. Also, this landscaping makes the streets
look beautiful and provides food to the society or area. In addition, it creates a cleaner
environment and purifies the air as they are grown on roads, which helps reduce urban
stormwater runoff.
Street landscaping involves the design and arrangement of plants, trees,
and other natural elements along streets and urban areas to enhance the
aesthetic, environmental, and functional value of public spaces. Effective street
landscaping can improve air quality, provide shade, reduce urban heat, and
create more inviting and attractive environments for pedestrians and residents.

Key Elements of Street Landscaping

1. Tree Planting
- Shade and Cooling: Trees provide shade, reduce the heat island effect,
and cool the surrounding area, making streets more comfortable for pedestrians.
- Species Selection: Choose species that are appropriate for the local
climate, soil, and urban conditions. Drought-resistant, native, and low-
maintenance species are often preferred.
 - Spacing and Placement: Proper spacing is essential to allow trees to
grow without interfering with overhead power lines, buildings, or sidewalks.
Trees should be placed to frame views, define street edges, and create a
rhythmic pattern.
2. Shrubs and Ground Cover
- Layering: Use shrubs and ground cover plants to create layers of
vegetation that add visual interest and texture. These layers can soften the hard
edges of pavement and buildings.
- Low-Maintenance Choices: Select plants that require minimal care
and are resilient to urban conditions, including pollution and limited water
availability.
- Edging and Borders: Shrubs and ground covers can be used to define
walkways, separate pedestrian areas from traffic, and enhance the boundaries of
green spaces.
3. Flower Beds and Seasonal Plantings
- Color and Visual Appeal: Incorporate flower beds with seasonal
plantings to add color and variety throughout the year. This can be particularly
effective in high-traffic areas.
- Pollinator-Friendly Plants: Choose flowers that attract pollinators like
bees and butterflies, contributing to urban biodiversity.
- Planters: Use planters to introduce greenery in areas with limited
ground space, such as sidewalks, plazas, and commercial districts.
4. Hardscape Elements
- Paving Materials: Integrate permeable paving materials that allow
rainwater to filter through, reducing runoff and supporting the health of nearby
plants.
- Benches and Seating: Provide comfortable, shaded seating areas that
encourage people to linger and enjoy the landscape.
- Lighting: Incorporate street lighting that highlights landscaping
features and improves safety while enhancing the street‘s nighttime ambiance.
 5. Sustainable Practices
- Rain Gardens and Bioswales: Use rain gardens and bioswales to
manage stormwater runoff, filter pollutants, and create habitats for wildlife.
- Irrigation Systems: Install efficient irrigation systems, such as drip
irrigation, to conserve water and ensure plants thrive.
- Recycling and Composting: Encourage the use of recycled materials
in landscape design and promote composting of organic waste to enrich soil.
6. Pedestrian and Community Spaces
- Sidewalks and Pathways: Design wide, well-lit sidewalks with ample
greenery to encourage walking and improve pedestrian safety.
- Pocket Parks and Green Spaces: Develop small parks or green spaces
along streets to offer residents a place to relax, play, and connect with nature.
- Public Art and Signage: Integrate public art, sculptures, and signage
that complement the landscaping and reflect the community‘s character.
7. Environmental Benefits
- Air Quality Improvement: Trees and plants filter pollutants and
produce oxygen, improving urban air quality.
-Biodiversity: Street landscaping can create habitats for birds, insects,
and other wildlife, promoting biodiversity in urban areas.
- Climate Resilience: Well-designed landscapes help cities adapt to
climate change by mitigating heat, managing stormwater, and reducing energy
consumption.
8. Maintenance and Longevity
- Regular Care: Establish a maintenance plan that includes watering,
pruning, mulching, and pest control to keep the landscape healthy and attractive.
- Community Involvement: Engage local residents and businesses in the
care and upkeep of street landscaping, fostering a sense of ownership and pride.
- Durability: Select plants and materials that can withstand the
challenges of an urban environment, including foot traffic, pollution, and
limited space.
Benefits of Street Landscaping
- Improved Aesthetics: Enhances the visual appeal of streets, making
them more attractive to residents, businesses, and visitors.
- Increased Property Values: Well-landscaped streets can raise the value
of nearby properties.
- Enhanced Well-being: Green streets contribute to mental health and
well-being by providing spaces for relaxation and reducing stress.
- Social Interaction: Landscaped streets and green spaces encourage
community interaction and social cohesion.
 Forest Gardening
A Forest Garden is a multi-layered, integrated agricultural system that
combines diverse plants and animals into one area to sustainably produce a variety of
products and environmental services. It is an agricultural system designed to resemble
a forest ecosystem, which is one of the most productive systems on Earth. Forest
Gardens maximize the use of both horizontal and vertical space and can be tailored to
nearly all agroecological zones.
Forest Garden designs incorporate a wide variety of edible plants along with
those that provide both timber and non-timber forest products in combinations that
maximize beneficial interactions and minimize negative effects on each other and the
system as a whole. Forest Gardening is a practice that incorporates technologies and
concepts from both agroforestry and permaculture. Though designs differ dramatically
depending on the location and production goals, Forest Gardens incorporate a wide
variety of perennial plants that will continue to grow year after year requiring minimal
maintenance. Properly managed, it produces fruits and vegetables of higher quality
and nutritive value than those produced through monocultures. The innate diversity of
Forest Gardens protects crops from devastating pests and disease outbreaks. They also
act as a buffer against deforestation by providing an alternative source for goods and
services that people would otherwise collect from natural forests. When fully
established, a Forest Garden is also temporally optimized to provide a harvest nearly
every day of the year.
Food production for consumption and sale is commonly the primary objective of
Forest Gardens, but other products may include fuelwood, fiber, fodder, fertilizer,
dyes, ornamental/artisan goods, and medicinal plants.
Major Characteristics of the Forest Garden
• It allows people to sustainably meet their needs and produce a marketable surplus,
by making maximum use of the land
• It incorporates the symbiotic relationships among plants, animals, and microbes
• It avoids the risk of economic dependence on one or a very few crops
• It provides a continual supply of food and other crops
• It harnesses natural biological fertilizers and pest controls.
Key Concepts
These key concepts will provide the basis for understanding the more detailed
characteristics that follow this section. Forest Garden
• Maximize spatial dimensions of the area planted, evenly distributing plants and
efficiently using horizontal and vertical space.
• Maximize utilization of space by ensuring systems, technologies, and species are
selected and designed to serve multiple functions wherever possible.
• Take into consideration temporal planning, through staggered planting and
harvesting of selected species to provide products to consume and sell consistently
throughout the year.
• Are designed following the natural patterns of the plants and site throughout the
year, taking into account important factors such as soils and climatic conditions,
production timing of selected plants, and the movement of wind, water, and sunlight
across the site.
• Utilize a large variety of plants that often serve multiple purposes, with each plant
type forming a specific layer of the Forest Garden. • Utilize natural fertilizers and pest
control through the conscientious design of plant species‘ relative locations and
attributes. Nutrient management takes place through understanding plant interactions
with the soil and other plants. Composting is used whenever possible.

Benefits of the Forest Garden

Forest Gardens are an important source of diverse and nutritious foods, especially for
poor, rural families, and thus are important contributors to the food security and
livelihoods of farming communities.
• Forest Gardens provide a safety net for households when food is scarce. These
gardens are not only important sources of food, fodder, fuel, medicines, spices, herbs,
flowers, construction materials, and income, but they are also important for the in situ
conservation of a wide range of unique genetic resources for food and agriculture.
• As Forest Gardens incorporate lots of perennials with deep root systems, they are far
less vulnerable to destruction from environmental shocks and stresses such as
droughts, floods, landslides, etc. than are similar sites planted with annual crops. This
makes Forest Garden families less vulnerable and more resilient.
• Mixing of different compatible species is commonly practiced to maximize spatial
(intensive use of ground and vertical space) and temporal (staggered planting and
harvesting) dimensions of the Forest Gardens.
• The plant diversity in Forest Gardens is characterized predominantly by
multipurpose plants in various vegetation layers, allowing for good utilization of
necessary elements like water, nutrients, and sunlight.
• The plant diversity in Forest Gardens serves to enrich the local biological diversity.
These systems also do not depend on expensive or fossil fuel-based inputs such as
chemical fertilizers, fuel-powered machinery, or pesticides.
 • The diversified food products provide a substantial portion of the nutritive and
energy requirements of the local diet. Moreover, the species diversity and varying
production cycles of the different components ensure continuous production
throughout the year from the Forest Garden.
• Forest Gardens are considered a shady place to relax and socialize. They provide
respite from the hot sun and provide a safe and a safe environment for children to
play.

Forest Gardens Compared with Other Cropping Systems

The following are some of the economic, social, and/or cultural foundations of Forest
Gardening in comparison with other cropping systems under similar situations:
• Lower input and labor requirements once matured – suitable for resource-poor and
small-holder farming situations.
• Better utilization of resources, greater efficiency of labor, even distribution of labor
inputs, and more efficient management.
• Diversified range of products from a given area, and increased value of outputs
• Increased self-sufficiency and reduced vulnerability to climatic, biological, or
market impacts on particular crops or products.
• Higher income with increased stability, greater equity, and improved standards of
living.
• Better use of under-utilized land, labor, or capital, while creating capital stocks—
increased resilience—to meet intermittent costs or unforeseen shocks or stresses.
• Enhanced food security and an ability to meet the food, fuel, fodder, and timber
requirements of the family.
• Increased fulfillment of social and cultural needs through sharing or exchange of
produce and recreational opportunities.
• Better preservation of indigenous knowledge.

Forest Gardens and Multipurpose Plants

Most plants provide multiple benefits and, as such, we aim to take advantage of as
many of those benefits as possible to maximize the productivity and sustainability of
Forest Gardens. Wherever possible we select plants in a Forest Garden to take
advantage of their multiple uses, providing useful food or forest products as well as
environmental services. For example, an agroforestry tree may be included that
reduces wind, controls erosion, and fixes nitrogen into the soil. The same tree can also
be coppiced for fuelwood and fodder, or the leaves and stems can be used as mulch or
mixed into the soil to increase fertility and moisture retention. Some examples of
different roles that plants can serve are:
• Edible and medicinal plants (roots, shoots, leaves, fruit, seed, etc.)
• Woody plants (typically trees and shrubs that provide timber, poles, and fuelwood)
• Companion plants (plants that have an overall benefit to one another)
• Insectary and nectary plants (beneficial insects depend on these plants for food,
shelter, reproduction, etc.)
• Aromatic Pest Confusers (also called ‗Repellers‘) (plants that confuse and repel pest
insects with strong odors e.g. onions, garlic)
• Wildlife plants (birds and other animals rely on the food and habitat these plants
provide)
• Nitrogen fixing plants (relationship between N fixing bacteria or fungi and plant
roots creating free nitrogen to improve growth rates)
• Dynamic accumulator plants (mineral miners collect nutrients = free nutrients)
• Bulbs and large rooted plants (soil structure diversity, ability to absorb/mine
minerals
• Ground cover plants (protects the soil, conserves water, and creates healthy soil-
level habitat)
• Fertility and mulch plants (free nutrients and green mulch for seasonal chop and
drop practices)
• Animal forage and fodder plants (reduce outsourcing of food for animals and
livestock such as cattle, goats, sheep, and chickens)
Structure of Forest Gardens
Forest Gardens are strategically designed to cultivate plants that fill space both
horizontally (across the ground) and vertically (from belowground to the top of trees‘
canopies). The combination of trees and other plants in a layered canopy configuration
is the most obvious characteristic of all Forest Gardens. The tight space within Forest
Gardens results in intimate plant associations.
Use of Vertical Space
In general terms, all Forest Gardens consist of an herbaceous layer near the ground, a
tree layer at upper levels, and multiple intermediate layers. The lower layer can
usually be partitioned into three, with the lowermost producing below-ground, root
products, the next (less than 1 m height) dominated by different vegetable and
medicinal plants, and the third (1-3 m height) composed of herbaceous semi-lignified
food crops such as cassava, banana, papaya, and yam.
The intermediate layer of 3-10 m in height is dominated by various fruiting and/or
nitrogen-fixing shrubs, some of which would continue to grow taller. The upper tree
layer can also be divided in two, consisting of emergent, fully grown timber and fruit
trees occupying the uppermost layer, over 25 m in height, while medium-sized fruit
trees of 10-20 m occupy the space just below that. This layered structure is never
static; the pool of replacement species results in a productive structure that is always
dynamic while the overall structure and function of the system are maintained. An
example of a vertical arrangement is presented in Figure 1.

Forest Garden Layers

Forest gardens make efficient use of vertical space, both above ground and below
ground. This means that when deciding where to place specific plants, the root
structure and soil characteristics are taken into consideration along with the branching
structure and height of the plants. Looking more closely, Forest Gardens can be
divided into seven distinct layers (also called strata or zones), though not every layer
necessarily needs to be present. Each layer typically provides specific functions,
products, or environmental services. See Photo 1 below.
1. Canopy plants – which can be fruit or nut trees, timber species, or pioneer species
that grow quickly and produce shade;
2. Sub canopy plants – lower plants utilizing shade of the canopy plants, including
coffee plants or small fruiting plants such as papaya and banana;
3. Shrub plants – large bushes or tall annual crops;
4. Herbaceous plants – often edible and medicinal plants;
 5. Vining or climbing plants – plants that climb their way up sub canopy and canopy
plants;
6. Groundcover plants – shade and fertilize the soil, conserving moisture, adding
nitrogen and organic matter, and preventing soil erosion.
7. Underground or rooted plants – become nutrient pumps for the surrounding soil
enhancing its fertility, and also often include root vegetables such as potatoes, carrots,
tubers, onions, etc.

Use of Horizontal Space

Horizontally, looking down from above, Forest Gardens usually follow regular,
distorted, randomized, or patchy distribution of plants inside the plots; in many cases,
plant distribution in Forest Gardens is a combination of these patterns. Families could
adopt any of those patterns according to their objectives and resources. See Figure 2
and Photo 2 below for examples.
Forest Gardens make efficient use of space through the intensive cultivation of various
types of plants around each other in ways that utilize symbiotic relationships between
species of plants as well as animals. The biophysical characteristics or requirements of
plants need to be taken into consideration when planning (i.e. light and water
requirements, soil preferences, nutrient demands, and interactions with other plants).
The first training event in TREES‘ Forest Garden Approach teaches participants to
create maps of their sites to begin designing their Forest Gardens with these
considerations in mind.

• Vegetation patterning – Plants pattern themselves naturally in a forest in ways that

can help regulate insect populations. Forest Garden design looks to mimic these
patterns to produce natural insect populations that are beneficial to plant growth.
• Plant diversity – Having a large diversity of plant species included in the design will
help with creating small plant communities of species that grow well together and
maximize the use of space in their growth patterns both structurally, but also in
regards to what time of year they need to use the most nutrients to produce fruits, nuts,
leaves or roots.
• Soil horizons – An understanding of the soil horizons and how they change over the
area being used for the Forest Garden is essential. Soil samples should be taken from
various locations to better plan where plants will be placed.
• Guilds – Creating guilds is an important practice in Forest Gardening. A guild is an
association of plants that have common characteristics or habits that grow well
together. It is similar to companion planting. Certain plants secrete liquids from their
roots into the soil, help certain bacteria to form in the soil that provides beneficial
results to the plants growing near them, or attract pest predators or repel pests that
affect nearby plants.
 GREEN HOUSES

A greenhouse is a structure made of transparent or

translucent materials, such as glass or plastic, that allows sunlight
to enter and warm the interior, creating a controlled environment for
plant growth.

Types of Greenhouses:
1. Traditional/Glass Greenhouse
2. Plastic/Poly Tunnel Greenhouse
3. Hoop House Greenhouse
4. Geodesic Dome Greenhouse
5. Mini/Small Greenhouse
6. Cold Frame Greenhouse
7. Passive Solar Greenhouse

Traditional/Classic Greenhouses

1. Glass Greenhouse: Made with glass panes and a wooden or

metal frame.
2. Victorian Greenhouse: Ornate, curved glass design.

Modern/Contemporary Greenhouses

1. Polycarbonate Greenhouse: Uses durable, impact-resistant

polycarbonate panels.
2. Polyethylene Greenhouse: Utilizes polyethylene film or panels.
3. PVC Greenhouse: Made with PVC pipes and covering.

*Specialized Greenhouses*

1. Hoop House Greenhouse: Simple, tunnel-shaped structure.

2. Geodesic Dome Greenhouse: Energy-efficient, dome-shaped
design.
3. Cold Frame Greenhouse: Unheated, used for seasonal
extension.
4. Mini/Small Greenhouse: Compact, ideal for urban spaces.
5. Passive Solar Greenhouse: Designed to maximize natural
sunlight.

*High-Tech Greenhouses*

1. Hydroponic Greenhouse: For soilless cultivation.

2. Aquaponic Greenhouse: Combines hydroponics and aquaculture.
3. Biome Greenhouse: Advanced, controlled-environment
agriculture.
4. Smart Greenhouse: Integrated technology for automation and
monitoring.

*Components of a Greenhouse:*

1. Frame (wood, metal, or PVC)

2. Glazing (glass, polycarbonate, or polyethylene)
3. Ventilation system
4. Heating and cooling systems
5. Irrigation system
6. Shading materials (e.g., shade cloth)
7. Benches and shelving

*Greenhouse Design Considerations:*

1. Orientation (south-facing for maximum sunlight)

2. Size and layout
3. Insulation and glazing
4. Ventilation and cooling systems
5. Lighting (natural and supplemental)
6. Irrigation and drainage
7. Accessibility and maintenance
I. Site Selection and Orientation*

1. South-facing orientation (maximizes sunlight)

2. Level ground or gentle slope
3. Avoid shading from nearby structures or trees
4. Access to water and electricity
5. Consider wind direction and drainage

II. Size and Layout*

1. Determine purpose (vegetables, flowers, etc.)

2. Calculate space requirements
3. Consider width, length, and height
4. Plan for aisles and pathways
5. Incorporate storage and work areas

*III. Insulation and Glazing*

1. Glazing materials (glass, polycarbonate, polyethylene)

2. Insulation types (fiberglass, foam board, reflective)
3. Window size and placement
4. Door design and placement
5. Ventilation and shading systems

*IV. Climate Control*

1. Heating systems (gas, electric, solar)

2. Cooling systems (ventilation, shading, evaporative)
3. Temperature control systems
4. Humidity management systems
5. Automation and monitoring systems

*V. Lighting*

1. Natural light optimization

2. Supplemental lighting (LED, fluorescent, HID)
3. Lighting schedules and automation
4. Consider photoperiodism and light spectrum

*VI. Irrigation and Drainage*

1. Water source and quality

2. Irrigation systems (drip, sprinkler, mist)
3. Drainage systems (gutters, downspouts, floor drains)
4. Water conservation strategies
5. Fertilization and nutrient management

*VII. Ventilation and Air Circulation*

1. Ventilation systems (windows, vents, fans)

2. Air circulation patterns
3. Cooling tower or evaporative cooling
4. Air exchange rates and CO2 supplementation

*VIII. Pest and Disease Management*

1. Screening and mesh size

2. Sanitation and disinfection protocols
3. Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies
4. Biological control methods
5. Quarantine areas

*IX. Accessibility and Maintenance*

1. Door width and accessibility

2. Pathway materials and width
3. Benches and shelving design
4. Cleaning and maintenance access
5. Safety features (emergency exits, etc.)

*X. Budget and Sustainability*

1. Initial investment and operating costs

2. Energy efficiency and renewable energy
3. Water conservation and recycling
4. Material selection and durability
5. Long-term maintenance and upgrade plans

*Benefits of Greenhouses:*

1. Extended growing season

2. Climate control
3. Increased crop yields
4. Protection from pests and diseases
5. Improved plant quality
6. Year-round production
7. Energy efficiency

*Greenhouse Crops:*

1. Vegetables (tomatoes, cucumbers, peppers)

2. Fruits (strawberries, grapes, citrus)
3. Flowers (roses, carnations, orchids)
4. Herbs (basil, mint, rosemary)
5. Microgreens
6. Seedlings and transplants

*Greenhouse Maintenance:*

1. Temperature control
2. Humidity management
3. Pest and disease management
4. Pruning and training plants
5. Cleaning and disinfecting
6. Regular inspections

*Daily:*

1. Temperature monitoring
2. Humidity checks
3. Watering and irrigation management
4. Pest and disease inspection
5. Ventilation and shading adjustments
6. Cleaning (remove debris, wipe down surfaces)

*Weekly:*

1. Inspect greenhouse structure (frame, glazing, etc.)

2. Check irrigation systems (leaks, clogs, etc.)
3. Monitor CO2 levels and adjust as needed
4. Prune and train plants
5. Clean and disinfect tools and equipment
6. Review climate control systems

*Monthly:*

1. Clean glazing and windows

2. Inspect and replace worn-out seals and gaskets
3. Check electrical systems (wiring, outlets, etc.)
4. Test irrigation water quality
5. Monitor for pests and diseases (take action if necessary)
6. Rotate crops and reorganize layout

*Quarterly:*

1. Perform thorough cleaning (walls, floors, etc.)

2. Inspect and repair/replace ventilation systems
3. Check heating and cooling systems
4. Test greenhouse climate control systems
5. Update records and maintenance logs

*Annually:*

1. Inspect and replace glazing materials (if necessary)

2. Paint or recoat greenhouse frame
3. Replace worn-out doors and hardware
4. Upgrade or replace climate control systems (if necessary)
5. Perform thorough pest and disease management

*Seasonal:*

1. Spring: Prepare for new crops, clean and disinfect greenhouse

2. Summer: Monitor temperature, humidity, and ventilation
3. Fall: Clean up debris, prepare for winter crops
4. Winter: Insulate, monitor temperature, and adjust climate control

*Additional Tips:*

1. Keep a maintenance log

2. Schedule regular inspections
3. Train staff or volunteers on maintenance procedures
4. Budget for repairs and replacements
5. Consider automation and monitoring systems

*Greenhouse Maintenance Tools:*

1. Thermometer and hygrometer

2. Irrigation test kit
3. Pruning tools
4. Cleaning supplies
5. Ladders and step stools
6. Safety gear (gloves, goggles, etc.)

*Greenhouse Maintenance Resources:*

1. Online forums and communities

2. Greenhouse manuals and guides
3. Local nurseries and gardening experts
4. Workshops and training sessions
5. Manufacturer support and documentation

Regular maintenance ensures optimal greenhouse performance,

plant health, and efficiency.
*Greenhouse Technology:*

1. Automation systems
2. LED grow lights
3. Hydroponics and aquaponics
4. Climate control systems
5. Solar-powered greenhouses
6. Greenhouse management software
 URBAN BEEKEEPING
Introduction to beekeeping
Honey bees are social insects and live in a community. They work together in a well
organized colony with a well-demarcated ‗division of labor‘. They are engaged in a
variety of activities and share the resources they collect from nature. Beekeeping or
Apiculture (derived from the Latin word, ‗Apis‘ meaning ‗bees‘) is the art and
science of rearing and managing honey bees in a box called ―beehive‖ for the
production of honey and other products like beeswax, propolis, bee venom, etc.
Beekeeping/ Apiculture is an industry, which provides valuable honey, beeswax, and
pollination services for honey bees.
IMPORTANCE OF HONEY BEES
Honey bees visit flowers of plants and collect nectar and pollen from them. Nectar is
collected by bees from the nectaries, which are the glands, located within the flower or
on other portions of the plant (extra-floral nectarines). Bees sometimes collect
‗honeydew‘, a sugary secretion of certain insects which feed on plant sap. Honey
produced from honeydew is dark, strong tasting, and of inferior quality.

Pollen, which is the male reproductive cell body produced by anthers of flowers,
is collected and used by honey bees as their source of protein. promoting the
fertilization in plants, which is known as pollination. Bee places the nectar
and pollen in the cells (small hexagonal divisions) of the honeycomb made of wax,
ripen it to turn it into honey and seal it for storage and future use as food. Bees use
honey as the main source of energy food.
Honeybees are the primary source of pollination for approximately one-fourth of
all crops produced all over the world. Examples of fruit crops that rely on honey bees
are almonds, apples, apricots, avocados, blackberries, blueberries, cantaloupes,
cherries, cranberries, pears, raspberries, strawberries, and watermelons. The seeds of
many vegetables are also produced with honeybee pollination; examples include
alfalfa, asparagus, broccoli, brussels sprouts, cabbage, carrot, clover, cotton,
cucumber, onion, radish, squash, sweet clover, and turnip.
WHO CAN DO BEEKEEPING?
Anyone who has undergone education and training in the rearing and management of
beekeeping can be beekeeping. Beekeeping can be a good source of income for
anyone,
including farmers, house–makers, retired persons, unemployed persons, girls, women,
differently-abled persons and even students. There are three types of beekeepers:
1. Commercial beekeepers: People who are doing beekeeping for production and sale
of honey on a commercial scale,
2. Sideliner: People who are doing beekeeping as a side business,
3. Hobbyists: People who have taken up beekeeping as a hobby.
BENEFITS OF BEEKEEPING
Beekeeping is the secondary source of income. Because of the following reasons you
may
adopt it:
(i) Production of bee hive products: Honey bees are the sole source of honey and
beeswax. The bee hive products namely honey, pollen or bee bread, royal jelly, bee
propolis, bee venom, and beeswax can be produced by beekeepers after the adoption
of
beekeeping for the generation of income and self-employment among rural masses of
the country
(ii) Utilization and harvesting of nectar and pollen of highly nectariferous
plants:
About 30 – 50 kg of honey can be produced and harvested by one hectare highly
nectariferous crop plants occupied areas such as lahi (Brassica campestris var. toria),
mustard, litchi, pigeon pea, sunflower, eucalyptus, canola, ber, jamun, drumstick,
karanj, junglejalibi, mahua, shisam, siris, semal, palas, cucurbits, coriander etc.
The natural floral reward i.e. nectar and pollen may be utilized for the production of
bee hive products as food source otherwise these produce may be wasted in nature.
(iii) Enhancement of yield through bee pollination: If you are associated with
growing
crops in your field, beekeeping may give you dual benefit by enhancing crop
production. The transference of pollen during floral visit is performed by worker
bees and consequently stigma of flowers is pollinated by highly suitable highly
feasible and acceptable pollen grains. Services of bees resulted in enhancement of
yield and improvement of seed quality. About 20-25% yield is increased by bee
pollination as compared to the natural pollination of various crops.
(iv) Apitherapy for the cure of diseases: Bee hive products are used as a medicinal
agent.
These materials such as honey, royal jelly, propolis, and bee venom can cure more
than 50 human diseases. A few are mentioned below –

(a) Honey: The honey consists of antimicrobial substances. It is useful for respiratory
infection and is beneficial against heart diseases. It is also a rapid source of energy.
(b) Royal Jelly: This bee hive product is an anti-tumourous, antimicrobial, and most
nutritious substance, secreted by the young worker bees for feeding of queen and
queen larva. It is used for the treatment of high blood pressure,
arthritis and joint pain.
(v) Generation of income and self-employment as natural agro-based cottage
industry: The potential generation of income per colony per year is about Rs. 3000 –
4000 annually through honey production and the multiplication of bee colonies. Only
two trained manpower are required for the management of an apiary of a hundred bee
colonies.
(vi) Beekeeping does not require farm land. Farmers with small land holdings or even
landless can adopt this and become self-reliant.
(vii) It does not require heavy physical work. Even women and children can adopt it.
(viii)It encourages rural artisans to undertake the job of manufacturing equipment
required for beekeeping.
(ix) It does not require heavy investment. Inputs are very low as raw material for
production of honey is obtained free from nature so output to input ratio is very
high.
(x) It provides a proportionately more immediate return than any other agro-based
profession.
(xi) Beekeeping is a clean and hygienic profession, as it does not require daily feeding
or cleaning of litter.
(xii) Beekeeping business contributes significantly to the national economy.
HONEYBEE PRODUCTS
Certainly, you might have tasted delicious honey many times. But, do you know there
are
other bee products also have many health benefits. Let us know about them:

(i) Honey: Honey is the natural sweet substance produced by honey bees from the
nectar of blossoms, which honey bees collect, transform, and combine with specific
substances of their own, store and leave in the honeycomb to ripen and mature. Bees
normally take about 3-4 weeks for storing, ripening and sealing of honey in comb
cells. The colour of honey varies from nearly colourless to dark brown. It also
indicates quality, because honey becomes darker during storage or if it is heated.
Honey contains a good amount of digestible sugar, minerals, vitamins, enzymes,
water, etc. The aroma, taste, and colour of honey are determined by the plants from
which the bees have gathered nectar. For example, nectar collected from sunflowers
gives a golden yellow honey. Honey absorbs moisture very quickly and should be
kept in air-tight containers.
(ii) Pollen: When bees visit flowers, pollen sticks to the fine feather-like hair which
covers the body. Bees remove the pollen from the hairs using the pollen comb; a
structure on the hind legs. Then she forms the pollen into small pellets with the
pollen press, and sticks it into the pollen basket to carry it back to the hive. Pollen
is stored in cells immediately surrounding the brood nest where it is readily available
for feeding the brood and for consumption by the nurse bees.

(iii) Beeswax: It is a complex mixture of organic compounds secreted by four pairs of

special glands on the worker bee‘s abdomen. It is used for building wax combs.
Beeswax can be secreted only at relatively high temperatures and after a large
intake of honey or nectar. It is produced by 12 to 18 days old honey bees. A bee
converts 15kg of honey into 1 kg of wax. It is used in medicine, confectionery items
cosmetics and polish.
(iv) Royal Jelly: Royal jelly is the food produced by the young worker bees through
glandular secretion. It is given to freshly hatched larvae. Royal jelly has many
different components including proteins, sugars, fats minerals, and vitamins. It
contains many insect growth hormones and is valued as a medicine or tonic in various
parts of the world. It reduces the aging process in human beings. The
beekeepers remove the larvae and harvest the royal jelly for marketing. Royal jelly
deteriorates quickly after harvest and must be kept frozen or freeze-dried during
handling, storage, transport, and marketing.
(v) Propolis: It is a gummy reddish-brown substance gathered by the bees from a
resinous substance found on trees and buds of plants. It is also called ‗bee glue‘ and is
used to close small crevices in the hive. It is very sticky in warm weather and brittle in
cold weather. Bees use propolis as building materials to decrease the size of nest
entrances and to make the surface smooth for passing bee traffic and to varnish
inside brood cells before a queen lays eggs in them, providing a strong, waterproof
and hygienic unit for developing larvae. It is used as an antibiotic and helps in
curing the cracked feet in human beings. It is used as an ingredient in toothpaste,
soaps and ointments.
(vi) Bee Venom: It is present in the sting of honeybees and has medicinal value. Bee
venom is clear, odourless, watery liquid with having somewhat sharp and bitter taste
and hydrolytic blend of proteins with a basic pH. It is produced by venom glands
associated with the sting apparatus of worker bees and used as a defensive agent
against enemies, especially predators. The worker bee injects the venom into the
victim while stinging. A single worker has about 0.5 mg of venom.