China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767

China Geology
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Geological characteristics, metallogenic regularity, and research progress of lithium

deposits in China
Bo Zhanga, b, Fan-yu Qia,*, Xue-zheng Gaoa,*, Xiao-lei Lia, Yun-tao Shanga, Zhao-yu Konga, Li-qiong Jiaa, Jie
Menga, Hui Guoa, Fu-kang Fangc, Yan-bin Liub, Xiao Jiangd, Hui Chaie, Zi Liuf, Xian-tao Yeg,
Guo-dong Wangh
a
Development and Research Center, China Geological Survey, Ministry of Natural Resources, Beijing 100037, China
b
School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
c
China Coal Geology Group Company Limited, Beijing 100040, China
d
China Aero Geophysical Survey and Remote Sensing Center for Natural Resources, Beijing 100083, China
e
China National Geological Exploration Center of Building Materials Industry, Beijing 100035, China
f
Beijing Institute of Geology for Mineral Resources Company Limited, Beijing 100012, China
g
College of Oceanography, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, China
h
School of Resources and Environment, Linyi University, Linyi 276005, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: China is rich in abundant lithium resources characterized by considerable reserves and a concentrated
Received 22 August 2022
distribution of metallogenic zones or belts, with proven reserves of 4046.8×103 t (calculated based on
Received in revised form 9 October 2022
Accepted 12 October 2022 Li2O) by 2021. China is also a big consumer of lithium. By 2019, China ’s lithium consumption in the
Available online 16 October 2022 battery sector alone had reached 99×103 t, with an average annual growth rate of nearly 26%. China has
become the world ’s largest importer of lithium resources, showing a severely unbalanced relationship
Keywords: between supply and demand for lithium resources. Therefore, there is an urgent need for the prospecting,
Lithium deposit
exploitation, and study of lithium resources in China. This study collected, organized, and summarized the
Deposit type
Metallogenic age data on the major lithium deposits in China, analyzed and compared the spatial-temporal distribution
Metallogenic regularity patterns, geological characteristics, and metallogenic regularity of these lithium deposits, and summarized
Metallogenic belt the prospecting and research achievements over the last decade. The major lithium deposits in China are
Mineral exploration
distributed in provinces and regions such as Qinghai, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Tibet, and Xinjiang. These deposits
China
are mostly small in scale. According to different genetic types, this study divided lithium deposits into
granitic pegmatite type, granite type, saline lake brine type, underground brine type, and sedimentary type,
as well as new types including hot spring type and magmatic-hydrothermal type, and summarized the
characteristics and key metallogenic factors of these different types of deposits. Sixteen metallogenic
prospect areas of lithium deposits were delineated according to the deposit types and the distribution
patterns of metallogenic belts. The paper introduced the research progress in major metallogenic models
and lithium extraction techniques made over the past decade. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the
prospecting potential of lithium deposits, the authors concluded that the future prospecting of lithium
resources in China should focus on lithium metallogenic belts, the deep and peripheral areas of currently
determined large-scale pegmatite-type lithium deposits, geophysical-geochemical anomalous areas with
mineralization clues, and areas with developed large-scale low-grade associated granite-type and
sedimentary lithium resources. The study aims to serve as a guide for the future prospecting of lithium
deposits in China.
©2022 China Geology Editorial Office.

First author: E-mail address: [email protected] (Bo Zhang).

1. Introduction
* Corresponding author: E-mail address: [email protected] (Fan-yu Qi); [email protected]
(Xue-zheng Gao).
Lithium, which is an energy metal in the 21st century, is
widely used in fields such as industry, electronics, chemistry,
Literary editor: Li-qiong Jia
doi:10.31035/cg2022054 metallurgy, and aerospace and plays a very important role
2096-5192/© 2022 China Geology Editorial Office. (Zheng MP and Liu XF, 2007; Peng AP, 2012; Xu ZQ et al.,
Copyright © 2022 Editorial Office of China Geology. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC-BY-NC-ND License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767 735

2018; Zhang ZN et al., 2020). China has rich lithium than 500×103 t, and super large deposits refer to those with
resources dominated by two types of lithium deposits, i.e., reserves that are more than 5 times the resource reserves of
saline lake brine type and hard rock type. However, China large deposits (Pei RF et al., 2013). Based on these criteria,
still needs to import a large quantity of lithium resources among the 320 lithium deposits (ore occurrences) in the
dominated by hard rock-type spodumenes because of great statistics of this study, 33 are large and above deposits,
market demand and the limitations of rigorous exploitation including 14 super large deposits (Fig. 1; Table 2).
conditions (Xu ZQ et al., 2018). As a result, China has
become the world ’s largest lithium market and the largest 3. Major types of lithium deposits in China
importer of lithium resources (Zheng LC et al., 2021).
Lithium deposits in China can be divided into endogenous
Therefore, there is an urgent need to improve the development
and exogenous types according to their genetic types (Table 3).
and utilization rates of domestic lithium resources for China
The endogenous deposits mainly refer to hard rock lithium
so that the country can cope with the continuously rising
deposits and can be subdivided into the granitic pegmatite
market prices caused by the monopoly of the international
type, the granite type, the greisen type, and the magmatic-
lithium carbonate market (Wang DH et al., 2017, 2020). This
hydrothermal type. The exogenous deposits mainly refer to
paper summarized the spatial-temporal distribution
brine and sedimentary deposits and can be subdivided into
characteristics, geological characteristics, and metallogenic
saline lake brine type, underground brine type, hot spring
regularity of lithium deposits in China collected discoveries
type, sedimentary type, and clay type (Evans RK, 2012;
and study results of lithium prospecting obtained over the past
Bradley DC et al., 2017). Presently, lithium resources in
decade, and then summarized the metallogenic characteristics
China are concentrated mainly in granite-, granitic pegmatite-,
and regularity of lithium deposits in China. The study will
and saline lake brine-type deposits, while other types of
serve as a reference and basis for the prospecting deployment,
lithium deposits occur only on a small scale (Li JK et al.,
development, and utilization of lithium deposits in China.
2014).
2. Overview of lithium resources in China
3.1. Granitic pegmatite-type lithium deposits
With the continuous development of emerging industries,
Compared with granites, granitic pegmatites have similar
the demand for lithium resources in both international and
rock-forming minerals, but they have coarse crystals and
domestic markets is increasing exponentially, leading to a
severely unbalanced relationship between supply and demand generally show the development of internal minerals and
(Xu ZQ et al., 2018). In 2019, China’s lithium consumption in structural zoning. Černý P (1991; 2005) divided granitic
the battery sector alone reached 99×103 t, making China the pegmatites into LCT type (rich in Li-Cs-Ta), NYF type (rich
world ’s largest lithium consumer (Zheng LC et al., 2021). in Nb-Y-F), and mixed LCT+NYF type. LCT pegmatites
According to the data issued by the United States Geological represent the components of granitic melts that are highly
Survey (USGS) in 2022, by the end of 2021, China had differentiated and crystallized late (Selway JB et al., 2005).
5100×103 t of proven lithium resources, accounting for only Granitic pegmatites of this type are rich in rare metal elements
5.7% of the world ’s total lithium resources, which was such as Li, Cs, and Ta and serve as an important source of
approximately 89×106 t. With these members, China ranked lithium (Barros R, 2017; London D, 2018; Zhang, H et al.,
sixth. 2021). Granitic pegmatites are widely developed in the
According to the statistics of China Mineral Resources tectonic cycles of the convergent orogeny of global plates
2019 prepared by the Ministry of Natural Resources of the (Tkachev AV, 2011; McCauley A and Bradley DC, 2014).
People ’s Republic of China, in 2018, China had reserves of The granitic pegmatite-type lithium deposits in China are
lithium resources of 10.92×106 t, potential hard rock lithium mainly distributed in the Altay metallogenic belt, the
resources of 8.78×106 t (spodumenes), and potential brine Songpan-Ganzi metallogenic belt, and the metallogenic belt
lithium resources of 92.5×106 t (LiCl), as calculated based on on the northern margin of the Qaidam Basin, and they
Li2O. By 2021, China had proven lithium reserves of 4046.8× Table 1. Distribution of proven lithium reserves in China (by
103 t (calculated based on Li2O; Table 1; Statistics of National 2021, calculated based on Li2O).
Mineral Resource Reserves in 2021 issued by the Ministry of
Rank Region Reserves/103 t
Natural Resources). Brine lithium was determined to be
1 Qinghai 1904.8
mainly distributed in Qinghai and Tibet, while hard rock
2 Sichuan 1178.0
lithium was mainly found to be distributed in provinces and 3 Tibet 571.9
regions including Jiangxi, Sichuan, and Xinjiang. According 4 Jiangxi 374.2
to incomplete statistics, more than 300 lithium deposits (ore 5 Henan 11.6
occurrences) have been discovered in China. According to the 6 Xinjiang 6.3
Criteria for Dividing Reserves Scales of Mineral Resources Nationwide 4046.8
(GTZF [2000] No. 133), large mineral deposits refer to Note: Data source: Statistics of National Mineral Resource Reserves in 2021
deposits with Li2O reserves that are more than 100×103 t or (https://www.mnr.gov.cn/sj/sjfw/kc_19263/kczycltjb/202208/t20220826_27
saline lake-type lithium deposits with LiCl reserves greater 57756.html).
736 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767

II I I

IV II
III

VIII VI

X IX VII
XII
XI

XII
XIV Chiwei Yu
XV Diaoyu Dao
Size Super
Large Medium Small
Ore Taibei
Type Large occurrence
Granitic
pegmatite type XVI

XVI
Granite type XVII
Hydrothermal
type X
Salt Lake

I
brine type

XVI
Under ground
brine type
Sed imentary
type N
Clay type 0 300 km XVI
Hot spring type XVII

First order fault and the

Continental block Main suture zone Thrust fault
boundary of tectonic-strata superregion
Orogenic belt Subduction zone Strike slip fault Second order fault

Fig. 1. Distribution sketch of lithium deposits in China (the base map after Li YC et al., 2018). I–Altay–Xingmeng; II–Ertix–Xar Moron;
III –Tianshan –Junggar –Beishan; IV –South Tianshan; V –Tarim; VI –North China; VII –Kuangping –Foziling; VIII –Qin-ling –Qilian –Kunlun;
IX–Qiangtang–Sanjiang; X–Bangonghu–Shuanghu–Nujiang–Changning–Menglian; XI–Gangdise; XII–Yarlung–Tsang-po; XIII–Himalaya–In-
dia; XIV–Yangtze; XV–Jiangshao–Chenzhou–Qinfang; XVI–Cathaysian; XVII–Taitung–South China Sea.

Table 2. Characteristics of major lithium deposits in China.

Deposit/orefield Genetic type Main ore minerals Metallogenic age Resources and ore grade References
name
Koktokay Granitic pegmatite Spodumenes Zircon U-Pb age: Cumulative proven resources of Li2O: Sun WL et al., 2021;
type Montebrasites 218 ± 2 Ma 24.51×106 t; Li2O grade: 1.00%‒1.38% Lin YQ et al., 2011;
(halt production) Du XF et al., 2020
Dahongliutan Granitic pegmatite Spodumenes, Columbite U-Pb Li2O resources: 87.7×106 t; Li2O grade: Yan QH et al., 2016;
type Lithian muscovites age: 211.9 ± 2.4 0.40%‒2.05% (maximum: 2.56%) Tan KB, 2021;
Montebrasites Ma; Lin YP, 2022
Cassiterite U-Pb
age: 218 ± 12 Ma
Kalaka Granitic pegmatite Spodumenes Indosinian Li2O resources: 90.6 × 103 t; Li2O grade: Tan KB, 2021
type Montebrasites 0.454%‒1.505%
Lithian muscovites
South Fulugou Granitic pegmatite Spodumenes Indosinian Predicted resources of Li2O: 665×103 t; Tan KB, 2021;
type Li2O grade: 1.4%‒3.8% (average: 1.9%) Jin MS et al., 2019
Guding Granitic pegmatite Spodumenes Indosinian Li2O resources: 108×103 t Tan KB, 2021
type
Longmenshan Granitic pegmatite Spodumenes Cassiterite U-Pb Li2O resources: 153.3×103 t; Li2O grade: Tang JL et al., 2022;
type age: 211.3 ± 5 Ma 1.11%‒2.24% Tan KB, 2021
Bailongshan Granitic pegmatite Spodumenes Columbite-tantalite Indicated resources of Li2O: more than Wang H et al., 2021
type Lithian muscovites U-Pb age: 208.1 ± 600×103 t; Li2O ore grade: 0.93%‒3.44%
Montebrasites 1.5 Ma
 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767 737

Table 2 (Continued)
Deposit/orefield Genetic type Main ore minerals Metallogenic age Resources and ore grade References
name
Gang No. 509 Granitic pegmatite Spodumenes Muscovite Li2O resources: 238.6 × 103 t Li Y et al., 2022;
40
type Lithian muscovites Ar/39Ar age: Tan KB, 2021
185‒179 Ma
Kalu'an Granitic pegmatite Spodumenes Columbite U-Pb Proven resources of Li2O: 65×103 t; Feng YG et al., 2019;
type age: 228.6‒198.3 Ma resource estimation of Li2O: 100×103 t Shan L et al., 2014
Kukalagai Granitic pegmatite Spodumenes Zircon U-Pb age: Proven resources of Li2O: 20.6×103 t; Ma ZL et al., 2015;
type Lepidolites 211.3 ± 2.4 Ma Lin YQ et al., 2011
Zhawulong Granitic pegmatite Spodumenes Columbite-tantalite Resource estimation of Li2O: 160×103 t; Li P et al., 2019a;
type U-Pb age: 205 ± 2 Li2O grade: 1.2%‒1.5% Yan QG, 2022
Ma
Dechenongba Granitic pegmatite Spodumenes Indosinian Li2O resources: 293.2×103 t; Li2O grade: Gou YD et al., 2014
type 1.18%
Jiajika Granitic pegmatite Spodumenes, Zircon U-Pb age: Li2O resources: 2861.6×103 t; Li2O Hao XF et al., 2015;
type Lepidolites 216 ± 2Ma; grade:1.46%‒1.52% Dai HZ et al., 2019
Columbite-tantalite
U-Pb age: 214 ±
2Ma
Lijiagou Granitic pegmatite Spodumenes, Cassiterite U-Pb Li2O resources: 512×103 t; Li2O grade: Xu JB et al., 2020;
type Lepidolites age: 211.4 ± 3.3 Ma 1.00%‒1.50% Luo W et al., 2021
Guanyinqiao Granitic pegmatite Spodumenes Indosinian Proven Li2O resources: 36.8 × 103 t Zhang Y et al., 2011
type
Keeryin Granitic pegmatite Spodumenes, 206‒204 Ma Li2O resources: 1.64×106 t; Li2O grade: Peng J and Zou L, 2021
type Lepidolites 1.24%
Dangba Granitic pegmatite Spodumenes, Cassiterite U-Pb Li2O resources: 660.8×103 t; Li2O grade: Fei GC et al., 2020
type Lepidolites age: 208.1‒199.3 1.34%
Ma
Chuanziyuan Granitic pegmatite Spodumenes About 140‒130 Ma Predicted resources of Li2O: 28.5×103 t; Li P et al., 2020;
type Li2O grade: 0.49%‒1.44% Huang JZ et al., 2022
Yashan Mine No. Granite type Lepidolites Columbite U-Pb Proven resources of Li2O: 765×103 t; Li2O Che XD et al., 2019;
414 age: 161‒158 Ma grade: 0.044%‒0.100% Yin WQ et al., 2011
Tong’an Dangtian Granite type Zinnwaldites Yanshanian Li2O resources: 404.67×103 t; Li2O grade: Wu XM et al., 2016;
1.00%‒2.00% Liu S et al., 2019
Qiankeng Granite type Lepidolites Lepidolite 40Ar/39Ar Resource estimation of Li2O: More than Nie XL et al., 2022
age: 139.09 ± 0.56 200×103 t; Li2O grade: 0.45%
Ma
Bijiashan Granite type Lepidolites Zircon U-Pb age: Preliminary resource estimation of Xu SQ et al., 2021;
8.09 ± 0.16 Ma associated Li2O: 170×103 t; Li2O grade: Feng J et al., 2021
0.07%‒0.16%
Jianfengling Granite type Lepidolites Columbite U-Pb Proven resources of Li2O: 29.3×103 t Che XD et al., 2019;
age: 157‒156 Ma Qin YJ et al., 2011
Zhengchong deposit Greisenized granite Zinnwaldites Whole-rock Rb-Sr Proven resources of Li2O: 269.1×103 t; Wen CH et al., 2016;
Daoxian type age: 153‒142 Ma accounting for: 0.557% Chen HQ et al., 1985
Tuogaileke Lepidolite Lepidolites Yanshanian Li2O resources: 171.6×103 t; Li2O grade: Zhang H et al., 2022
pegmatite type 1.02%‒1.08%
Weilasituo Cryptoexplosive Lepidolites Zircon U-Pb age: Li2O resources: 357×103 t; Li2O Wang DH et al., 2022
breccia pipe type 138‒132 Ma grade:1.28%
Kushui Saline lake brine − Quaternary LiCl resources: 2777×103 t; Li2O grade: Tan KB, 2021;
type 889 mg/L Tan KB et al., 2016
Longmucuo Saline lake brine − Quaternary LiCl resources: 2169.5×103 t; Li2O grade: Jiang HT and YangS,
type 793.66 mg/L 2011
Chagcam Caka Saline lake brine − Quaternary LiCl resources: 28×103 t; LiCl grade: 807 Gao CL et al., 2020
type mg/L
Zecuo Saline lake brine − Quaternary LiCl resources: 1026.8×103 t; LiCl grade: Li ZD et al., 2020
type 376.02 mg/L
Mamicuo Saline lake brine − Quaternary LiCl resources: 395×103 t; LiCl grade: 91 Gao CL et al., 2020
type mg/L
Baqiancuo Saline lake brine − Quaternary LiCl reserves: 186×103 t; LiCl grade:
type 2153.86 mg/L
Zabuye Saline lake brine − Quaternary LiCl resources: 1530×103 t; LiCl grade: Gao CL et al., 2020
type 632 mg/L
738 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767

Table 2 (Continued)
Deposit/orefield Genetic type Main ore minerals Metallogenic age Resources and ore grade References
name
Laguocuo Saline lake brine − Quaternary Resource estimation of LiCl: 2322×103 t; Dong H, 2019
type LiCl grade: 300 mg/L
Qixiangcuo Saline lake brine − Quaternary LiCl resources: 1076.5×103 t; LiCl grade: Liu CL et al., 2021
type 7400 mg/L
Dangxiongcuo Saline lake brine − Quaternary LiCl resources: 170×103 t; Li grade: 211 Gao CL et al., 2020
type mg/L
Eyacuo Saline lake brine − Quaternary LiCl resources: 870×103 t; LiCl grade: Liu CL et al., 2021
type 1620 mg/L
Gasikule Saline lake brine − Halite 36Cl age: LiCl resources: 153.5×103 t; LiCl grade: Chen AD et al., 2022
type 241.9 ± 55.7 ka BP 24.6‒32.3 mg/L Li JS et al., 2022
Pan T et al., 2022
Dalangtan Saline lake brine − Halite 230Th age: LiCl resources: 26.4×103 t; LiCl grade: Chen AD et al., 2022
type 230.0‒229.0 ka BP 5.9‒25.2 mg/L Li JS et al., 2022
Pan T et al., 2022
Liangzhong Saline lake brine − Quaternary Proven LiCl resources: 108.9×103 t; LiCl Qin GP, 2005
type grade 85.91‒95.98 mg/L
Yiliping Saline lake brine − Halite 230Th age: LiCl resources: 1799.4×103 t; LiCl grade: Chen AD et al., 2022
type 6.2‒2.7 ka BP 210 mg/L Gao CL et al., 2020
Pan T et al., 2022
West Taijinar Saline lake brine − Quaternary LiCl resources: 3068×103 t; LiCl grade: Gao CL et al., 2020
type 220 mg/L Pan T et al., 2022
East Taijinar Saline lake brine − Quaternary LiCl resources: 2939.8×103 t; LiCl grade: Gao CL et al., 2020
type 300 mg/L Pan T et al., 2022
Bieletan Saline lake brine − Quaternary LiCl resources: 126×103 t; LiCl grade: 191 Gao CL et al., 2020
type mg/L
Qarhan Saline lake brine − Halite 230Th age: LiCl resources: 10304.5×103 t; LiCl grade: Chen AD et al., 2022
type 206.7‒182.1 ka BP 15.6‒59.0 mg/L Li JS et al., 2022
Pan T et al., 2022
Da Qaidam Saline lake brine − Quaternary LiCl resources: 418.4×103 t; LiCl grade: Gao CL et al., 2020
type 127 mg/L Pan T et al., 2022
Xijir Ulan Saline lake brine − Quaternary LiCl resources: 165×103 t; LiCl grade: 101 Gao CL et al., 2020
type mg/L
Qianjiang Underground brine − Paleogene LiCl resources: 990×103 t; Li+ mass Yu XC et al., 2022
type concentration: 8.59‒182 mg/L, averaging
68.21 mg/L
Xiaoshiqiao Clay type − Early Permian Proven Li2O (334) resources: 340×103 t; Zhang SJ et al., 2020
Li2O grade: 0.10%‒1.02%
Ningwu coalfield Sedimentary type − Late Carboniferous- Li2O reserves in minable seams: 1041×103 Li HD et al., 2022
Middle Permian t (super large associated lithium deposit); Zhang SJ et al., 2020
average Li2O content: 163.4×10−6
Junggar coalfield Sedimentary type − Carboniferous- Li2O reserves in major minable seams: Zhang SJ et al., 2020
Permian 5157×103 t (super large associated lithium Zhao L et al., 2022
deposit); Li2O content: >0.2% on average
Dazhuyuan Sedimentary paleo- − Early Permian Resource estimation of Li2O (333): Li PG et al., 2014
weathered crust >60×103 t; w(Li): Up to 3521×10−6 Long Z et al., 2021
Maxinggou Sedimentary paleo- − Late Carboniferous Proven resources of Li2O: 23.6×103 t Huang LX et al., 2011
weathered crust

typically include the Koktokay, Jiajika, and Keeryin lithium London D, 2018). Tensional faults are favorable pathways for
deposits. The lithium deposits of this type are characterized magma emplacement (Martínez-Poza AI et al., 2014) and are
by a small scale but high ore grade and few difficulties with prone to form pegmatite veins. Owing to the high buoyancy,
exploitation (Li JK et al., 2014). pegmatite magmas may undergo magmatic stoping and uplift
the overlying rocks to form a solid hat shape (Fig. 2; Tian Y
3.1.1. Koktokay type
The Koktokay-type lithium deposits were formed mainly et al., 2016). Liquid immiscibility, fluid exsolution, and
as a result of the development of granitic pegmatites with metasomatism lead to the enrichment and precipitation of rare
significant structural zoning and tensional faults. Under a high metals and the redistribution of rare metal elements, forming
degree of crystallographic differentiation, granitic magmas are pegmatite veins with significant structural zoning (Zhou QF et
prone to form ore magmas rich in rare metals (Černý P, 1991; al., 2015). Owing to different paragenetic associations,
 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767 739

Table 3. Division scheme for major lithium deposits in China.

Genetic type Classification Secondary genetic type Deposit type Main distribution areas Typical deposits Formation age
Endogenous Hard rock type Granitic pegmatite type Jiajika type Songpan-Ganzi Jiajika, Keeryin Indosinian-Yanshanian
type orogenic belt
Koktokay type Altay orogenic belt Koktokay, Kelumute Hercynian-Yanshanian
Dahongliutan type Altyn Tagh area Dahongliutan Yanshanian
Himalayan type Himalayan area Qiongjiagang, Kuju Himalayan
Granite type Yichun type Southern China Yashan Mine No. 414 Yanshanian
in Jiangxi
Greisen type Zhengchong type Southern China Zhengchong in Hunan Yanshanian
Magmatic Weilasituo type Da Hinggan Mountains Weilasituo Yanshanian
hydrothermal type
Exogenous Brine type Saline lake brine type Qarhan type Qaidam Basin Qarhan Salt Lake, Quaternary
type Taijinar Lake
Zabuye type Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Zabuye Salt Lake Quaternary
Underground brine Zigong type Sichuan Basin, Hubei Dengjingguan Indosinian
type Qianjiang type Qianjiang sag Qianjiang Paleogene
Hot spring type Yangbajing type Southern Qinghai- Yangbajing geothermal Quaternary
Tibet Plateau field, Gudui
geothermal field
Sedimentary Sedimentary type Waguangping type Sichuan-Yunnan- Waguangping Hercynian
type Guizhou area, western
Henan
Clay type − Yunnan-Guizhou area Xiaoshiqiao Hercynian

mainly concentrated in spodumene belts, with an ore grade of

up to 2.57%. The industrial minerals of lithium are dominated
by spodumenes, followed by a small quantity of
amblygonites, lithiophilites, brown lithiophilites, and
lepidolites (Zou TR and Li QC, 2006). The Koktokay-type
lithium deposits mainly include Koktokay No. 3 vein and
Kelumute.

1 8 3.1.2. Jiajika type

2 9 Jiajika-type lithium deposits are formed mainly as a result
3 10 of the development of concealed Indosinian granites and are
4 11 controlled by tectonic-magmatic domes (Fu XF et al., 2015).
5 12
The ore-bearing granitic pegmatite veins have small-scale
6 13
individual veins (Fig. 3; Yu CL et al., 2010), relatively
7
uniform facies, small mineral grain sizes, and no internal
structural zoning (Swanson SE, 2012; Li JK and Chou IM,
2017). They gradually become micro- and fine-grained
granites deeply (Wang DH et al., 2022). The ore bodies of
Jiajika-type lithium deposits are controlled by late tensional
fractures and were formed by multi-phase impulsive filling
and metasomatism (Hao XF et al., 2015; Dai HZ et al., 2019).
A typical Jiajika-type lithium deposit is the pegmatite
Fig. 2. Stereogram of Koktokay No. 3 pegmatite vein (after Zou TR lithium deposit developing in the Jiajika area, western
and Li QC, 2006). 1–fine-grained pegmatite belt; 2–graphic-graphic Sichuan. At the end of the Triassic, continental crust materials
pegmatite belt; 3 –saccharoidal albite belt; 4 –blocky microcline
belt; 5 –muscovite quartz belt; 6 –clevelandite spodumene belt; at the bottom of the Songpan-Ganzi orogenic belt underwent
7 –quartz-spodumene belt; 8 –muscovite-lamelliform albite belt; large-scale melting and formed a huge magma chamber,
9–lepidolite-lamelliform albite belt; 10–blocky microcline belt in the which contained rich crust- and mantle-derived rare elements.
core; 11 –blocky quartz belt in the core; 12 –geological boundary; Then, driven by structures, magmas intruded into the dome
13–contour.
group of the orogenic belt along tectonic weak zones (Xu ZQ
et al., 2019). The magmas condensed and crystallized
structures, and textures of minerals, Koktokay-type lithium immediately adjacent to the surrounding rocks to form
deposits frequently exhibit internal structural zoning, greisens with high volatile constituent content, which served
reflecting the heterogeneity and high evolutionary degree of as an effective barrier to mineralization. As a result, the
pegmatites (Qin KZ et al., 2021a). Lithium mineralization is original pegmatite melts-solutions further differentiated and
740 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767

T 3w 1-1a Q
T 3w 1-1a Q
Q Q
T 3w 1-1a T 3w 1-2b T 3w 1-1b
Ⅴ
Q
T 3zh 1 309
Q T 3zh 2 T 3w 1-2b
T 3zh 1
X03
T 3zh 1 Q Q
T 3w 1-1a
T 3zh 1
T 3zh 1
T 3zh 1 T 3w 1-1b Q Ⅴ
Q
Q T 3w 1-1b T 3w 1-1a
T 3zh 1
T 3zh 2 T 3zh 1 T 3zh 1
T 3w 1-1b
308 Q
T 3zh 1 T 3zh 2

T 3zh 2

T 3zh 2 T 3zh 2
632 T 3w 1-1a T 3zh 2
Q Ⅳ
Q T 3w 1-1a Q
T 3w 1-1a Ⅳ
T 3w 1-1a
Q 804
Q T 3w 1-2a
T 3w 1-1b
Ⅲ Ⅱ
T 3w 1-1b
594 134 Q
T 3w 1-1a Ⅲ
Ⅴ T 3w 1-2a
60 104 Q

603 T 3w 1-2a
Q 9 γβm T 3w 1-2b

T 3w 1-2a T 3w 1-1b T 3w 1-2a

T 3w 1-1b 42
26
Q Q
T 3w 1-1b 133 Q
33 T 3w 1-2b
Q Q ρ
Q 155 151

T 3w 1-2b
T 3w 1-2a Ⅴ
154 T 3w 1-2a
504 T 3w 1-2a
T 3w 1-2a
Ⅰ γβm
γβm
Q T 3w 1-2a
T 3w 1-1b
γβm
668 Ⅳ N
T 3w 1-2b
Q
521 Q
Q 539 T 3w 1-2a 0 10 km
T 3w 1-2a
T 3w 1-1a

Q 1 T 3w 1-2b 2 T 3w 1-2a 3 T 3w 1-1b 4 T 3w 1-1a 5 T 3zh 2 6 T 3zh 1 7 γβm 8 ρ 9 10 308 11 Ⅳ 12

Fig. 3. Geological sketch of the Jiajika rare metal orefield (modified from Yu CL et al., 2010). 1– Quaternary; 2–upper Triassic carbonaceous
clay-bearing siltstones and siltstones; 3–upper Triassic clay-bearing siltstones, carbonaceous clayey siltstones, siltstones, and silty claystones;
4–upper Triassic carbonaceous clay-bearing siltstones and siltstones interbedded with carbonaceous silty claystones; 5–upper Triassic carbon-
aceous silty claystones; 6–upper Triassic clay-bearing siltstones interbedded with clayey siltstones; 7–upper Triassic tuffaceous calcareous silt-
stones and fine-grained sandstones; 8–two-mica granites; 9–granitic pegmatite vein; 10–fault; 11–ore body and its number; 12–type-based zon-
ing and number; I –microcline pegmatite belt; II –microcline-albite pegmatite belt; III –albite pegmatite belt; IV –spodumene pegmatite belt;
V–lepidolite (muscovite) pegmatite belt.

evolved to form different subtypes of pegmatites with mainly occurs in minerals such as spodumenes and lepidolites
different mineral compositions, mineralization characteristics, in granites, as well as altered albite belts and greisen belts,
and structures (Tang GF and Wu SX, 1984; Ju TY and Zhou and a small amount also occurs in granitic aplites and
XB, 2016). pegmatite veins (Rao C et al., 2017). Unlike granitic
pegmatite-type lithium deposits, granite-type lithium deposits
3.2. Granite-type lithium deposits occur on a large scale and pose few challenges for
exploitation despite low grades and difficult lithium
Granite-type lithium deposits were mostly formed in concentration. Therefore, granite-type lithium deposits are the
intracontinental orogenic belts and on active continental main exploitation target in China. They are also the most
margins. Most of them occur in stratiform and vein-like widely distributed hard rock lithium deposits in China (Wang
forms. Rare elements are generally rich in rock masses DH, 2022) and are mainly distributed in the Jiangnan,
formed late in multi-phase magmatic activities. Lithium Nanling, and Wuyi orogenic belts.
 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767 741

3.2.1. Yichun type type of lithium deposits mainly include lepidolites, tantalite-
Yichun-type lithium deposits were formed mainly as a columbite ores, microlites, and niobium-bearing cassiterites,
result of the development of the Yanshanian small- and with an average Li2O grade of approximately 0.43% (Long
medium-sized composite granites and the composite parts of XY et al., 2021). Yichun-type lithium deposits are represented
faults. Granites are the main carrier of lithium. With the by the Yashan Mine No. 414 in Jiangxi Province, and their
crystallization and differentiation of granitic magmas, volatile necessary metallogenic factors include composite granites,
components and rare elements were rich at the top of late- faults, and well-sealed roofs (Wu ZH et al., 2021).
crystallized rock masses. Metamorphic rocks with well-sealed
roofs play a protective role in the enrichment of rare elements 3.2.2. Zhengchong type
such as lithium, forming the characteristics of a rich upper Zhengchong-type lithium deposits were formed mainly as
part and a depleted lower part of the rock masses. Lithium a result of the Yanshanian composite greisen porphyries at the
deposits were formed at the top of the rock masses (Fig. 4), intersection of faults. Greisenic magmas evolved from liquid
differentiation of fluorine- and lithium-rich granitic magmas.
and they are mainly of the lepidolite-bearing altered granite
They were rich in rare metal elements such as lithium and
type, followed by granitic aplite type. The ore minerals of this
rubidium and were crystallized in the shallow crust to form
(a) greisen porphyries, which are the ore bodies. The ore minerals
Zsn 1 of Zhengchong-type lithium deposits are dominated by
Βγ 2 zinnwaldites. Such lithium deposits are represented by the
Yγ
3 Zhengchong greisen porphyry-type lithium deposit in
γb Cγ 4 Daoxian County, Hunan Province (Fig. 5; Wang JB, 1990).
Zγ
Zγ 5
γβm Zsn 3.3. Underground brine-type lithium deposits
Υγ 6
Υγ
γβm 7 Underground brine-type lithium deposits are lithium
γβ γβ 8
Υγ deposits with mining value that are formed by the enrichment
γπ
γmu 9 of the underground brine with rich dissolved lithium (Bradley
ain y γb 10
M bodρ DC et al., 2017). Underground brine resources in China are
r e ρ
γb o γπ γπ 11 mainly distributed in the Jianghan Basin, Lop Nur of
ρ
Cγ
ρ 12 Xinjiang, the Qaidam Basin, the Sichuan Basin, and the Jitai
Fig. 4(b)
Zγ Zsn Basin (Xue Y et al., 2022).
ρ Zsn 13
Zsn 14
15
3.3.1. Zigong type
Yγ
γmu γβ Zigong-type lithium deposits were formed mainly as a
16
γβm result of the presence of large closed and semi-closed artesian
17
Υγ
basins. Lithium-bearing brine resources occurred in carbonate
18
γmu reservoirs of the basins, where many tectonic uplifts
Zsn
Zγ
associated with numerous fault structures were generated. As
N
Zsn a result, the underground brine stored in low-porosity and
low-permeability media converged into various tectonic
γβ
Υγ 0 5000 m uplifts driven by geodynamic pressure and formed a large
number of brine-bearing structures with exploitation potential
(b)
Elevation/m (Fig. 6; Li CJ et al., 1992). For Zigong-type lithium deposits,
900 Cγ Ⅱ Ⅰ their ore-bearing brine is usually rich in anticlinal axes and
ρ Zsn areas with well-developed faults and has a very high content
800 Zγ Ⅲ
ρ of total dissolved solids (TDS) and lithium-ion content of up
Yγ Ⅳ
to 83 mg/L (Zhan HY et al., 2018). Such lithium deposits are
700 Ⅴ
γβm represented by the Ziliujing and Dengjingguan anticlines, and
600 γβ their necessary metallogenic factors include the strata and
0 3000 m Ⅵ
structures with aquicludes and brine-bearing structures (e.g.,
Fig. 4. Geological sketch (a) and exploration line section (b) of anticlines).
Yashan Mine No. 414, Yichun, Jiangxi (modified from Wu ZH et al.,
2021). 1–fertile ore body; 2–lean ore body; 3–grade-ii lean ore body; 3.3.2. Qianjiang type
4 –strongly albitized granite; 5 –moderately albitized granite; The formation of Qianjiang-type lithium deposits is
6 –weakly albitized granite; 7 –medium-grained two-mica granite; mainly related to fault basins with numerous igneous rocks
8–medium- and coarse-grained biotite granite; 9 –fine-grained mus- and an arid climate. Large-scale lithospheric thinning led to
covite granite; 10–albitized granite vein; 11–granitic porphyry vein;
crust-mantle interactions and triggered large-scale magmatic
12 –pegmatitoides; 13 – Sinian epimetamorphic rocks; 14 –boundary
of strongly albitized granites; 15 –boundary of moderately albitized activities. Numerous igneous rocks developing in rift basins
granites; 16–boundary of weakly albitized granites; 17–fault; 18–an- provided materials for the enrichment of favorable elements
ticlinal hinge. such as K and Li in paleo-salt lakes. In the arid climate
742 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767

η
γπ
γπ γ
γπ γ

γ γ
γπ
γ γπ

γπ
γπ γ
γ GS
γπ

γ GS γ
γπ
γβ

GS γ
γπ
γ γ
GS
γπ γβ γπ
γ
γ

γ
γπ 1 6 γπ
γβ 2 7 γ
γ 3 8

N
η 4 9
GS 5 0 100 m

Fig. 5. Geological sketch of Zhengchong lithium-bearing rare metal deposit in Daoxian County, Hunan Province (after Chen HQ et al., 1985).
1 –Yanshanian biotite-granite porphyry; 2 –Yanshanian fine-grained biotite granite; 3 –Yanshanian coarse-medium-grained porphyritic biotite
granite; 4–Yanshanian monzonite; 5–greisen; 6–geological boundary; 7–fault; 8–silicified fracture zone; 9–vein.

environment during the Late Cretaceous - Paleogene, basins, leading to an arid climate. Then, evaporation led to the
evaporation occurred widely in the basins, and the K- and Li- concentration and enrichment of lithium in salt lakes. These
rich brine where sylvites had not yet crystallized and factors were coupled with each other and jointly led to lithium
precipitated in the paleo-saline lakes was transported into the enrichment and mineralization in the brine of salt lakes on
pores and fractures of clastics in the synsedimentary or deeper plateaus (Liu CL et al., 2021). The major saline lake brine-
strata during the late sedimentary and burial periods. type lithium deposits in the world mostly have average
Moreover, driven by magmatic heat energy and supplemented lithium concentrations of 160×10−6‒1400×10−6 and single-
by fluids, elements such as K and Li might continue to be deposit lithium reserves of 0.3×10−6‒9×10−6 t (Munk LA et
supplemented and enriched, forming underground brine-type al., 2016).
liquid potassium-lithium deposits (Fig. 7; Wang CL et al.,
2012; 2013a; 2013b; Liu CL et al., 2013, 2016; Yu XC et al., 3.4.1. Zabuye type
2014; Meng FW et al., 2014). Qianjiang-type lithium deposits Zabuye-type lithium deposits are mostly comprehensive
are characterized by a large variety of high-content brine saline lake deposits. In addition to elements such as Li, B, and
elements, which mainly include K, Li, B, Rb, Cs, Br, and I. K, Zabuye-type lithium deposits are especially rich in Br, Rb,
Generally, they have high Li content (average: 80 mg/L) and and Cs (Zheng MP et al., 1989). The large-scale magmatism
belong to liquid lithium-rich deposits. The lithium deposits of induced by the collisional orogeny between the Indian and
this type are mainly distributed in the Jiangling and Qianjiang Eurasian plates brought volatile minerals and initiated the
sags of the Jianghan Basin in the southern China block, as formation of Zabuye-type lithium deposits (Liu CL et al.,
well as in rift basins such as the Jitai Basin in Jiangxi (Liu CL 2021). In the early stage of basin formation, many geothermal
et al., 2016). water systems existed, and deep geothermal water interacted
with the surrounding rocks and carried a large quantity of
3.4. Saline lake brine-type lithium deposits metallogenic materials such as B and Li to surface lakes (Liu
XF et al., 2007). Under arid climate conditions, salt lakes
Saline lake brine-type lithium deposits in China were experienced evaporation, enrichment, and concentration,
formed mainly as a result of the subduction of oceanic plates forming salt lake-type lithium deposits (Fig. 8; Liu CL et al.,
toward continents or continent-continent collision. The 2021). Such lithium deposits are mainly characterized by
magmatism induced by plate subduction and collision lithium ores of the carbonate type (especially Li2CO3 or some
provided material sources for lithium in the saline lake brine. precipitates with zabuyelites as evaporite sequences) and the
Hot spring activities also brought lithium to salt lakes. The development of massive tufa deposits. Typical Zabuye-type
orogenesis formed plateau landforms and intermountain lithium deposits occur in lakes such as the Zabuye Salt Lake,
 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767 743

J2xt N
0 6 km
J 1z J2s 1

J3sn
J2s 1

J 2s 2

J2s 2

J2s 1

J2xt J2s 1

tion
J1z nstruc J1z
o
ne c J2xt
J 2s icli
2

nt
ujin A
J3sn Zili J2s 1

J 2s 1

J3p
J 2s 2

K 1w

J 2s 2

J2s 1

J3sn ion
K 2s struct J2xt
con
ine Q
nticl
nA J3sn J2s
gua
1

g jin J2xt
Den J1z
J1z
Q
K1w J3sn T3xj

J3p
K2s T2l J 2s 2

J2s 1

K1w

Q 1 K2s 2 K 1w 3 J3p 4 J3sn 5 J2s 2

6 J 2s 1
7 J2xt 8 J1z 9 T3xj 10 T2l 11 12

Fig. 6. Geological sketch of the Zigong area (after Chen XW et al., 2016). 1–Quaternary; 2–Middle Cretaceous Sanhe Formation; 3–Lower
Cretaceous Wotou Formation; 4–Upper Jurassic Penglaizhen Formation; 5–Upper Jurassic Suining Formation; 6–Middle Jurassic upper Shax-
imiao Formation; 7–Middle Jurassic lower Shaximiao Formation; 8–Middle Jurassic Xintiangou Formation; 9–Lower Jurassic Ziliujing Forma-
tion; 10–Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation; 11–Middle Triassic Leikoupo Formation; 12–fault.

1 KK 2 。。 3 ．．4 VVV 5 concentration of 700×10−6 and a resource lithium estimation

6 7 8 9 10 of approximately 1.50×106 t (Gruber PW et al., 2011; Bradley
Evaporation DC et al., 2017).
ion
la nat 3.4.2. Qarhan type
Pe nep Seawater
Qarhan-type lithium deposits were in a relatively stable
and closed tectonic environment during the Holocene and the
Late Pleistocene. With the uplift of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau,
the hot springs near the Cenozoic craters became the main
source of brine lithium and dominated lithium mineralization
(Zhu YZ et al., 1989; Fan DCet al., 2010; Yu JQ et al., 2013;
Yu JQ et al., 2018; Tan HB et al., 2012; He MY et al., 2020;
Li JS et al., 2019). Since the Pleistocene, the basins where the
lithium deposits of this type are located have been extremely
Fig. 7. Model showing the potassium formation in a rift basin (after
arid and have been exposed to greatly fluctuating
Liu CL et al., 2013). 1 –halite; 2 –sylvite; 3 –glutenite; 4 –silty sand;
5–basalt; 6–deeply circulating brine; 7–formation water in strata up- temperatures. In the case of a relatively high temperature, the
welling owing to driving force; 8–hydrothermal fluid from magmat- increased precipitation in the mountainous areas provided
ic differentiation; 9–surface brine spring; 10– alluvium-diluvium. more recharge for the rivers around the basins, bringing more
Dangxiongcuo, and Bange Lake (Liu CL et al., 2021). The lithium to salt lakes. By contrast, in the case of a relatively
brine of the Zabuye Salt Lake has an average lithium low temperature, the recharge for salt lakes decreased, and the
744 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767

solubility of halites in the saline lake brine decreased, closed (coastal) continental basins. Some sedimentary
precipitating a large quantity of halites. Meanwhile, the brine bauxite, coal, and kaolin deposits are associated with lithium
in salt lakes continuously evaporated and concentrated, and elements, which are generally considered to be formed by the
the concentration of lithium ions continuously increased, adsorption of clay minerals (Chen P and Chai DH, 1997; Ye L
finally forming lithium-rich brine (Fig. 9; Wang MQ, 2020). et al., 2007; Wang DH et al., 2013; Li PG et al., 2014; Jin ZG
Qarhan-type lithium deposits are mainly of the sulfate type. et al., 2015). Sedimentary lithium deposits have the lithium
Typical deposits of this type include the Qarhan, Yiliping, enrichment characteristic that lithium mainly occurs in
West Taijinar, and East Taijinar deposits in the central smectite minerals in an absorbed state (Wang JG et al., 2021).
Qaidam Basin, which constitute the largest enrichment area of The representative deposit of sedimentary lithium is
saline lake brine-type lithium in China (Wang MQ, 2020). Wuguangping-type. Waguangping-type lithium deposits are
mainly accompanied by the Paleozoic bauxites, and the
3.5. Sedimentary lithium deposits sources of their metallogenic materials are closely correlated
with the weathering, transportation, and resedimentation of
Sedimentary lithium deposits were generally formed in the underlying Neoproterozoic-Mesoproterozoic basement
SSE
ountain
Snow m
Watershed
4600 Jianggecuo Deburi Lake Intermittent lake
Xizacuo (Seasonal lake) South Zabuye
Jibuchaka Zhabuye Lake
4550 Lake Laguocuo S Q41 Q32
North Zabuye Island
Elevation/m

0.01 Taruocuo
S S Lake Q31 S
4500 S S 0.N 0.1 Q 2 K 0.07~0.08
5 . 。. 3
S S S
3
12 。. 。 Q42 P1 B Q32
1 Q 2 Q 1 0.1 I-2 27 B S 5~5.5
Q41 Q4 Q4 4
2 4 Freshwater Q 1
4450 I I
Q42 Q4 Q42 lake
1 4
Q41 Ca -1 31 -1
Q32 J
Q41 1.
4400
P1 Q42 Q4 Q42
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 340 (km)
1 2 3 4 ..
。 5 6 C1 7 P1 8 J 9
＋
＋
＋

K3 10 Q32 11 Q41 12 Q42 13 14 15 16 S 17 I-2 18

0.1

Fig. 8. Metallogenic model of multi-order middle-shallow salt lakes in Zabuye (after Zheng MP et al., 2016). 1–saline alkali and borax; 2–car-
bonate brine type; 3 –magnesium borate; 4 –carbonate clay; 5 –sandbar; 6 –granite; 7 –Upper Carboniferous; 8 –Lower Permian; 9 –Jurassic;
10–Lower Cretaceous; 11–Upper Pleistocene; 12–Lower Holocene; 13–Upper Holocene; 14–sodium sulfate brine subtype; 15–tufa; 16–deep
water; 17–saltness (%); 18–terrace and number.

Water of low magnesium

Water of magnesium Water of calcium
sulfate subtype
sulfate subtype chloride type
(rich in potassium and lithium)
Ice & Precipitation
snow
N

Volcanic hot spring

Evaporation Sylvite sedimentary
Riv zone
er w
γ4 K, Li ater
Mg K, Li
S O
4
Mg Pt
SO SO 2− 2+
Ca
4 4
Ca 2+
Ca
2+ I2 R
Q CaC
Q
Deeply circulating water Q
Deep circulating water
(CaCI2 type water)
Intense subsidence zone

Ca2+ SO42−
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
SO42−
Ca2+
γ4 Pt R Q K, Li
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Fig. 9. Genetic model of a sylvite deposit in the Qarhan Salt Lake (after Zheng MP et al., 2016). 1–granitic gneiss; 2–bedrock-granite; 3–hal-
ite; 4–silt and silty sand; 5–sylvite; 6–reverse fault; 7–water of calcium chloride type; 8–water of magnesium sulfate subtype; 9–water of low
magnesium sulfate subtype; 10 –Hercynian granite; 11 –Proterozoic metamorphic rock; 12 –Tertiary; 13 –Quaternary; 14 –potassium recharge;
15–ascending spring; 16–natural flow direction of the water.
 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767 745

strata rich in intermediate-acid magmatic rocks (Liu YJ et al., deposits and the Mesozoic hard rock lithium deposits (Chen
1984; Gu J et al., 2013; Jin ZG et al., 2013; Huang ZL et al., YC et al., 2010a; b). The latest prospecting achievements and
2014; Liu P et al., 2020). Specifically, the basement strata studies have enriched the formation ages of lithium deposits
were repeatedly folded and uplifted under the influence of in China and are conducive to achieving new understandings
orogenesis while experiencing magmatism. As a result, the of and creating a new situation for lithium prospecting. For
underlying strata of aluminiferous rocks suffered denudation instance, Caledonian lithium deposits were discovered and
for hundreds of millions of years, providing abundant material confirmed in the Altyn Tagh metallogenic belt (Xu XW et al.,
sources for the formation of the lithium-rich aluminum- 2019; Li H et al., 2020), and the newly discovered spodumene
bearing rocks with high background values (Fig. 10). Owing deposit in the Himalayan and Gangdise metallogenic belts
to the active geochemical properties of lithium, effective was formed during the Himalayan (Qin KZ et al., 2021b). As
water conduction systems were formed with the connection of indicated by the statistics of the formation ages of major
fault structures, creating favorable conditions for the lithium deposits in China (Table 4; Fig. 11), lithium deposits
eluviation, migration, and re-enrichment of lithium, as well as in China were formed in all geologic ages, but 56% of them
the downward infiltration of surface water and interlayer were formed during the Indosinian-Yanshanian, which is the
water and the extraction of lithium in surrounding rocks (Jin peak period for the formation of hard rock lithium deposits.
ZG et al., 2021). The lithium-rich deposits of the Moreover, almost the formation of all the super large, large,
Waguangping type were mainly formed in hot and humid and medium-sized deposits is related to the Indosinian-
continental sedimentary environments and belong to the Yanshanian tectonic-magmatic activities (Wang DH et al.,
paleo-weathered crust sedimentary type. Eluviation is a key 2022). The saline lake brine-type and hot spring-type lithium
deposits were generally formed during the Quaternary and are
process for the mineralization and enrichment of such
mainly distributed in the Cenozoic tectonic basins of the
deposits.
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The underground brine-type lithium
4. Metallogenic regularity of lithium deposits in China deposits in the Qaidam Basin and the Qianjiang sag were
formed during the Cenozoic, and the underground brine ore-
4.1. Temporal distribution of lithium deposits bearing strata in the Sichuan Basin were formed during the
Triassic (Zheng MP et al., 2012). Furthermore, sedimentary
The conventional understanding of the metallogenic ages and clay-type lithium deposits were mainly formed during the
of lithium mainly includes the Quaternary brine-type lithium Hercynian (Jin ZG et al., 2021).

(a)
0 20 40 km
Provenance area of north 0
Guizhou Paleocontinent 10

N
20 m

Zheng’an County
Daozhen County Wulong
island Yangtze Bay
Xinmin
Wuchuan County Dazhuyuan
Waguangping
Al
Dazhuyuan (P1d) Al Fe Al
Al Al
(C2h)
(S1hj)
Huanglong Formation Hanjiadian Formation
(b)
Provenance area of north
N

Guizhou Paleocontinent

Wulong
Zheng’an County Daozhen County island Yangtze Bay
Dazhuyuan
Xinmin
Wuchuan County Waguangping
Ore-bearing rock series of (P d) Al
Al Fe Al
the Dazhuyuan Formation 1 Al Al
(C2h)
(S1hj)
Huanglong Formation
Hanjiadian Formation

Al
Shale Limestone Al Fe Bauxite ore-bearing Large bauxite Loponymy Foothills
Al rock series deposit

Lakes Alluvial Swamp Sea Rivers Ore body

plain

Fig. 10. Metallogenic environment map of bauxite deposits in the Wuchuan-Zheng’an-Daozhen area (after Jin ZG et al., 2018). a–early sedi-
mentary facies of P1d1; b–middle-late sedimentary facies of P1d1, and the sedimentary facies of P1d2.
746 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767

4.2. Spatial distribution patterns of lithium deposits deposits of this type are closely related to the Yanshanian
composite granites and faults and are mostly associated with
The lithium deposits in China are unevenly distributed and metals such as tantalum, niobium, and rare earth elements
are characterized by significant spatial zonal concentration. (REEs; Wang JB, 1990). Yichun in Jiangxi Province has
Regarding geographical distribution, they are mainly proved available reserves of Li2O of approximately 2×106 t.
distributed in provinces and regions such as Qinghai, Jiangxi, Among these reserves, the proven recoverable reserves of
Sichuan, Tibet, and Xinjiang (Fig. 1). Li2O are 1.10×106 t, which accounts for 31% of the national
Different types of lithium deposits are distributed as reserves and 12% of the global reserves, making Yichun the
follows. Granitic pegmatite-type lithium deposits are world's largest lithium mine (Zhang Q, 2010).
concentrated in Sichuan and Xinjiang, with the highest Saline lake brine-type and hot spring-type lithium deposits
resources occurring in Sichuan Province (Fu XF et al., 2015). are generally distributed in the high-elevation Qinghai-Tibet
Granite-type lithium deposits are mainly distributed in Plateau, and large and above deposits of them are mainly
southern China, with the highest reserves occurring in Jiangxi concentrated in the Qaidam Basin in Qinghai. Regarding
Province. In terms of geotectonic position, granitic pegmatite- geotectonic position, the lithium deposits of both types are
type lithium deposits are mainly distributed in the Altay, West mainly distributed in the Qaidam block and the Qiangtang and
Kunlun, and Qinling arc-basin systems and the Bayan Har and Ladakh-Gangdise arc-basin systems (Pan GT et al., 2009).
Himalayan blocks (Pan GT et al., 2009). The deposits of this Saline lake brine-type lithium deposits were formed as
type are large in scale and mainly occur in the form of follows. Under specific conditions, water in salt lakes was
orefields (Fu XF et al., 2015). Moreover, they are mostly continuously recharged with mineral water and evaporated,
related to the pegmatite veins formed by Indosinian granites leading to an increase in the salt content of the water (Li ZD
and the structural-magmatic domes. In recent years, many et al., 2020). They are mostly associated with salt deposits of
lithium prospecting clues have been discovered in the highly potassium and boron and are dominated by carbonate and
differentiated granites of the Himalayan block, which are sulfate types (Liu CL et al., 2021). Saline lake brine-type
worthy of further exploration (Wang DH et al., 2022). lithium deposits were formed late and mostly during the
Granite-type lithium deposits are mainly distributed in Jiangxi Quaternary, and they generally are large in scale.
and Hunan (Che XD et al., 2019) and are mainly concentrated Underground brine-type lithium deposits are mainly
in the Wuyi-Yunkai-Taiwan orogenic system in terms of distributed in the Meso-Cenozoic sedimentary basins in
geotectonic position (Pan GT et al., 2009). The lithium Sichuan and Hubei. In terms of geotectonic position, they are

Table 4. Number statistics of deposits in the different metallogenic ages in China (total number n = 320).
Age Granitic pegmatite type Granite type Saline lake brine type Underground brine type Hot spring type Sedimentary type Clay type
Archaeozoic 1
Caledonian 19
Hercynian 1 16 1
Indosinian 115 6
Yanshanian 38 18 2
Himalayan 5
Quaternary 93 1 3 1

Number of lithium deposits

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
ic

n
an

y
an
n
n

ar
zo

ia
ia

ni
ni

ay

rn
sin
yn
eo

ha
do

al

te
c
ha

do

ns
le

im
er

ua
Ca
rc

Ya
In
H

Q
A

Granitic pegmatite type Granite type Sedimentary type Clay type

Hot spring type Salt Laker birne type Underground brine type

Fig. 11. Metallogenic age distribution of lithium deposits in China.

 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767 747

mainly distributed in the ancient upper Yangtze Block and the crust. As a result, lithium-rich melts first moved out of the
lower Yangtze block (Pan GT et al., 2009). They are generally source zone along with the high-stress area and then evolved
small in scale, mostly associated with K, Rb, and Cs, and into form lithium-rich granites or pegmatites in the low-stress
closely related to igneous rocks (Liu CL et al., 2021). zone (Zeng LS et al., 2008; Xu ZQ et al., 2018).
Sedimentary lithium deposits (including those of the clay In addition, Xu ZQ et al. (2021) also summarized many
type) are mainly distributed in Henan, Guizhou, Shanxi, and metallogenic models of various pegmatite-type lithium
Inner Mongolia. In terms of geotectonic position, they are deposits, including the temperature variation model of
mainly distributed in the Shanxi-Hebei block and the ancient granites - rare elements-rich pegmatites, the geochemical
upper Yangtze Block (Pan GT et al. 2009). They are mostly evolution model of lithium-rich pegmatites (Trueman DL and
associated with bauxite deposits, coal mines, and kaolins and Černý P, 1982), the simple granite-pegmatite model (London
have rich resources, including many associated sedimentary D, 2008), the evolutionary model from granite parent rocks to
lithium deposits with high lithium content and huge reserves pegmatite granites (Černý P, 1989), and the model of the LCT
(Yu F et al., 2019). Sedimentary lithium deposits were mainly pegmatite subzone in the upper portion of granite and
formed during the Hercynian. The secondary eluviation and corresponding isotherm, pressure, and depth intervals
the adsorption of clay minerals are the metallogenetic (London D, 2018; Dittrich T et al., 2019). Theoretically
processes that promote the synchronous migration and possible metallogenic mechanisms of rare metals have been
synchronous enrichment of Li, Ga, Sc, and REEs in the form proposed for granite-pegmatite systems, including the
of isomorphism and ionic adsorption (Jin ZG et al., 2019). mechanisms of fractional crystallization (Černý P and
Meintzer RE, 1988; Shearer CK et al., 1992; Hulsbosch N et
4.3. Genetic models of lithium deposits al.,2014), magmatic immiscibility (Webster JD et al., 1997;
Veksler IV et al., 2002), supercritical fluids (Thomas R et al.,
4.3.1. Metallogenic model of hard rock lithium deposits 2016, 2019), and constitutional zone refining (Xu ZQ et al.,
Overall, hard rock lithium deposits in China occur in 2021).
similar geotectonic positions dominated by fold orogenic belts
within various geotectonic units (Yuan ZX and Bai G, 2001). 4.3.2. Metallogenic model of saline lake brine-type lithium
Their genesis is closely related to the magmatic and tectonic deposits
activities arising from plate collision. Most lithium deposits of The mineralization of saline lake brine-type lithium
this type were formed late in the magmatism. Their ore bodies deposits is restricted by many factors, including arid climates,
are stratoid or vein-like in shape due to the control by caprock closed basins with developed salt lakes or salt flats,
or faults (Fig. 12). Their deposit types mainly include granitic tectonically driven subsidence, magmatic or geothermal
pegmatite type and altered granite type. The ore bodies of activities related to mineralization, lithium-bearing protoliths,
granitic pegmatite-type lithium deposits mainly occur in one or more reservoirs containing brine, and brine
albite-spodumene and quartz-spodumene belts of granitic concentrated in sufficient time (Fig. 13; Bradley D and
pegmatites, while the ore bodies of granite-type lithium McCauley A, 2013; Munk LA et al., 2016).
deposits mainly occur in albitized granite belts and greisens An arid climate may be caused by the fact that a closed
(Li JK et al., 2014). basin was located in the Earth’s low-latitude arid zone during
A key factor in the occurrence of large lithium orefields in its geological history or that the landforms of high mountains
the Songpan-Ganzi-Tianshuihai orogenic belt may be the and deep basins affected a basin ’s climate (Garreaud RD,
development of gneiss domes (Whitney DL et al., 2004). 2009). For a closed basin, the surface water can only flow into
Large-scale deformation led to warming, resulting in the but cannot flow out of the basin and then converges and forms
partial melting of argillaceous rocks in the upper part of the lakes in the low-lying areas of the basin. The water that
orogenic belt. Accordingly, lithium-rich melts were formed, converges brings dissolved elements such as Ca, Mg, K, Na,
which changed the rheological properties and stresses of the and Li, which gradually accumulate and get enriched during
Pegmatites
Abbreviation
of rare metals
ng

Be-Beryllium Li, Cs, Be,

ari

Cs-Cesium Ta, Nb
-be

Li-Lithium
ore

Nb-Niobium Li, Be,

for

Ta-Tantalum Ta, Nb
me tion

The evolutionary Be, Nb, Ta

tite irec
lts

degree, volatile
ma n d

components, and Be
zoning of pegmatites
peg gratio

Lean ores
gradually increasing
with increased distance Rare metal granites
Mi

from parental magmas

Fig. 12. Metallogenic model of hard rock lithium deposits (after Černý P, 1991).
748 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767

Lithium delivered
Potential sources of lithium in brine
in windblown dust
1. Older bedrock
2. Primary magmatic or hydrothermal fluids
3. Volcanic ash
4 L 4. Loess
Lithium in airfall tuffs ithi 5. Exhumed basin deposits (recycled lithium)
um 1
from nearby volcano we 6. Regional groundwater flow
ath
ere
3 d fr
om
Lithium old
delivere er r
from con d in solution ock 1 Lithium sequestered around
nected b s
asin 6 Evaporative hot springs in clays
concentrationof
Pre lithium
fro con 1
m e ce 5
xhu ntra Evaporation Salar with
me ted
d b lith ponds lithium brine 6
asin ium
al s
trat 2 Deep
a Convecting
basinal brines
groundwater
NO
T Lithium delivered
TO in magmatic 2
SC
AL fluids
E
ted
Mechanisms for concentrating lithium in brines ec
a dv epth
• or t d
ma s a
Evaporation of water from brines

• Hydrothermal fluids react with aquifer and liberate lithium ag rock

M ot
h
Mechanisms for removing lithium from brine pool
• Brine spills out of basin Neogene volcano
• Brine leaks out from bottom of basin Salar
• Lithium minerals crystallize from saturated brine Proximal alluvial fan
• Lithium clays crystallize from hydrothermal fluids Other modern basin fill
• Lithium brines are trapped in fluid inclusions in halite Older basin fill, now exhumed
Bedrock, undifferentiated
Fault

Fig. 13. Metallogenic model of saline lake brine-type lithium deposits in a closed basin (after Bradley D and McCauley A, 2013; Munk LA et
al., 2016).

the water evaporation over time in an arid climate. Since the ore-bearing rock series. The sedimentary environment
lithium is more prone to dissolve than other metal elements, it mainly consisted of continental deposits, with marine and
is more likely to remain in brine in the form of a solution marine-continental transitional deposits developing at the
rather than form crystalline minerals as the salt lake dries up. bottom of the ore-bearing rock series. The lithium-rich
Owing to the high specific gravity, brine is prone to bauxite deposits had a paleo-climate of a hot, humid, and
precipitate underground and then accumulate horizontally in rainy subtropical-tropical climate near the paleoequator,
one or more aquifers (horizontal reservoir model) or within paleo-landforms consisting of fluvial and lacustrine basins,
fault structure zones (water-bearing wall model; Liu CL et al., and sedimentary and metallogenic age of the Hercynian.
2018). The underlying strata underwent long-term weathering
and denudation in the hot, humid, and rainy subtropical-
4.3.3. Metallogenic model of sedimentary lithium deposits tropical climate, forming widely distributed thick weathered
For the mineralization of lithium-rich bauxite deposits in eluvium or proluvium, which were then formed kaolinite-
the Wuchuan-Zheng ’an-Daozhen area (Fig. 14), the direct dominated clay minerals due to physical weathering, chemical
material sources (proximal facies) are closely related to the weathering, biological process, and oxidation and leaching.
underlying clastic or carbonate strata, and the indirect material The clay minerals had strong adsorption and a high ion
sources (distal facies) are closely related to the regional exchange capacity and could serve as carriers of lithium
pyroclastic basement (Jin ZG et al., 2018). The deep crustal (Zhong HR et al., 2019; Ling KY et al., 2021).
fluids of the deposits have a high lithium concentration (Tan
HB et al., 2012), which may lead to the abnormal enrichment 4.4. Division of metallogenic belts of lithium deposits
of lithium in clay minerals (Zou H et al., 2022). Under the
strict control of the stratum morphology above the According to the distribution patterns of lithium deposit
paleoerosional surface, the ore bodies of the deposits occur in localities in China, as well as the previous study results (Li JK
stratiform and stratoid forms in the middle-upper portion of et al., 2014; Wang DH et al., 2022), this study divided lithium
 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767 749

(a)
Migration and deposition of weathered materials

Sea level J Jurassic

C2h
s
s

Upper Permian and

s
s P 3 +T 1
s

s
S1hj

s
s
s

Lower Triassic
s

s
s
s
s

Middle Permian
s
P 2 q+m

s
Qixia-Maokou formations

s
s Z

s
s

s
Pre-Sinian basement
s

Middle-Lower Permian

s
P 1 d+P 2 l

s
s
s

(Ore-bearing rock series)

s
s

s
s
s
s

s
Uplifting
Upper Carboniferous
(b) C2h
Huanglong Formation
Migration and sedimentation/dif ferentiation Lower Silurian
and enrichment of aluminum-rich weathered materials S 1 hj
Hanjiadian Formation
(Continental lacustrine environment) Position of the
S1hj C 2h Sea level denudation line

Bauxite layer

O O
O
Z
s
s

(c)

C
C
C
C
C
C
C
(d)
Denuded
area
Daozhen Denuded Datang Taoyuan Luchi
syncline area syncline syncline syncline

P3+T1
J
P3+T1
P3

P3+T1
+T

P1d+P2l
1

P2q+m P1d+P2l P1d+P2l P2q+m P1d+P2l

Reserved P2q+m
Reserved
C2 h zone S1hj P2q+m C2h
C2h zone

Fig. 14. Maps showing the geological-geochemical metallogenic models of bauxite deposits in the Wuchuan-Zheng’an-Daozhen area (after Jin
ZG et al., 2018). a‒basement rocks were weathered, denuded, transported, and deposited under the regional uplift and formed hugely-thick sedi-
ments of the Eopaleozoic strata, thus providing a material basis for the later formation of lithium-rich bauxites; b ‒lithium-rich argillaceous
shales suffered weathering and denudation, forming initial bauxite sources dominated by kaolinites; c‒in the late stage of bauxite formation,
lithium was absorbed by clay and bauxite minerals with large surface areas and was enriched, forming the industrial lithium-rich bauxite ore
bodies with a large scale and high quality. These ore bodies were preserved under the compression of the overlying sedimentary strata formed
later; d‒the lithium-rich bauxite ore bodies occur as the present morphology after undergoing tectonic movements, weathering, and denudation.

metallogenic belts mainly as per the following principles: sedimentary type; (4) the lithium metallogenic belts were
(1) The scopes of lithium metallogenic belts were determined named by referencing the naming method proposed by Wang
mainly based on the national grade-III metallogenic belts (Xu DH et al. (2022) and geographic unit names. Based on these
ZG et al., 2008) and the distribution of lithium geochemical principles, 16 lithium metallogenic belts were divided in total
anomalies (Wang XQ et al., 2020). One or more metallogenic in this study (Table 5; Fig. 15).
belts with similar tectonic settings can be merged according to
5. Research progress in prospecting of lithium deposits in
the distribution of ore occurrences; (2) a lithium metallogenic
China
belt should contain a certain number (or scale) of lithium
deposits with similar tectonic settings, geneses, and formation 5.1. New progress in prospecting of lithium deposits in China
ages; (3) the lithium metallogenic belts were divided into
three types, namely the hard rock type, the brine type, and the China has made new progress in the prospecting of most
750 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767

lithium metallogenic belts over the past decade owing to prospecting clues for multiple potential lithium deposits have
intensified exploration and research. For instance, new been found (Wang DH et al., 2022), thus making
deposits or clues have been discovered in metallogenic belts, breakthroughs in lithium prospecting (Table 6).
new findings have been obtained in the deeper parts and at the Remarkable achievements have been made in the
periphery of existing lithium deposits, and important progress prospecting of hard rock lithium resources, and the details are
has been achieved in the exploration and surveys of the as follows. A large spodumene locality has been newly
reserves of lithium resources. Furthermore, new lithium discovered in the Jiada mining area at the periphery of
metallogenic belts have also been discovered, where the Maerkang City, western Sichuan (Ma SC et al., 2020), and the

Table 5. Division of metallogenic belts of the lithium deposits in China (grade-III metallogenic belts after Xu ZG et al., 2008).
No. Name of lithium Typical deposit Main Main Tectonic Main characteristics Grade-III
metallogenic belt metallogenic metallogenic setting metallogenic
type age belts
Li-1 Altay Koktokay Granitic Hercynian- Altay orogenic Tensional faults develop and are filled Ⅲ-1, Ⅲ-2
pegmatite type Yanshanian belt with highly differentiated granites; there
is a large quantity of ancient crustal
materials in the magma source areas; Li
geochemical anomalies exist
Li-2 West Tianshan Shayintubai Granitic Yanshanian Predominant Extensional environment; granites Ⅲ-9
pegmatite type Paleozoic occurring in the source area of a
orogenic belt juvenile crust; pegmatite veins
developing along faults
Li-3 East Tianshan Jing'erquan Granitic Indosinian Multicycle Extensional environment; granites Ⅲ-7, Ⅲ-8
pegmatite type orogenic belt occurring in the source area of a
juvenile crust; pegmatite veins
developing along faults
Li-4 Lithium Weilasituo Magmatic Yanshanian Multicycle Greisenized cryptoexplosive breccias Ⅲ-50
metallogenic belt hydrothermal intracontinental develop, and the bottom consists of
on the west slope type orogenic belt quartz porphyries
of the Da Hinggan
Mountains
Li-5 Altyn Tagh Shaligou Granitic Caledonian Complex Developing in or on the edges of the Ⅲ-19
pegmatite type tectonic zone Paleozoic high-temperature granites,
formed by and showing a dendritic or en echelon
mutual distribution
subduction and
collision
Li-6 Qaidam Qarhan Saline lake Quaternary High- Large-scale tectonic movements closed Ⅲ-25
brine type temperature the paleosalt lakes, rivers brought
evaporation metallogenic materials, and the arid
environment in climate dried up and mineralized lake.
the Quaternary
closed basin
Li-7 Lvliang-Taihang Xin’an Sedimentary Hercynian Fault basin Carbonate rocks in the basement Ⅲ-61
type weathered and were denuded, and
lithium mineralization occurs due to
precipitation or being adsorbed; Li
geochemical anomalies exist
Li-8 Songpan-Ganzi Jiajika Granitic Indosinian- Orogenic belt Metasedimentary rocks underwent Ⅲ-27, Ⅲ-30,
pegmatite type Yanshanian partial melting, evolved into lithium- Ⅲ-31
rich granite magmas, and extracted
lithium from the surrounding rocks;
most of the deposits are concentrated in
the gneiss domes with S-type granites
as the core and Triassic
metasedimentary rocks as the mantle; Li
geochemical anomalies are widely
distributed regionally
Li-9 Qinling Nanyangshan Granitic Caledonian/Ya Multicycle Caledonian granites underwent upward Ⅲ-62
pegmatite type nshanian orogenic belt emplacement along the axis of the
anticlinorium. Under the influence of
crustal motion, brittle-ductile shear
zones have developed along the axis of
the anticline, forming pathways for the
upward migration of granitic pegmatites
 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767 751

Table 5. (Continued)
No. Name of lithium Typical deposit Main Main Tectonic Main characteristics Grade-III
metallogenic belt metallogenic metallogenic setting metallogenic
type age belts
Li-10 Lithium Zabuye Saline lake Quaternary Quaternary Lithium-bearing salt lakes were formed Ⅲ-31, Ⅲ-33,
metallogenic belt in brine type closed high- in the multi-order lacustrine basin Ⅲ-35, Ⅲ-
northern Tibet temperature system of the Cenozoic sag due to the 37,Ⅲ-40, Ⅲ-
evaporation collisional metallogeny of the Qinghai- 41, Ⅲ-42
environment Tibet Plateau; under the action of the
gravity field and chemical
differentiation, lithium-bearing minerals
are concentrated and mineralized in the
lowest-order lacustrine basin
Li-11 Southern Tibet - Yangbajing Hot spring type Quaternary Adjacent to the Mostly distributed at the intersections of III-42, III-43,
Tengchong suture zone major faults and secondary faults on III-44, III-45-
between plates both sides of the Yarlung-Zangbo suture ①
zone and of the NS-trending rift valley;
mostly belonging to high-temperature
non-volcanic geothermal fields and
strongly controlled by small-scale
secondary faults; the spatial distribution
closely related to the brine of lithium-
rich salt lakes; Li geochemical
anomalies existing regionally
Li-12 Himalayan Qiongjiagang Granitic Himalayan Intraplate The spatial distribution is closely Ⅲ-45
pegmatite type orogenic belt related to leucogranites and decoupling,
occurring in the form of sheets, and
massive granitic pegmatites developing;
Li geochemical anomalies existing
regionally
Li-13 Lithium Zigong Underground Indosinian Sag basin Lithium-bearing brine occurs in the Ⅲ-74
metallogenic belt in brine type porous brine-bearing structures
the Sichuan Basin (generally anticlines)
Li-14 Sichuan-Yunnan- Wuchuan- Sedimentary Hercynian Crustal uplift Long-term crustal uplifting and Ⅲ-77
Guizhou Zheng'an- type weathering, hot and humid climatic
Daozhen conditions, and favorable paleo-
landform and paleogeographic
sedimentary environments; Li
geochemical anomalies existing
Li-15 Lithium Qianjiang Underground Tertiary Fault basin The Qianjiang sag subsided during the Ⅲ-72
metallogenic belt in brine type Eocene - Early Oligocene, and brine got
the Qianjiang sag enriched in the basin center in the
strong evaporation environment and
occurred in sandstones with a high
seepage capacity
Li-16 Lithium Yichun Granite - Yanshanian Intraplate The spatial distribution is closely Ⅲ-71, Ⅲ-81,
metallogenic belt in granitic multicycle related to the Mesozoic granites. Ⅲ-83
southern China pegmatite type orogenic belt Generally, the top of the rocks is rich in
lithium, and few granitic pegmatites
have developed; Li geochemical
anomalies exist regionally
Note: This table after the summary of the lithium metallogenic belts in China developed by Wang DH et al. (2022).

Weilasituo magmatic-hydrothermal lithium deposit in Inner Li2O grade: 1.07%; Zhang H et al., 2022). Moreover, 427000
Mongolia has Li2O resources of up to 357000 t (Li2O grade: t of vein quartz-type lithium resources have been newly
1.28%; Wang DH et al., 2022). Leucogranite bodies with discovered in Shaotangou in the Kangding-Daofu-Yajiang
lithium mineralization potential have been discovered in the integrated rare metal exploration area in Sichuan (China
Himalayas (Liu XC et al., 2021), two million tons of Li2O Mineral Resources 2018). The Sizemuzu lithium deposit of
resources have been cumulatively discovered in the spodumene-sodalite granite pegmatite type (average Li2O
Dahongliutan, Xinjiang (Li K et al., 2019; Qiao GB et al., grade: 1.87%) has been newly discovered in the Ke’eryin ore
2021), 4.5×106 t of Li2O resources have been discovered in district in western Sichuan (Liu W et al., 2018).
Jiajika, Sichuan (China Mineral Resources 2019), and Important discoveries and progress have also been made
lepidolite pegmatite veins have been found in the western in prospecting brine-type lithium deposits and sedimentary
section of the Altyn Tagh metallogenic belt, where the Li2O lithium deposits, and the details are as follows. Lithium-rich
resources of only No. 1 orebody are up to 171600 (average brine resources or deposits have been discovered in the
752 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767

Hard-rock-type lithium deposit metallogenic zone Ⅲ-46

Ⅲ-47-1
Brine-type lithium deposit metallogenic zone
Sedimentary-type lithium deposit metallogenic zone Ⅲ-48-1

Ⅲ-47-2

Ⅲ -5 4
Ⅲ 7 -3
-2 -4

Li-
Ⅲ Ⅲ-53

1
-1
Ⅲ
-3
Ⅲ-4-1
Ⅲ-52-1
Ⅲ -9
-1 Ⅲ-51
Li- Ⅲ-5
2 Ⅲ-4-3
- 2 Ⅲ-55-3
Ⅲ-10 Ⅲ-9-2 Ⅲ 48
-4 - Ⅲ-
Ⅲ-11-1 2 Ⅲ-50 1 Ⅲ-55-2
55-
Ⅲ-12-1 Ⅲ- Ⅲ-6 Ⅲ- Ⅲ-56-1
11
Ⅲ-12-3 Ⅲ-16-1 Ⅲ -
-1 2 2 Ⅲ-7 Li-4 Ⅲ-56-2
Ⅲ -1 6 -2 -2
Li-3

-9 1
Ⅲ-13-1
Ⅲ

Ⅲ
Ⅲ-8-1 Ⅲ-49
Ⅲ-13-2 Ⅲ-8-3 Ⅲ-58-1 -3
Ⅲ -5 7
-2 7

Ⅲ-16-3
Ⅲ-14-1 Ⅲ -5 8 -1 Ⅲ-57-4
-1

Ⅲ-16-5 Ⅲ-16-4 Ⅲ-14-2 Ⅲ-57-4

Ⅲ-58-3 Ⅲ-61-2 Ⅲ-57-2 Ⅲ-57-3
Li-5 Ⅲ-15
6 -7
Ⅲ Ⅲ -1 Ⅲ-19

-2
Ⅲ -1 -1 Ⅲ-91
Ⅲ

Ⅲ-18 Ⅲ-61-1

8
-2 7 7 6 -6

-5
Ⅲ-23
-2 Ⅲ Ⅲ-60 Ⅲ-62 -
Ⅲ-29 Ⅲ-26-1 Ⅲ-25 72

Ⅲ -5 9
Ⅲ- Ⅲ-20

-6
-65
24

Ⅲ
Ⅲ - Ⅲ-
Li-6

Ⅲ
26-
3 22 Li-7
Ⅲ-61-1
Li-10 Ⅲ-33 Ⅲ -2 6
-2
Ⅲ-64
Ⅲ-31 Ⅲ-21 Ⅲ-67-2
Ⅲ-35

Ⅲ-37
Li-8 Ⅲ-28-2 Ⅲ
-2
Ⅲ-63-1
Ⅲ-63-2
Ⅲ-

Ⅲ-28-3 8 -1 Ⅲ-63-3 Ⅲ-68

4

Ⅲ-62-1
5-

1 Ⅲ-63-4 Ⅲ-69-1
Ⅲ-
Ⅲ-32-1
Ⅲ-36-1 Ⅲ-30-1 Ⅲ-73-2
Li-9
Ⅲ-62-2 Ⅲ-66-3 Ⅲ-69-1
Ⅲ-41 42
Ⅲ-69-3

Ⅲ-
Ⅲ- Ⅲ-40
Ⅲ -7 3 -1 Li-15

6
44

7-

-4
Ⅲ-67-1 9
-6

1
Ⅲ-43 Ⅲ-30-2
Ⅲ-

Ⅲ
Ⅲ-74 Ⅲ-72
i-13
3 2 -2

Ⅲ-69-5
Ⅲ-45-1 L Ⅲ-70
Ⅲ-32-2 Ⅲ-71
Ⅲ-45-2
Li-12Ⅲ-45-2 Ⅲ-77-1 Chiwei Yu
Diaoyu Dao

Ⅲ -8 -1
Ⅲ-81
4
-1
Ⅲ-45-3
5-1

6
Ⅲ -7 6 -1

Li Li-16 Taibei
Super Ⅲ-77-2
Size Ore
Ⅲ -7

Large Medium Small Ⅲ-78

0
occurrence Ⅲ-83-1
Type Large

-8
Ⅲ -7 6 -2

Ⅲ
Granitic

2
Ⅲ- 9

Ⅲ -7 9
pegmatite type

-8
3

Ⅲ-83-2

Ⅲ
Granite type Ⅲ-86-2 Ⅲ-83-3
Ⅲ-88
Ⅲ-

Ⅲ-84
Ⅲ -3 8

Hydrothermal Ⅲ-86-1
Ⅲ-75-2
3 6- 2

type Ⅲ-34
Salt Lake Ⅲ-87
brine type Ⅲ-85-2
Underground Ⅲ-55-1
brine type
Sed imentary
type N Ⅲ-90
Clay type 0 300 km
Hot spring type

Fig. 15. Division Sketch of metallogenic belts of the lithium deposits in China (the base map after Xu ZG et al., 2008).

Jiangling sag (Liu CL et al., 2021), the Qianjiang sag (Huang springs have an annual lithium discharge of 4281 t (equivalent
H et al., 2015), and the Jitai Basin (Fu JG et al., 2019) during to 25686 t of lithium carbonate) and are frequently associated
the exploration in southern China in recent years, and the with high-content resources such as Rb, Cs, and B that can be
comprehensive research revealed that a plateau salt lake comprehensively utilized. Therefore, these hot springs have
environment likely existed and formed a paleo-saline lake high development and utilization value (Wang CG et al.,
brine-type lithium metallogenic area in southern China during 2020).
the Cretaceous-Paleogene (Liu CL et al., 2016). Deep lithium-
bearing brine with prospecting potential has been newly 5.2. Major research progress in lithium deposits in China
discovered in structures including Luoyanshan, Jianshishan,
5.2.1. The “Five levels + Basement” prospecting model
Hongsanhan No.4, and Yahu in the western Qaidam Basin,
Chinese geologists refer to the nearly vertical quartz-vein-
with a LiCl grade of 333.00‒430.19 mg/L (Pan T et al., 2022).
type wolframite vein combined with deep gentle stratiform
Salt lake-type B-Li-K deposits, such as Kushui Lake and
and stratoid orebodies that is commonly visible in southern
Huangcao Lake, have been discovered to the south of
China as the comprehensible “Five levels + Basement” model
Dahongliutan, and they are estimated to have a large-medium
(Xu JX et al., 2008). The “Five levels + Basement ”
scale (Li K et al., 2019). Moreover, carbonate clay-type
prospecting model reflects the law of change in the
lithium deposits have been discovered in Xiaoshiqiao, Yuxi,
morphological characteristics of quartz veins with depth. This
and Yunnan (Zhu L et al., 2021).
model has played an important role in the prospecting of
Hot spring-type lithium deposits usually have the
advantage of a very low Mg/Li ratio (0.03 ‒1.48, average: tungsten deposits (Wang DH et al., 2016a; 2017) and has been
0.43). Hot-spring lithium resources have developed at the gradually enriched and improved (Wang DH et al., 2010).
intersections of the main faults and the secondary faults on Based on the characteristic that Jiajika pegmatite-type rare
both sides of the Yarlung-Zangbo suture zone and of the NS- metal deposits show regional zoning surrounding
trending rift valley in the southern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. metallogenic parent rocks Wang DH et al. (2017) put forward
Among these lithium-rich hot springs, seven have cut-off the Jiajika-type “Five levels + Basement” prospecting model
grades (lithium-ion content: above 32.74 mg/L), and at least (Fig. 16). Specifically, the “Five levels” refer to that the main
19 have lithium-ion content of 19 mg/L and above. According or characteristic minerals of pegmatites change regularly in
to calculation, the lithium-rich geothermal resources of 19 hot the vertical and horizontal directions and show microcline
 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767 753

pegmatite belts (I), microcline-albite pegmatite belts (II), formed by the metasomatic genesis, as well as filling (Fig. 16).
albite pegmatite belts (III), spodumene-pegmatite belts (IV), The “Five levels + Basement” metallogenic model applies
and lepidolite (muscovite) pegmatite belt (V) in sequence to the exploration deployment for making more breakthroughs
with an increase in the distance from granite bodies. These in positions with discovered ore deposits. It can be utilized as
belts were mainly formed by filling. The basement refers to a reference in research on the metallogenic regularity of
the stratiform and stratoid orebodies, which were mainly Jiajika-type rare metal deposits, the mineral exploration of
Table 6. Progress in prospecting lithium metallogenic belts in China over the past decade.
Progress type Metallogenic Progress content Deposit type Metallogenic Estimated resources or References
belt name age scale
Discovering Qinling Nanyangshan lithium deposit Granite 420 Ma Metal resources: 2900 t, Li ZD et al., 2021
new pegmatite type average grade: 1%
deposits/clues Caijia lithium deposit Granite 441‒418 Ma Metal resources: 19800 t, Li ZD et al., 2021
in metallogenic pegmatite type average grade: 0.72%
belts, or making West Qaidam Deep lithium-bearing brine newly Brine type Paleogene- Having prospecting Pan T et al., 2022
new discoveries Basin discovered in the structures Neogene potential, LiCl grade:
in the deep part including Luoyanshan, 333.00‒430.19 mg/L
of or at the Jianshishan, Hongsanhan No.4,
periphery of and Yahu
existing lithium Songpan-Ganzi Caolong Li-Be deposit Granite 204‒200 Ma Prospecting clues, Li2O Li WF et al., 2021
deposits pegmatite type grade: 0.95%‒3.8%
Jiada and south Jiada spodumene Granite Potential Li2O reserves: Wang DH et al.,
deposits discovered at the pegmatite type More than 220000 tons 2022
periphery of Maerkang, western
Sichuan
Large-medium saline lake type B- Saline lake type Quaternary Estimated scale: Large- Li K et al., 2019
Li-K salt deposits, such as Kushui medium scale
Lake and Huangcao Lake,
discovered to the south of
Dahongliutan
Sizemuzu spodumene-sodium- Granite Medium scale estimated, Liu W et al., 2018
feldspar granite pegmatite-type pegmatite type resources: 515400 t Yue et al., 2018
lithium deposit newly discovered (average Li2O grade:
in Ke'eryin ore district in western 1.87%)
Sichuan
Bailongshan pegmatite-type Granite 208.1 ± 1.5 Ma Indicated resources of Wang H et al., 2021
lithium deposit pegmatite type Li2O: More than 600000 t,
average Li2O grade:
0.93%‒3.44%
X03 vein of the Jiajika orefield Granite 216‒214 Ma Li2O mineralization Li JK et al., 2014;
pegmatite type, throughout the vein, Fu XF et al., 2014;
newly average Li2O grade: 1.5%, Hao XF et al., 2015;
discovered and newly increased Li2O Liu SB et al., 2019
aplite type resources: 643100 t
Yakeke mining area in the Jiajika Newly Newly increased Liu SB et al., 2019
orefield discovered prospective resources of
granite type Li2O: 257700 t, average
Li2O grade: 1.10%
Jiangnan Huangbaishan rare metal Granite 140‒130 Ma Prospecting clues, w (Li): Li P et al., 2019b
orogenic belt pegmatite concentration area pegmatite type (3780 ‒8027)×10-6 Huang JZ et al.,
(average: 6421×10-6) 2022
Making Songpan-Ganzi 2×106 t of Li2O resources Granite 223‒212 Ma Cumulatively discovered Li K et al., 2019
important accumulatively discovered in pegmatite type Li2O resources: 2×106 t
progress in the Dahongliutan, Xinjiang
exploration of 4.5×106 t of Li2O resources Granite Cumulatively discovered China Mineral
lithium reserves cumulatively discovered in Jiajika, pegmatite type Li2O resources: 4.5×106 t Resources 2019
of currently Sichuan
determined
Jiajika and the peripheral Granite Predicted Li2O resources: Wang DH et al.,
lithium deposits
Qianning-Jiulong metallogenic pegmatite type 4×106 t 2019
zone
Ke'eryin and the peripheral Granite Predicted Li2O Wang DH et al.,
Rangtang-Jinchuan metallogenic pegmatite type resources:4×106 t 2019
zone
Northern Shiqu prospect area Granite Predicted resources of the Wang DH et al.,
pegmatite type whole mining area: More 2019
than 2×106 t
754 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767

Table 6. (Continued)
Progress type Metallogenic Progress content Deposit type Metallogenic Estimated resources or References
belt name age scale
427000 t of vein quartz-type Vein quartz Newly increased resources: China Mineral
lithium resources newly type 427000 t Resources 2018
discovered in Shaotangou in the
Kangding-Daofu-Yajiang
integrated rare metal exploration
area in Sichuan
The Dangba spodumene deposit Granite 208.1‒199.3 Ma Super large, predicted Wang ZP et al.,
has a super large scale according pegmatite type resource reserves: More 2018;
to Proven Li2O resources. Based than 1×106 t Fei GC et al., 2020
on the orebody scale revealed by
the latest ore exploration projects,
the resource reserves are estimated
to be more than one million tons
Discovering Tuquan- Li-Sn ore bodies discovered at the Magmatic 138‒121.9 Ma Li2O resources: Up to Wang DH et al.,
new lithium Wengniute periphery of the Weilasituo hydrothermal 357000 t (Li2O grade: 2022
metallogenic mining area, Inner Mongolia type 1.28%)
belts Altyn Tagh Lepidolite pegmatite veins Li2O resources of the No.1 Zhang H et al., 2022
discovered in the western section orebody alone: 171600 t
of the Altyn Tagh metallogenic (average Li2O grade:
belt 1.07%)
Zongwulong Chakabeishan lithium-beryllium Pegmatite type 217 Ma Small, 14200 t, average Pan T et al., 2022;
structural belt deposit in Tianjun County Li2O grade: 1.11%‒3.13% Wang BZ et al.,
2020
Qiemogeshan lithium-beryllium Pegmatite type 229.5±1.3 Ma Li2O grade: 1.33%‒2.59% Li SP et al., 2021
deposit
Himalayas Qiongjiagang Granite 25.3‒24.2Ma Prospecting clues, average Zhao JX et al., 2021
pegmatite type Li2O grade: 1.30%
Kuju Granite 21±0.3Ma Prospecting clues Zhou QF et al.,
pegmatite type 2021
Pushila spodumene pegmatite vein Granite 25‒23 Ma Prospecting clues, Li Liu C et al., 2020
pegmatite type content: Up to 8460 × 10-6
Requ spodumene-bearing Granite About 24Ma Prospecting clues, Li2O Liu XC et al., 2021
pegmatite vein pegmatite type content: 1.30%‒2.15%
Youjiang Basin Pingguo lithium-bearing bauxite Carbonate clay About 260 Ma Li2O grade: ≥ 0.20% Yao SQ et al., 2021
deposit type
Xiangexi- Carbonate clay-type lithium Carbonate clay Li2O resources: Wen HJ et al., 2020;
Qianzhongnan deposit discovered in Xiaoshiqiao, type approximately 340000 t, Zhu L et al., 2021
metallogenic Yuxi, Yunnan Li2O grade: 0.10%‒1.02%
subbelt (average: 0.30%)
Dazhuyuan tungsten- and lithium- Paleo- Late Prospecting clues, Li2O Wang DH et al.,
bearing bauxite deposit weathered Carboniferous grade: Up to 0.58% 2013;
crust-derived Li HL et al., 2016
clay mineral
type
Southern China Lithium-rich brine resources or Lithium-rich Cretaceous- Liu CL et al., 2021
deposits discovered in the brine resources Paleogene
Jiangling sag or deposits
Lithium-rich brine resources or Lithium-rich Cretaceous- Liu CL et al., 2021
deposits discovered in the brine resources Paleogene
Qianjiang sag or deposits
Lithium-rich brine resources or Lithium-rich Cretaceous- Liu CL et al., 2021
deposits discovered in the Jitai brine resources Paleogene
Basin or deposits

thermal dome pegmatite orefields, as well as the prospecting and concealed pegmatite veins with prospecting potential may
of pegmatite-type rare metal deposits in the Late Indosinian occur in the deep part of the Jiajika area (Fan JB et al., 2022)
and Early Yanshanian magma - structure - thermal dome and that fine-grained ores of the granite type also exist in the
occurrence areas in the eastern part and on the northern deep portion of the pegmatite-type lithium deposits (Yang YQ
margin of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (Wang DH et al., 2017). et al., 2020). These findings verify the effectiveness of the
In the recent geophysical exploration and deep verification of “Five levels + Basement ” metallogenic model. Meanwhile,
the pegmatite-type lithium deposits in the Jiajika orefield, this model has served as a guide for the prospecting
researchers have found that multiple concealed rock bodies deployment in the Jiajika area (Ma SC et al., 2020).
 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767 755

Two-mica granite
Microcline pegmatite N
Microcline-albite-pegmatite
Ⅴ
Albite pegmatite
Albite-spodumene pegmatite Ⅳ
X03
Albite-lepidolite pegmatite Ⅴ X01
134 Pegmatite vein No. X07
Zoning boundary 308 X05
of pegmatite types ρq
Ⅲ Type zone No. X06
Newly discovered vein Ⅳ
Ⅲ
134
Ⅳ Ⅱ X09 Ⅴ
Ⅳ
Ⅱ
Ⅲ 104

ρq

ρ N bTa
ρ N bTa

ρLi

1 km ρLi

4500
ρ Be
Indicative elevation/m

ρ N bTa Ⅴ Depth range of

Ⅰ
preliminarily
4300
proven resources

4100 Ⅱ ρ N bTa Ⅳ
Ⅲ ρLi
Pre-exploration range
3900
ρLi

Spodumene
pegmatite
vein Quartz
Layered vein
pegmatite
vein

Fig. 16. Schematic diagram of the “Five levels + Basement” metallogenic model in Jiajika, Sichuan (after Wang DH et al., 2017). The base-
ment mainly refers to stratiform and stratoid orebodies; this diagram has inconsistent horizontal and vertical scales and is just a schematic dia-
gram. I‒microcline pegmatite belt; II‒microcline-albite belt; III‒ albite belt; IV‒spodumene belt; V‒lepidolite (muscovite) belt.

5.2.2. The “high mountain - deep basin” metallogenic mode both serving as the main material sources of potassium and
Based on research on the genesis of Qarhan Salt Lake, lithium (Fig. 17).
Yuan JQ et al. (1983) proposed the “high mountain - deep Based on practices in recent years, as well as the genetic
basin” metallogenic mode for the first time, aiming to explain characteristics of foreign saline lake brine-type lithium
the genesis of the salt lake from the aspects of structures, deposits, the “high mountain-deep basin” metallogenic mode
climate, provenance, and potassium accumulation. This mode has been further subdivided into the “deep basin - deep water”
has remarkable features as follows: (1) The structural mode and the “deep basin - shallow water ” mode. The
conditions to form the landform of high mountains and deep characteristics of the “deep basin - deep water” mode are as
basins with a topographic height difference greater than 2000 follows. Water is primarily recharged by the seawater nearby,
m are required; (2) both sufficient water supply and arid which periodically pours into the basins through limited
climate conditions are necessary; (3) a large area of narrow channels, thus keeping the basins at a high water level.
immediate-acid magmas are distributed in the high mountains Then, the reinjected seawater evaporates and forms salt under
surrounding the basins, and deeply circulating water bearing extreme drought conditions. This model generally has
potassium and lithium is distributed on lake edges as supply, significant deep-water depositional characteristics. The “deep
756 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767

Do
wn NW
wa
Sa

rd a
lt w

ir fl
eat

Glaciers
he

ow
rin

Qaizhong fault
g

K、Mg、Na、
K、Mg、Na、 Cl Cl、SO4
B、Li

B、Li
n
ferentiatio
d ch emical dif
Gravity an
Salt cap rock Brine salt deposition Vapor Disseminated magnesium/potasium Saline sandy clay Overflow supply
chlorides and potasium rich brine
Geothermal Brine N2 salt-bearing
Seepage supply Weathering water rich in K Salt-bearing strata Sand-gravel brine strata

Fig. 17. The “high mountain - deep basin” metallogenic mode of multi-stage lake basins (after Zheng MP et al., 2016).

basin - shallow water ” mode features a shallow water “multi-cycle deep-circulation endogenous and exogenous
environment and is characterized by significantly intensified integration”. Moreover, they confirmed by examples that the
terrigenous supply the most. Particularly, basin-controlling exogenous sedimentary lithium deposits and endogenous
faults are developed at the basin boundary in this model. They magmatic-hydrothermal lithium deposits constitute a material
provide favorable channels for the overflow of various circulation process of lithium rather than being irrelevant to
lithium-rich brine resources, which serve as an important each other. On one hand, endogenous lithium deposits tend to
material source for active discrete basins (Shuai KY, 2019). develop around exogenous lithium deposits. For example,
Based on the “high mountain - deep basin ” metallogenic independent lithium deposits have developed at the periphery
mode and the potassium prospecting practice in Lop Nur, of the Qaidam Basin where brine lithium deposits occur (Pan
Wang ML et al. (2005) put forward the “high mountain - deep T et al., 2020), and the saline lake-type lithium deposits in the
basin migration ” theory, which served as a guide for the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau tend to be adjacent to occurrence areas
prospecting of brine-type potassium deposits in the Luobei of leucogranites. On the other hand, since lithium can lower
sag. Specifically, under the influence of neotectonic activities, the melting point of sediments (London D, 2015), lithium-rich
secondary deep basins were formed in the “high mountain - sediments can be remelted to form lithium-bearing magmas
deep basin ” model of the Tarim Basin since the end of the after being buried to a certain depth. Then, the magmas can
Neogene. They evolved into the third-order deep basins of the form lithium-bearing granites and granite pegmatites through
Luobei sag, which become the final concentration area of normal crystallization differentiation (Wang DH et al., 2022).
brine. In this way, the phenomenon of deposits migrating with These internal relationships indicate cyclical lithium
basins occurred. mineralization (Wang DH et al., 2017), which will serve as a
Pan T et al. (2022) supplemented the ore-forming material guide for determining lithium prospecting directions. The
sources in the “high mountain - deep basin ” metallogenic evidence of this theory also includes: (1) The ore-hosting rock
mode based on the previous research results of Qarhan saltine masses are mostly S-type granites (Roger F et al., 2004; De
lake-type lithium deposits. The updated ore-forming material Sigoyer J et al., 2014; Xu ZQ et al., 2018); (2) the δ7Li values
sources include geothermal water related to volcanism (Zhu of granites (−3.1 ‰ ‒ 6.6 ‰) approximate those of
YZ et al., 1989), injected lithium-bearing river water (Yu JQ metasedimentary rocks (−3.1 ‰ ‒ 2.5 ‰) (Wang DH et al.,
et al., 2018), and surface river water in the basins mixed with 2017); (3) the genesis of moderately or extremely lithium-rich
the deep water with a hydrochemical type of CaCl from the magmas are related to the involvement of felsic continental
northern margin at different mixing ratios (Duan ZH et al., crustal materials (Benson TR et al., 2017). The lithium
1988; Chen JQ et al., 1994; Yuan JQ et al., 1995; Liu XQ et metallogenic belts divided in this study also have the
al., 2002). characteristics that hard rock lithium metallogenic belts are
closely related to brine-type and sedimentary lithium
5.2.3. “Multi-cycle deep-circulation endogenous and metallogenic belts in time and space (Fig. 15).
exogenous integration” lithium metallogenic theory
Based on previous studies of the metallogenic series in the 5.3. Progress in lithium extraction technologies
Altai metallogenic province in Xinjiang and the metallogenic
regularity of lithium deposits in China (Wang DH et al., 2002; Besides lithium, saline lake brine contains large quantities
Chen YC et al., 2015), as well as exploration practices, Wang of other elements such as Na, K, B, and Mg. Therefore, it is
DH et al. (2017) proposed the lithium metallogenic theory of necessary to remove impurity ions in the process of lithium
 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767 757

extraction (Su H et al., 2019). Since Li and Mg have quite built equipment with an annual output of 3000 t of lithium
similar properties and hydrated ionic radii, a higher Mg/Li carbonate in East Taijinar by using the lithium ion-selective
ratio of brine poses a greater challenge for lithium extraction membrane separation technique. The products have lithium
(Jiang CX et al., 2022). Accordingly, the technical difficulties carbonate content of up to 99.7%, meeting the criterion for
and cost of lithium extraction are mainly determined by the lithium carbonate used in the lithium battery industry (Jiang
Mg/Li ratio (Liu XL et al., 2009). Compared to foreign salt CX et al., 2022). To overcome the drawbacks of high material
lakes, the lithium resources in salt lakes in China are generally and energy consumption and excessive discharge of
characterized by higher Mg/Li ratios of a few dozen or even wastewater, waste gases, and residues in the process of
exceeding one thousand (Xu SQ et al., 2021). The formation chemical lithium extraction and to address the bottleneck
of saline lake brine-type lithium deposits on the Qinghai-Tibet problem restricting large-scale comprehensive utilization of
Plateau is closely related to the continent-continent collision, salt lakes in China, the team from Qinghai Institute of Salt
which is possibly the cause of the high Mg/Li ratio of the Lakes, Chinese Academy of Sciences, together with Western
brine (Liu CL et al., 2021). Existing lithium extraction Mines Group Ltd., achieved the industrial-grade production of
technologies fail to meet the demand for industrial lithium carbonate in the East Taijinar Salt Lake using the
applications (Zhao X et al., 2017). Moreover, the demand for lithium ion-selective migration and separation method (Peng
lithium is increasing with the rapid development of the new KF and Jiang TH, 2015). Minmetals Salt Lake Co., Ltd.
energy industry. Therefore, it is of great economic value and successfully produced 10000 t of lithium carbonate using the
strategic significance to develop lithium separation and gradient coupling membrane separation technique (Editorial
extraction technologies applicable to salt lakes with a high Board of Journal of Salt and Chemical Industry, 2019).
Mg/Li ratio in China (Jiang CX et al., 2022). Compared with the technologies for lithium extraction
Presently, extracting lithium from saline lake brine with a from the saline lake brine, the lithium concentration and
high Mg/Li ratio is an important topic of concern and study. recovery from pegmatites are much easier since the lithium-
China has developed several lithium extraction techniques, bearing minerals in pegmatites contain coarse-grained
which have been applied in the industry on a certain scale (Su crystalline particles. Therefore, spodumenes in pegmatites are
H et al., 2019). These techniques mainly include the methods the main source of lithium ores (Tadesse B, 2019).
of precipitation, solvent extraction, ion sieve adsorption, Spodumenes have simple structures and are conducive to
nanofiltration, and electrodialysis (Zhao X et al., 2017). The concentration and smelting, and the details are as follows.
precipitation method applies to lithium extraction from the Raw spodumenes with a Li2O grade of approximately 1% first
saline lake brine with a low Mg/Li ratio (Zhang HZ et al., form ore concentrates with a Li2O grade of approximately 6%
2017). The solvent extraction method has the highest lithium through processing and sorting. Then, the ore concentrates are
extraction efficiency for the brine with a high Mg/Li ratio. refined into various compounds, such as lithium carbonate
Moreover, with the hydrophobic ionic liquid as an extraction and lithium hydroxide. The commonly used lithium refining
agent, this method features low production cost, low method is the calcination-sulfuric acid leaching method (Wu
equipment corrosion, and low environmental pollution. XS et al., 2020). There are two latest lithium purification
Therefore, the solvent extraction method has a great prospect methods presently. One is purifying the lithium sulfate
for industrial applications (Zhao D et al., 2017). Lithium-ion solution and then replacing LiOH by adding NaOH, and the
sieves (LISs) are mostly powdered in shape, and granulation other is obtaining LiOH·H2O by directly treating the lithium
is required for industrial operation, which, however, leads to sulfate solution using membrane electrolysis (Minmetals
reduced adsorption capacity. The nanofiltration technique can Securities, 2019). During the development and utilization of
separate lithium from magnesium to a certain extent (Ma PH lithium resources in western Sichuan in recent years, Chinese
et al., 2004). Nevertheless, it is difficult to use this method for scientists proposed a new technique consisting of lithium-
lithium extraction from saline lake brine with a high Mg/Li niobium-tantalum bulk flotation - removing iron from mixed
ratio since a high Mg/Li ratio will significantly reduce the ore concentrates using a low-intensity magnetic field -
separation performance (Zhang HZ et al., 2017). The separating niobium and tantalum using gravity concentration
electrodialysis technique has an encouraging application and a high-intensity magnetic field. This technique increases
prospect and can reduce the Mg/Li ratio of the brine from 150 the Li2O grade of ore concentrates to 6.13% and the recovery
to 8.0. However, a too high Mg/Li ratio will reduce the rate of lithium elements to 88.07% (China Mineral Resources
transmission rate of lithium ions and further reduce the 2018).
recovery rate of lithium elements (Zhao X et al., 2017). The technologies for lithionite extraction are relatively
Currently, the solvent extraction method is feasible and shows mature. A new extraction method mainly includes the
a great industrial prospect. Nevertheless, there is an urgent following steps: (1) First, lithionites are extracted using
need to solve the problems such as emulsification, the cyclic sulfuric acid leaching at approximately 100°C and under
utilization of extract agents and hydrochloric acid, and the atmospheric pressure; (2) then, multistage purification is
prevention of environmental pollution (Zhao D et al., 2017). performed, including precipitation using gypsum, the removal
The new methods for lithium extraction from the saline of impurities such as Fe-Al, and the removal of Ca impurity;
lake brine are as follows. Qinghai Lithium Industry Co., Ltd. (3) finally, lithium carbonate is extracted through
758 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767

carbonization. This method requires no calcination and thus levels. From the angle of the horizontal distribution, these
saves energy (Wu XS et al., 2020). In recent years, Chinese delineated lithium metallogenic belts are the key areas for the
scientists have tackled technological challenges of efficiently prospecting of various lithium deposits. Based on the lithium
utilizing lithionites in Yichun and increased the leaching rates geochemical data, Wang XQ et al. (2020) determined the
of Li, Rb, and Cs in lithionite concentrates to 89.7%, 93.3%, content and anomalous spatial distribution of national lithium
and 93.9%, respectively (China Mineral Resources 2017), elements of different lithologies and ages in different
thus achieving the effective extraction of these elements. geological settings. Moreover, they described the material
The hectorites in the clay-type lithium deposits boast large settings for lithium mineralization and made strategic
resources, few difficulties with exploitation, low stripping predictions of the prospective areas of lithium resources.
ratio, and dispense with blasting. Currently, lithium Finally, they delineated 19 anomaly zones or geochemical
concentrates are produced from the clay-type hectorites in the provinces, which are consistent with the distribution of
following steps: (1) Granulation (mixing after adding CaCO3 lithium deposits. Therefore, great attention should be paid to
and CaSO4); (2) calcination (heating to 1050°C to remove the anomaly zones or geochemical provinces where no
volatile components); (3) obtaining lithium sulfate solution lithium deposit has been discovered. For example, the
through water leaching; (4) evaporation/crystallization Jiamusi, Erlian Basin, and West Tianshan geochemical
(removing impurities step by step according to the solubility provinces all have great potential for lithium prospecting. The
difference of various elements); (4) carbonization of lithium lithium metallogenic theory of “multi-cycle deep-circulation
sulfate solution by adding sodium carbonate (Wu XS et al., endogenous and exogenous integration ” has confirmed the
2020). internal relationships between exogenous sedimentary
Technologies for lithium extraction from coal seams are deposits and endogenous magmatic-hydrothermal lithium
also under active research and development (Zhao L et al., deposits (Wang DH et al., 2017). Therefore, this theory
2022). The latest technologies for lithium extraction from coal broadens the prospecting directions and targets of lithium
ash are as follows: (1) Coal ash is mixed with sodium deposits. Based on this, the orogenic belts with a high
carbonate, and then coal ash sintering is conducted. This elevation in their historical period in areas with widely
technique has a lithium leaching rate of up to 65% under developed sedimentary and saline lake brine-type exogenous
optimal conditions (Dai H et al., 2015); (2) lithium is deposits are prospecting targets for hard rock lithium deposits.
extracted from the high-alumina coal ash of the Junggar Recent years have witnessed the continuous discovery of
coalfield using the acid and alkali combination method, and lithium deposits in the giant Songpan-Ganzi lithium
then pre-desilication is performed using the alkali dissolution metallogenic belt, making this metallogenic belt a key area for
method to improve the lithium leaching rate. This technique surveying granitic pegmatite-type and saline lake brine-type
has a lithium leaching rate of up to 80% under optimal lithium deposits and making breakthroughs in the prospecting
conditions (Hu PP, 2018); (3) lithium is leached from coal ash of these types of lithium deposits (Li K et al., 2019; Pan T et
slurry using sodium carbonate, with a lithium leaching rate al., 2022). Based on the unique spectral characteristics of
reaching 70%; (4) the acid-alkali alternating chemical rocks and minerals, Dai JJ et al. (2017) carried out remote
dissolution method, using which the leaching rate of lithium sensing prospecting in the Jiajika lithium ore district. Among
from coal ash can reach 80% (Ma ZB et al., 2019). 34 remote sensing anomalies verified in the field, 20 are
In addition, Wu XS et al. (2020) reported a technology for spodumene-bearing pegmatite outcrops or boulders,
lithium extraction from new types of lithium deposits (e.g., indicating good prospecting results. Remote sensing
the lithionite type, the smectite type, and the coal seam-related prospecting can be referenced and promoted in uninhabited or
type), namely the SiLeach® technology. This technology is inaccessible areas to seek prospecting clues.
used to extract lithium from lithium silicate minerals such as From the angle of the vertical distribution of lithium
lithionites and spodumenes. It is a hydrometallurgical process deposits, the “Five levels + Basement ”prospecting model is
that extracts lithium and many rare metals such as Sn, W, Cs, an empirical model summarized by Chinese geologists based
K, and rare earth elements from lithionites and spodumenes, on practices, and remarkable results have been achieved. This
without requiring high-temperature calcination (Griffith C et model serves as an effective guide and reference for the
al., 2018). This technique has been applied in the Sadisdorf prospecting of pegmatite-type rare metal deposits in the
lithionite mine in Germany, confirming that it is a proprietary thermal dome occurrence areas (Wang DH et al., 2010, 2017).
technology with low energy consumption and enjoys Using this model, deep prospecting can be conducted in the
considerable prospects (Wu XS et al., 2020). thermal dome areas on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau based on
existing lithium deposits in these areas. The lithium isotope-
5.4. Prospect prediction of lithium deposits in China based lithium prospecting method was developed based on the
significant fractionation effects of lithium isotopes 6Li and 7Li
This study delineated national lithium metallogenic belts and noticeable differences in the lithium isotopic
(Fig.15) based on the national lithium metallogenic belts compositions of ore-bearing pegmatites, pegmatites bearing
proposed by Wang DH et al. (2022), as well as the latest no ore, and surrounding rocks (Liu LJ et al., 2017). This
prospecting results, metallogenic factors, and exploration method is used to guide deep prospecting to discover possible
 Zhang et al. / China Geology 5 (2022) 734−767 759

concealed ore bodies (Wang DH et al., 2018). The large-scale deposits mainly refer to brine-type and sedimentary deposits,
prospecting method, which is designed to determine the type, including the saline lake brine type, the underground brine
size, and density of pegmatite boulders by referencing the type, the sedimentary type, the clay type, and the hot spring
occurrence of pegmatite veins and the terrain conditions in the type. These types almost cover all lithium deposit types in the
orefield, can be used to quickly and effectively identify world.
pegmatite boulder types (e.g., moraines, proluvium, and (iii) Lithium deposits in China were formed in all geologic
autochthonous or semi-autochthonous type) and to further ages, especially during the Indosinian-Yanshanian, which is
determine the types, occurrence, and scales of pegmatite veins the peak period for the formation of hard rock lithium
in the Quaternary coverage area, thus providing a basis for the deposits. The saline lake brine-type and hot spring-type
deployment of drilling engineering (Liu SB et al., 2020). This lithium deposits were generally formed during the Cenozoic.
method can serve as a model for the prospecting of pegmatite- The underground brine-type lithium deposits were mainly
type lithium deposits represented by lithium in the deep-cut formed during the Cenozoic and the Paleogene-Quaternary.
areas, the Quaternary coverage areas, and the pegmatite Furthermore, the sedimentary and clay-type lithium deposits
boulder areas. were primarily formed during the Hercynian.
From the angle of the relationship between supply and (iv) Over the last decade, new progress has been made in
demand and the technical methods, as the lithium price rises, most of the lithium metallogenic belts in China, including the
discoveries about new deposits or new clues, new discoveries
the cut-off and industrial grades of lithium deposits to be
made in currently determined lithium deposits, newly
exploited will gradually decrease, and the lithium deposits
increased reserves of lithium resources, and discoveries of
with low grades or associated lithium deposits will be focused
new prospecting clues and metallogenic zones of lithium. The
and exploited. For example, compared with the high-grade
progress has enriched the understanding of lithium
pegmatite-type lithium deposits, the low-grade granite-type metallogenic ages and lithium deposit types. Future lithium
lithium deposits are large in scale and are easy to exploit prospecting should focus on lithium metallogenic belts, the
(Wang DH, 2022). Moreover, as mining technologies and deep and peripheral portions of existing large pegmatite-type
methods upgrade and damage to the environment decreases, lithium deposits, geophysical and geochemical anomaly areas
the sedimentary and clay-type lithium deposits are expected to with mineralization clues, and areas with the occurrence of
become important lithium resources to be exploited and large-scale low-grade associated granite types and
utilized. All these characteristics will significantly affect the sedimentary and clay-type lithium resources.
new prospecting directions and further form a new framework
of lithium deposits in China (Wang DH et al., 2022). CRediT authorship contribution statement
The continuous discovery of new deposit types in recent
years greatly enriches the types and resource reserves of Fan-Yu Qi and Xue-Zheng Gao conceived the presented
lithium deposits in China. The newly discovered deposit types idea, Bo Zhang, Xiao-Lei Li, Yun-Tao Shang, Zhao-Yu
serve as supplementary targets for the future exploration and Kong, Li-Qiong Jia, Jie Meng, and Hui Guo completed the
development of lithium deposits. Future lithium prospecting compilation of lithium resources, deposit types, and
should focus on lithium metallogenic belts, the deep and metallogenic regularities in China. Bo Zhang prepared the
peripheral portions of existing large pegmatite-type lithium manuscript, and drew all the figures. Fu-Kang Fang, Yan-Bin
deposits, geophysical and geochemical anomaly areas with Liu, Xiao Jiang, Hui Chai, Zi Liu, Xian-Tao Ye, and Guo-
mineralization clues, and areas with the occurrence of large- Dong Wang supervised the findings of this work. All authors
scale low-grade associated granite types and sedimentary and discussed the results and contributed to the final manuscript.
clay-type lithium resources.
Declaration of competing interest
6. Conclusions
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
(i) China boasts abundant lithium resources. As calculated
based on Li2O, China has 10920 × 103 t of lithium reserves Acknowledgment
and 4046.8×103 t of proven lithium reserves, which are
intensively distributed in provinces and regions such as This study was funded by the Major Research Plan of the
Qinghai, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Tibet, and Xinjiang. The lithium National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.
resources in China are concentrated mainly in the granite-, 92062217) and the project of China Geological Survey
granitic pegmatite-, and saline lake brine-type deposits, while (DD20190405).
other types of lithium deposits occur only on a small scale.
(ii) Lithium deposits in China can be divided into References
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