2

Unit I NTRO D U C TIO N

During Unit 2 of Applied Computing you will look at a range of
emerging and innovative technologies, such as augmented and virtual
realities, blockchain, drone and wearable technologies and the Internet
of Things (IoT). You will gain an understanding of how networks are
used to communicate data and information, identify threats to data
and information in a networked environment and investigate a range of
security measures that can be used to protect against these threats.

Area of Study 1: Innovative solutions

OUTCOME 1 You will work collaboratively in groups to develop an

innovative solution to an identified need or opportunity. Each group will
follow the problem-solving methodology to create a solution to the need
or opportunity using innovative or emerging technology. Each group will
also prepare a progress plan to assist in the management of the task.

Area of Study 2: Network security

OUTCOME 2 Your teacher will provide you with a case study. You will
be required to examine the capabilities and vulnerabilities of a network,
design a network solution, discuss threats to data and information and
propose security strategies to protect the data and information.
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5 Approaches to
problem solving

KEY KNOWLEDGE FOR THE STUDENT

This chapter, along with Chapter 6, covers the content for Unit 2, Area
On completion of this chapter, of Study 1, Innovative solutions. For this unit you are required to work
you will be able to demonstrate in groups to analyse, design, develop and evaluate an innovative solution
knowledge of: to an identified need or opportunity involving a digital system. In this
chapter the components used in digital systems, the types of digital
Digital systems devices used and emerging trends in technology are introduced. The
goals and objectives of digital systems and a range of issues related to the
•• components of digital systems
use of technology are discussed.
•• types of digital devices used for
a range of current and emerging
applications such as smartphones, FOR THE TEACHER
smart refrigerators and virtual
assistants In this chapter a range of technology used in current and emerging
•• emerging trends in digital systems
technology is introduced.
and the importance of innovation For Unit 2, Outcome 1, students are expected to work in groups
to organisations, such as improving to create a solution to an identified need or opportunity. This may be
efficiency and effectiveness of achieved using a programming language, spreadsheet software,
customer service and maintaining web-authoring software, presentation software and a tool for planning
competitiveness a project. Chapter 6 deals with approaches to problem solving, and also
•• functions and capabilities of digital covers knowledge required to complete Unit 2, Outcome 1.
systems used by individuals and
organisations, such as assistive
technologies, financial services,
global positioning system (GPS)
devices, robotics and traffic
management

Interactions and impact

•• goals and objectives of digital
systems
•• economic issues involving emerging
technologies, such as access,
deskilling, job loss, misuse and
sustainability
•• the impact of current and emerging
technologies, such as automation,
cyberbullying and the decline of
physical human interactions and
interpersonal skills
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Reproduced from the VCE Applied Computing Study

Design (2020<en dash>2023) © VCAA; used with
permission.

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Components and emerging trends

in digital systems
You were introduced to digital systems in Chapter 3. A digital system can consist of a single
device, a collection of devices or a network. A digital system is used to transform data into
information, providing output that meets the needs of the user. Digital systems are found in
a wide range of applications, including smartphones, drones, microcontrollers and robotic
devices. Desktop and laptop devices are common examples of a typical digital system.
A digital system consists of hardware and software. To complete a task using a device, both
hardware and software are essential. Refer to Chapter 3 for more specific details of digital systems.
As technology evolves, and advances are made in the development of microchips and
smaller and more powerful processors, the use of a range of devices beyond traditional
desktop or laptop computers continues to grow. Digital technologies are now used in a range
of devices that previously did not use such technologies, and new and innovative uses of
technology are constantly evolving.
Emerging technologies are technologies that are perceived to be capable of making ‘Datafication’ is a term
significant change within society. There are many ways in which an organisation can use that is used to describe
emerging technologies to make improvements in the way they operate and the products and the process of turning
aspects of everyday life into
services they offer. The increasing datafication of society, the increasing number of smart quantifiable, measurable
devices in everyday life, the constant growth in both processing power and miniaturisation of data. This can include the
number of hours of sleep a
technology, the increasing use of automation and the rise of artificial intelligence can, and person has each night, the
do, have a significant impact on both individuals and organisations. kilojoules they consume,
the number of steps they
Organisations can use this data to find new customers, increase customer retention, take or the hours they
improve customer service, improve marketing campaigns, track social media and predict spend sitting or standing
sales trends. This data can be used to inform their long-term strategic and operational each day.
decisions, leading to an increase in their productivity and profitability.
The online streaming service Netflix has risen to prominence by using data. The Netflix
algorithm collects data about what users are watching, what they are searching for and what
they are skipping over. This data can be used to create a tailored list of movie recommendations
or to commission a new series. Netflix is one of the most successful online companies.
In this Area of Study, you will investigate the use of digital devices in emerging technology.
Then you will work collaboratively, following the problem-solving methodology, to develop
an innovative solution. The various items of technology described below are examples of the
types of technology you could consider for this task.

Smartphones
A smartphone is a mobile telephone integrated with a digital system allowing functionality
not previously associated with telephones, such as an operating system, web browsing, email
and the ability to run software applications. The first smartphone evolved out of personal
digital assistant (PDA) devices. These offered a full keyboard and allowed users to input,
store and retrieve data, including calendar, address book and note-taking functionalities, as
well as the ability to install additional software applications.
Early PDAs were stand-alone devices whose users were required to synchronise their
portal device to their desktop computer using a wired connection. In 1992, IBM released a
device named Simon that offered wireless connectivity, allowing users to send emails and

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Shutterstock.com/Lukmanazis
Figure 5.1 A smartphone is more than just a phone.

faxes. In 2007, LG and Apple released smartphones that featured a touchscreen, and in
An app store or app
marketplace is a portal 2008, HTC released a smartphone that included the Android operating system.
that is used to distribute Key features of a smartphone are an embedded motherboard that includes a processor,
software applications
(apps). App stores memory and storage space, internet connectivity, a physical or onscreen keyboard, camera
distribute apps that and GPS capabilities. Smartphones often offer multiple communication methods, such as
are either operating-
system based or phone- connectivity via mobile networks or through wi-fi or Bluetooth connections.
manufacturer based. One of the biggest advancements in smartphones was the ability to connect to an app store.
Because smartphones use This allowed users to search for, and download, software applications to run on their phones.
an operating system and
software applications, they
require regular software Smart refrigerators
updates, as improvements
and fixes to the software An example of a regular household appliance that has been integrated with technology is
are developed. These the refrigerator. Smart refrigerators offer the functionality of a regular refrigerator but also
updates are often managed
through the app store. offer the ability to connect to the internet through a wi-fi connection. Smart refrigerators
can include a touchscreen, internal cameras, a range of temperature-controlled zones, and
connectivity through a smartphone app. Some smart refrigerators can also connect with
other smart devices in the home, including dishwashers, microwaves, televisions and virtual
assistants. Features included will vary by brand and model.
The functionality a smart refrigerator offers may include the ability to:
•• control temperature by drawer or compartment
•• view the contents of the refrigerator using an internal camera
•• send alerts when the refrigerator encounters a problem
•• control other settings using a smartphone app.
In some models a barcode reader is installed, allowing products to be scanned when
they are placed in or taken out of the refrigerator. This creates a list of those items the
refrigerator currently contains, which the owner can view through a built-in display or via
the smartphone app. They can then use this information to create a shopping list.
The touchscreen on a smart refrigerator allows the user to add the use-by dates of particular
items, create shopping lists and even broadcast an image from a smart television. Other smart
refrigerators have sensors, and doors that open automatically when the sensors detect touch.
The same sensors are used to detect if the door is left open, in which case it will be closed.
The technology used in smart refrigerators includes a microcontroller consisting of a
motherboard, processor, memory and input/output controllers, which is connected to the

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Getty Images/Bloomberg
Figure 5.2 Smart refrigerators can connect to other home appliances,
such as dishwashers and microwaves.

various hardware of the refrigerator including sensors, camera, barcode scanner, thermostat,
internal display and keyboard. Wi-fi connectivity also allows smart refrigerators to receive 5.1
THINK ABOUT
software updates, containing software fixes and advances in functionality. APPLIED COMPUTING

Virtual assistants What other smart

household devices are
A virtual assistant is a software agent that can perform tasks or services for an individual. there? What extra
Virtual assistants are also known as intelligent personal assistants. A software agent differs from functionality do these
devices have apart
regular software applications in that it is capable of acting with some degree of autonomy from their primary
to complete tasks. Each software agent is designed to complete specific tasks or behaviours. function?
The first modern virtual assistant was Apple’s Siri, which came pre-installed on the
iPhone 4S in 2011. Other well-known virtual assistants include Amazon’s Alexis, Microsoft’s
Cortana and Google’s Now.
Virtual assistants can be used:
•• in instant messaging applications, to analyse text input by the user and formulate a response
•• in instant messaging and telephone applications, to analyse and respond to audio input
5.2
•• with embedded smart speakers, such as Google Home, allowing the user to request THINK ABOUT
information, then analysing the request and retrieving information. APPLIED COMPUTING
If the virtual assistant is embedded within a smart speaker, a user can ask the assistant List at least three
questions, control other digital devices within the home that are connected, and play media. organisations that you
In business, virtual assistants are used in completing online transactions – for example, have connected with
that use an automated
booking travel and hotel arrangements or scheduling meetings. phone system. What
Virtual assistants are also used in the health field to monitor a user’s daily activity, energy are the advantages and
intake and heart rate. The assistant analyses the data and provides the user with feedback on disadvantages of these
how to improve their health. systems?
Some software developers are releasing third-party apps that can be installed in addition
to the virtual assistant to provide additional functionality on digital systems.

Emerging trends
The use of virtual assistants in business is helping organisations to become more effective
and efficient in the way that they operate. Many workers within organisations use online
calendars to schedule appointments, commitments and meetings, and these online calendars

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can be shared with other users. Virtual assistants have been created that, given the right
permissions, can schedule appointments and meetings automatically, at a time when all
participants are available. The software will search through all the shared calendars, select
a time when everyone is available and then send notifications about the meeting, and any
subsequent alterations, to the participants.
Virtual assistants can also be used to connect with an organisation’s customers directly.
An organisation can install virtual assistant software applications that allow customers to
interact with the organisation – for example, to order food, listen to a particular song or book
a hotel room. Actions can be created that allow the task to be completed. In addition, an
organisation can collect data about each user’s history and interests to be able to customise
services that will best meet the user’s needs.
Virtual assistants can also be used to allow organisations to monitor the status of networks
and information systems. With software correctly configured, a user can ask for the current
performance of a system and receive real-time feedback about the status of websites, networks
or database management systems. It is also possible for a virtual assistant to send an alert to a
user if any issues or security alerts occur.
Voice-based virtual assistants can control utilities such as electricity, lighting and heating.
By collecting data via voice command, the digital system is able to recognise activity in the
office space and turn appliances on or off. A history of usage of office space can be collated
over time, which will also allow the assistant to make decisions based on past history.

Drones
A drone, or unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), is an
aircraft without a human pilot aboard. Some drones
can be controlled by a user on the ground, who

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communicates with the drone via a remote control.
Other drones can fly with a degree of autonomy, using
instructions pre-programmed in the drone’s onboard
microcontroller.
Initially, drones were used mainly for military
purposes. An unmanned aircraft would be sent on a
Figure 5.3 A drone is an aircraft
mission that was considered routine (e.g. flying over a without a human pilot.
pre-programmed path to take surveillance footage) or
one that was too dangerous for a human pilot.
Drones are now used in a range of areas including agriculture, postal delivery services
and scientific research. In particular, the use of drones for recreational use has become
mainstream in recent years, due largely to the decreasing cost of purchasing a drone.
Drones come in a wide variety of sizes, with the largest being similar in size to a small
aircraft and requiring a runway for t­ake-off. Vertical take-off and landing (VLOT) drones
can take off and land vertically, while some drones are small enough that they can easily be
launched from the hand of the user.
Features used in drones include:
•• a microcontroller (sometimes referred to as the flight controller)
•• position and movement sensors
•• actuators that control movement in the propellers and motor
•• flight stack software (to allow the drone to fly on a set route via several waypoints)

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•• GPS technology
•• obstacle and collision avoidance technology
•• stabilisation technology 5.3
THINK ABOUT
•• a ground station controller (GSC) or a smartphone app APPLIED COMPUTING

•• internal compass and fail-safe function What are some issues

associated with the
•• camera. use of drones? Find
Manufacturers release software updates to fix bugs or to add extra functionality to the out if there are any
drone. In recent times, updates have included information related to no-fly zones, which, regulations that apply
to flying drones in
when used in conjunction with the drone’s GPS technology, can alert users if the drone is
your local area.
flying too close to an area in which their use is prohibited.

Emerging trends
Drones are used in a wide variety of ways to improve efficiency and effectiveness and allow
organisations to gain a competitive advantage.
Agriculture is an industry in which there are many uses for drones. The large land mass
or size of farms and stations, the difficulty of access to the land and the advantages associated
with an aerial view make drone use desirable.
Drones can save farmers money by reducing the time needed to travel across their
property. Drones can be equipped with cameras to allow farmers to view their land from
above and identify issues with soil quality, weed control, irrigation or livestock.
Drones can be equipped with hardware that allows the spraying of pesticides, fertilising
or even watering to maintain crops in a time-efficient manner. © 2019 Clare Farrelly, used under license from
Austockphoto

FIGURE 5.4 Drones can aid in increasing crop production and monitoring crop growth.

Microcontrollers
A microcontroller is an integrated circuit. An integrated circuit is a small chip that
holds anywhere between hundreds and millions of transistors, resistors and capacitors. A
microcontroller incorporates a processor, memory and input/output (I/O) controllers within
the one chip. A microcontroller’s processor can vary from 4-bit to 64-bit.
Microcontrollers are used in embedded systems. An embedded system is designed
to perform one or two specific processing tasks. A microcontroller is embedded within
another device such as a refrigerator or a microwave oven, where it performs limited tasks.

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iStock/Getty Images Plus/vlabo

FIGURE 5.5 A microcontroller.

This is different to a general-purpose system, as found in desktop and laptop devices,

which is designed to perform a wide range of tasks. Microcontrollers can be found in a
range of devices including televisions, smartphones, cars, printers, vending machines and
drones.
A microcontroller takes input from the device it is controlling and then sends signals
to different components in the device in which it is embedded. Some microcontrollers are
connected to a small display to allow the output of data to the user, such as the clock/timer
on an oven.
Microcontrollers are designed to be self-sufficient and to be readily usable without
additional components because they incorporate the processor, memory and input/output
controls used to connect with the components of the device. Microcontrollers differ from
microprocessors in that the processor, memory and I/O controllers of a microcontroller are
incorporated in the one chip, while a microprocessor contains only the processor within the
integrated circuit while memory and I/O controllers are located in separate chips.
As a microcontroller is designed to perform a limited amount of tasks, they can be less
expensive to develop compared to general-purpose controllers and are also very efficient at
processing data.

Nanosatellites
A satellite is an object in space that orbits around a bigger object. Satellites can be
either natural objects – such as Earth, which tracks around the Sun, or the Moon, which
circles Earth – or human-made objects. The great majority of human-made satellites
are launched to perform a specific task. They include communications and navigation
satellites. Communications satellites distribute data around Earth by receiving signals
from a base station and transmitting them to another base station in a different country.
A nanosatellite is a small satellite that may weigh anywhere between 1 and 10 kilograms.
As with drones, smaller and smaller satellites are being produced that offer the same
functionality as traditional satellites at a fraction of the cost. Some nanosatellites are designed
to operate independently, while others work as part of a satellite swarm, in which smaller
satellites communicate with a mother satellite located nearby.

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As the barriers to the use of satellites continue to drop, the number of private organisations – Find out more
about nanosatellites
not just governments – that use nanosatellites is starting to increase. by exploring the
One such implementation of a nanosatellite is in the form of CubeSat technology. A nanosats website.

CubeSat is a miniature satellite made to a standard specification. Each cube has a height
and width of 10 cm and a length of 35 cm and a weight of between 1 and 2 kilograms. A
number of CubeSats can be joined together to create a larger nanosatellite. Within each
CubeSat, a number of microcontrollers are used for processing information, along with a
range of other circuit boards.

FIGURE 5.6 Several CubeSats

can be joined together to form a
NASA

larger nanosatellite.

Features of nanosatellites include solar panels that are used to charge onboard batteries,
altitude control to ensure that the correct orbit is maintained, technology to allow the
nanosatellite to communicate, and thermal management to ensure the device continues to
operate in extreme weather conditions.
Besides the cost of developing a satellite, the cost of launching a satellite is significant. The
advances in technology that allow the development of smaller satellites has also decreased
the cost involved in launching. Each nanosatellite needs a propulsion method to allow the
device to be launched into space. Some satellites use electric-based propulsion, while others
use solar-based propulsion.
Nanosatellites are often launched in swarms into what is known as low-Earth orbit, as
opposed to traditional satellites, which are launched into deep orbit. This also assists in
reducing the cost associated with the technology. Satellite swarms allow a larger coverage
of Earth’s surface and this can lead to greater and more detailed data collection about the
planet. In satellite imagery of Earth, images of the same location can be captured more
frequently, giving researchers access to more timely information. For example, in the field
of natural disasters, the improved frequency of images may allow researchers to interpret
patterns more accurately and make better forecasts of potential dangers.

Emerging trends
A swarm of nanosatellites is used to capture images of Earth on a daily basis. As each individual
nanosatellite works in conjunction with the swarm, large areas can be photographed. These
images are sent to a ground station that allows a complete profile of Earth to be compiled
each day. This provides real-time information to assist in agriculture, climate monitoring,
firefighting and other natural disaster responses, among other uses.

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Nanosatellites are increasingly being used for the transmission of data. Traditional satellite
communication has been an expensive form of data communication. There have been issues
with reliability as it can be dependent on the location of the few larger satellites orbiting Earth,
along with the availability of bandwidth. Using a swarm of smaller, less expensive nanosatellites,
it is possible to provide satellite communication to a wide catchment area of Earth, allowing
areas with little existing internet infrastructure to access fast and inexpensive connections.
Because of their expense, traditional satellites tended to focus on areas of Earth that were
heavily populated, but nanosatellites are increasingly being used in areas that are less populated.
The shipping industry benefits from the use of nanosatellites. The route and progress of ships
can be tracked and documented, and potential dangers and suspicious activity identified.
Environmental events can be monitored using nanosatellite technology. Individual
natural disasters, deforestation effects or ocean levels can be monitored more closely and
with greater frequency, giving researchers detailed information with which to analyse the
significance of these events.

Augmented reality
Augmented reality (AR) is used to enhance environments or situations and offers
perceptually enriched experiences. It involves overlaying computer-generated images with
real-life images to provide a composite view.
A popular example of AR is the mobile game Pokémon Go, which was released in 2016.
The game allows users to view the world around them through their smartphone camera.
Items including icons, scores and creatures were projected as overlays on the screen. The
effect was as if those items were actually present in the real world.
To be able to operate AR, a device is needed that contains a processor, a display, sensors and
input devices, including a camera. Eyeglasses, head-up display and contact lenses can also be used
to view AR images. In addition, AR requires the use of an accelerometer, GPS, a gyroscope and a
compass to assist with the location, movement and orientation of the device. AR software must be
installed on the device. It will use the device’s resources and create the overlay of visual images.
AR software can operate in a number of different ways. Marker-based software operates
using a visual image or marker – for example, a QR code. Once the device recognises the
Shutterstock.com/Zapp2Photo

FIGURE 5.7 Augmented reality results when a computer-generated

image overlays, or augments, the real world.

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marker, an image will appear on the display of the device. This could be a three-dimensional
(3D) version of the image used in the marker. 5.4
THINK ABOUT
Other AR software is markerless. This is used in location-based situations, where the APPLIED COMPUTING
device’s GPS, compass, gyroscope and accelerometer are used to determine its location. What is the difference
Depending on the location, relevant content will be provided – for example, restaurants between augmented
or shopping centres in the nearby area (Figure 5.7). Often, markerless AR systems are used reality and virtual
reality?
in conjunction with mapping software to offer the functionality of providing directions to
particular points of interest.
Another type of AR software functions by projecting light or a hologram onto an object.

Virtual reality
Virtual reality (VR) involves using a digital system to generate 3D images that the user can
interact with in a simulated environment using specialised equipment, such as a helmet with
a screen inside or gloves fitted with sensors.
Virtual reality provides the user with an experience completely different from the real-world
environment around them. It differs in this way from augmented reality, which enhances the
user’s existing environment.
Many virtual reality set-ups involve the use of a headset incorporating a range or visual
displays and sensors. The visual display within the headset broadcasts a virtual environment
to the user, immersing them in a virtual world where they can interact with objects. To
achieve this interaction, a range of controllers, gloves and external sensors are used to track
the user’s movements.
Virtual reality is used in a range of fields, including for military, sporting, healthcare and
educational purposes.

FIGURE 5.8 In virtual reality, sensors track the user’s movement and a
visual display simulates a different environment.

3D printers
Three-dimensional (3D) printing involves creating a physical object from digital data.
First, a 3D model needs to be created, generally using CAD software. Once completed, the
model can be created by printing many thin layers of a material together.

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Shutterstock.com/Alexander Kirch
FIGURE 5.9 3D printer

There are many types of 3D printing technology available, each creating a physical object
using slightly different methods. Regardless of the particular technology used, 3D printers
usually contain similar components. These include:
•• a frame that holds the printer together
•• a bed onto which the object is printed
•• a nozzle that is used to deposit the material from which the object is made
•• head movement mechanics that move the nozzle across the print bed
•• stepper motors used to position and control the speed of the nozzle
•• motors to provide power to the printer and the cooling system
•• firmware software that controls and manages the device
•• application software used to convert the CAD file into a physical object.
The most commonly used 3D printing method is fused deposition modelling (FDM).
FDM works by loading plastic or metal filament into the printer nozzle. The nozzle is
heated and a motor pushes the filament through the nozzle, causing the filament to melt.
The printer moves the head to the specified location, laying down the filament onto the bed,
where it cools down and solidifies. Once one layer is complete, the next layer is applied. This
process is repeated until the physical object is fully formed.
A stereolithographic (SLA) printer uses mirrors that aim a laser beam over a pot of resin,
selectively curing and solidifying the physical object and building it up layer by layer. SLA
5.5
THINK ABOUT can create high-resolution 3D objects, but can be considerably slower than other forms
APPLIED COMPUTING of 3D printing technology. Digital light processing (DLP) works in a similar way to SLA
Research the different printing but, rather than using laser beams, it projects light onto resin using LED screens or
objects that can a UV lamp that is directed to the build surface. Powder bed fusion is a 3D process in which
be made using 3D
thermal energy is used to bind powder particles inside a build area to create a physical object.
printing. What type of
‘ink’ is needed to make Early uses of 3D printing included making jewellery, household gadgets, and model car
each? and plane accessories. As the technology matures, it will be used to print body parts, houses,
car parts and food, and in the restoration of relics.

Emerging trends
The use of 3D printing technology can save organisations time and money. In the development
of new products, it is common after the design stage to create a mould or prototype of the

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6 1
Product support Concept

2
5 Product
Manufacturing design

4
Testing/ 3
Pre-production Prototype

FIGURE 5.10 3D printing makes it possible to skip the prototype stage in the product development life cycle.

product before production begins. This is a time-consuming and costly step in a product’s
life cycle. With the use of 3D printing technology, it is possible to skip this step and begin to
manufacture the product without the need for a mould or prototype.
3D printing technology allows organisations to make changes to a product design after
production has commenced. Traditionally, once a product has been designed and production
started, changes could only occur periodically. This would involve completing the design stage
again and creating a new mould or prototype. It is now possible to make tweaks or changes to
a product, based on feedback, to provide a product that best suits the customers’ needs.

Wearable technology
Wearable technology is the name given to small smart devices that can be worn on, or
implanted into, the body or woven into clothing. Examples of wearable technology include
fitness trackers, smart jewellery and watches, and head-mounted displays.
Advances in technology have resulted in the miniaturisation of components, creating a
whole range of new possibilities for the ways in which digital system devices can be used.
Wearable technologies not only perform general-purpose tasks similar to laptops or
mobile devices; they also provide users with the functionality to perform specific tasks geared
towards the user’s particular needs. Wearable technology has been around for a number of
years and has begun to achieve mainstream usage, and the range of products and functions
offered is rapidly developing.
Implantable devices are either inserted onto, or implanted under, the skin. They include
pacemakers and defibrillators, which collect biometric data from the user and transmit this
data, using sensors, to a smartphone or laptop. Wearable tattoos, which are worn on the skin,
can also be used to collect biometric data. These tattoos are often designed to change colour
to alert the user of potential problems.
Smart watches are the most common type of wearable device. Smart watches offer a range
of functions similar to those of a smartphone in addition to functions such as monitoring

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FIGURE 5.11 Synchronising a smart watch with a smartphone

UV rays or pollution levels. Smart jewellery is used to inform a user of any activity such as
calls, messages or emails they may have missed while they are unable to access their phone.
Activity or fitness trackers, normally worn on the user’s wrist, often contain a pedometer to
count steps, accelerometers to measure speed, and altimeters to assist in calculating physical
activity. They can also include GPS with mapping software so location can be tracked. Some
activity trackers also contain heart-rate monitors and have the ability to calculate energy or
kilojoules expended.
Smart clothing is used to monitor a user’s physiology. It provides biometric data, such
5.6
THINK ABOUT as pulse rate, temperature, muscle stretch, heart rhythm and physical movement. Smart
APPLIED COMPUTING clothing involves microcontrollers, sensors and actuators that are integrated into the clothing
Describe one situation using Bluetooth technology to transfer the data to a smartphone or laptop application.
in which a head- A head-mounted display (HMD) is a display worn on the head as glasses or as part of a
mounted display could
helmet. It has a small display in front of one or both eyes. Uses of HMDs include aviation,
be used.
engineering, gaming and sport. The display may use a cathode ray tube (CRT), a liquid
crystal display (LCD) or organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) to project the image to the
user. Most HMDs display only a computer-generated image, while others can superimpose
computer-generated images over real-life images (augmented reality).

Emerging trends
Workplace health and safety issues can be monitored through the use of wearable technology.
Workers can be constantly monitored and alerts can be sent if factors that predict a possible
event are detected – for example, workers working extended hours or driving for too long, or
weather conditions that are becoming extreme.

Internet of Things (IoT)

The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to the billions of devices around the world that are
connected to the internet, collecting, receiving or sending data. The term ‘IoT’ is mainly
used for devices that traditionally would not be expected to have an internet connection, and
that can communicate independently without the need for human interaction.
Thanks to advances in technology and the miniaturisation of components, along with
a reduction in production costs, the range of devices that can now connect to the internet

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iStock/Getty Images Plus/undefined

FIGURE 5.12 Representation of the Internet of Things (IoT)

has increased significantly. This has increased the functionality of everyday devices as
they can be used to collect data as input, communicate the data to other devices and also
receive instructions from other devices. Such devices may include virtual assistants, security
cameras, wearable technology, headphones, energy meters, household appliances, electrical
systems and smart cars.

Emerging trends
Businesses are able to harness Internet of Things (IoT) technology to collect valuable
data, gain a competitive advantage and guide future innovation. IoT technology can help
organisations reduce expenses and remain competitive. IoT devices can be used to monitor
equipment and information systems. By reviewing past history and a range of variables, IoT
technology can be used to predict potential issues and failures, and can create alerts that
attempt to avoid issues occurring, therefore reducing downtime.
Organisations can also save money on power and utility costs by monitoring and
controlling energy systems to ensure they run efficiently and avoid unnecessary usage.
IoT devices can assist in managing and controlling the production of goods by monitoring
production processes in real time, tracking the use of raw materials and re-ordering materials
when necessary.
Data from smartphones, the internet, social media and wearable technology can be
collected, monitored and analysed. This allows organisations to create a profile of users and
to predict future behaviour and trends so they can offer personalised products and services
to their customers. Organisations can also use this data to create and build a stronger
relationship with their customers and foster a sense of trust and loyalty.

Robotic devices
In the manufacturing industry, robots are being installed to reduce or eliminate the need for
human workers to complete repetitive and dangerous processes. Jobs that involve working in
high-risk environments such as extreme weather conditions, handling dangerous materials
or performing processes that are highly repetitive, and where there is a high chance of injury,
are areas where robots are replacing humans.

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iStock/Getty Images Plus/Traimak_Ivan

FIGURE 5.13 There are pros and cons of using robots in the workplace.

Compared with humans, robots operate more efficiently. Robots operate at the same
pace all day long, they don’t get tired or require breaks, sick days or holidays, and they are
not required to attend training or other events. Although the cost of installing robots can be
extremely high, in workplaces with high turnover the long-term operating cost can be far less
than the cost of employing human workers. Robots can potentially operate 24 hours a day,
improving the efficiency of production.
In terms of effectiveness, robots, once programmed correctly, complete tasks with
consistency. This results in the production of goods of a consistent standard, avoiding the
issues that arise from mistakes or faulty workmanship. The demand for quality assurance
programs within the organisation is lessened as the likelihood of poor-quality products is
reduced.
When required to complete tasks that are dangerous, repetitive or undesirable, human
workers may lose motivation and become disengaged or unhappy. These staff can be
redeployed or retrained to positions that are more satisfying and rewarding, leading to a
more productive workplace. New jobs requiring new skills are created as robots need to be
constructed, programmed, supervised and maintained.

Functions and capabilities

of digital systems
There are many existing technologies that are designed to make the lives of individuals and
organisations easier. These include:
•• assistive technologies
•• financial services
•• global positioning systems (GPS)
•• robotics
•• traffic management.

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Assistive technologies
Assistive technology is any technology that allows an individual or organisation to complete
a task that they would not normally be able to complete, or that makes it easier or safer to
complete day-to-day activities.
Devices and situations in which assistive technology is used include:
•• accessibility aids
•• cognitive aids
•• personal emergency response systems
•• home automation
•• mobility aids.

Accessibility aids
Accessibility aids are designed to make everyday tasks accessible to everyone, especially
those people who have an impairment or disability. Such aids include software designed to
make it easier for someone to access data and information while using a digital or information
system. This can include text-to-speech software, which allows users to hear information
rather than read it on a screen and is particularly useful for people with vision problems.
Speech-recognition software allows a user to input data without the need for a keyboard.
This can be useful for people who have limited use of their hands or arms.

FIGURE 5.14 Access settings in Windows

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Other accessibility aids include:

•• closed caption software, which allows hearing-impaired users to read, rather than listen
to, the spoken words in audio and video files
•• keyboard shortcuts and sticky keys for those users who prefer not, or are unable, to use a mouse
•• visual cues to alert a user to a particular action, rather than sound alerts
•• contrast control, text and icon resizing
•• contrast control or alternative text for images to make the data and information easier to read.

Cognitive aids
Cognitive aids assist people with a physical, cognitive or emotional impairment that affects
processes such as attention, memory, navigation, planning or sequencing of events or tasks.
Software can be used to provide alerts to the user that they have to complete a task or attend
an appointment. Games, quizzes and ‘brain training’ applications can help to improve or
maintain a person’s memory.
Cognitive aids are often used by the elderly to help them to live an independent lifestyle
for as long as possible.

Personal emergency response systems

Personal emergency response systems, when triggered, can send an alert to a nominated mobile
phone number. Different sensors can detect a range of inputs, including environmental conditions
such as smoke, water and gas levels, or biometric data including heart rate, temperature and
evidence of falls. The style of sensors used can be tailored to the individual needs of the user. In
addition, many such systems come with a help button installed that allows the user to call for
assistance directly; they may also include cognitive aids such as alerts and reminders.

Home automation
Home automation systems employ sensors and actuators to complete day-to-day tasks in the
home, such as opening and closing doors and cupboards, locking and unlocking doors and
controlling energy systems. Smart home technology is also available to make your home
more secure by allowing access to your CCTV stream via your smartphone, turn on all your
lights if there is an intrusion, create a ‘mockupancy’ scene that gives the impression that your
home is occupied, and automatically lock your external doors at nightfall.
Shutterstock.com/Denys Prykhodov

FIGURE 5.15 Smart home technology can be controlled from your

watch, tablet or phone.

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Mobility aids
Mobility aids include devices such as wheelchairs, walking frames and electric scooters.
Read more about
Electric wheelchairs and scooters include electric motors and use sensors to assist with assistive technology.
navigation. They are operated with a joystick, which is controlled either by hand or with the
chin, depending on the level of disability.

Alamy Stock Photo/Libby Welch

FIGURE 5.16 Computerised wheelchair

Financial services
There is a wide range of technology used within the financial services industry. Traditional
uses of technology in this field have included online banking, automatic teller machines
and point-of-sale payment systems. As technology advances, there are new ways to use it
that enhance the services offered. Buy-now, pay-later services have harnessed technology
to offer customers the chance to purchase goods immediately and pay for them over the
following months. These services are becoming an alternative to credit cards. At the same
time, banking and financial apps allow customers to analyse their spending and saving habits
to take better control of their finances.

Customer service
Financial services organisations have been early adopters of the use of virtual assistants for
customer service purposes. In particular, chatbots or automated voice and text systems are
increasingly being used as the initial interface with customers. As the technology used in
virtual assistants improves, the efficiency of these interactions is also improving and becoming
more seamless, saving time for the customer. Flowing on from this, the organisation requires
less staff for handling customer queries, so the technology is also saving the organisation
money and increasing profits.

Multi-factor authentication
A growing number of organisations are using multi-factor authentication when users
complete financial transactions online.
Previously, a user was required to provide one form of evidence, usually the combination of a
username and a password, to be able to complete a transaction online. This introduces a serious
threat to security. If an unauthorised person were to gain access to that one form of evidence,
they would be able to complete transactions without the knowledge of the authorised user.

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Multi-factor authentication requires the user to provide two or more pieces of evidence to be
able to complete a transaction online. Usually, a username and password are required along with
at least one other form of evidence. Different forms of secondary evidence are explained below.
Security token
A security token is a small hardware device that is used to generate an authentication code.
Often, before a user can complete a specific transaction online, they are required to generate
an authentication code using the security token.

Shutterstock.com/SVRSLYIMAGE
FIGURE 5.17 Security token

Personal identification number (PIN)

A personal identification number (PIN) is used as a primary authentication technique when
using an automated teller machine (ATM), but PINs can also be used as a part of a multi-factor
authentication when completing transactions online. Users are often asked to set up a PIN (one
that is different from the PIN they use to access an ATM) for use on online financial systems.
To complete particular transactions the PIN must be supplied along with the username and
password. PINs can also be sent to the user via SMS, email or QR code verification.
SMS-based verification
Users are sometimes sent an SMS message while completing a transaction online. The SMS
is sent to a pre-registered phone number. Once received, the SMS will contain details about
how a transaction can be authorised. It may contain a one-off PIN or a hyperlink, or it may
require the user to reply to the message.
Email verification
In a similar way to SMS-based verification, users wishing to complete a transaction online
can be sent an email message containing details about how a transaction can be authorised.
As the number of hoax and phishing emails is very significant, however, many financial
institutions have started to avoid the use of email verification.
QR code verification
A QR code is a machine-readable code that consists of a collection of black and white
squares. Each user can be given a unique QR code, which they store on their device. When
completing a financial transaction they are required to scan the code to assist in verifying
their credentials.

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One-time passcode
A one-time passcode is similar to a PIN, but the user can only use the passcode for one
transaction. To complete a second transaction, they will have to generate a new one-time
passcode. If the user makes a mistake with the original passcode or the passcode expires, they
will also need to generate a new passcode.
Secret questions
In some systems, when the user first completes their registration they are asked to set up one
or more ‘secret questions’ and an accompanying answer to each question. When completing
a transaction that requires multi-factor authorisation, they will be asked one or more of the
secret questions, to which they must respond with the correct answer.
5.7
Location-based factors THINK ABOUT
APPLIED COMPUTING
The use of location-based factors involves the automated collection of data regarding the
device a user is using to complete a transaction online, including the current location of Which combinations
of evidence do you
the device. This data is used to identify strange patterns in the use of financial systems – in think provide the best
particular if a user completes a transaction in one location and a second transaction occurs protection for online
soon afterwards in a different location. users of financial
systems?
Requiring multiple pieces of evidence during the authentication stage reduces the risk of
a transaction being completed by an unauthorised person.

Fraud detection
The use of technology is playing an increasing role in the detection of fraud in the financial
services industry.
In the financial industry, fraud detection involves identifying unauthorised transactions.
Many organisations rely on data analysis and artificial intelligence to assist them in identifying
transactions that may be deemed suspicious and worthy of further investigation.
Fraud detection involves viewing a transaction and comparing it to previous transactions
to see if it is reasonable or consistent with previous transactions. Criteria that can be used
to compare transactions can involve the amount of the transaction, the location in which it
takes place, the type of purchase, the frequency of transactions or even the time of day.
‘Data-mining’ software is used to identify if there are any factors that are outliers to
the regular transactions conducted by the user. If an outlier is identified, the organisation
will investigate the transaction further, sometimes contacting the user directly for
confirmation.
Artificial intelligence (AI) technology is used to ‘data mine’ through large data sets of
previous transactions, which contain a number of transactions that are known cases of fraud Data mining involves
searching through
or are considered suspicious. The algorithm used by the AI technology is then refined until existing large data sets in
a high proportion of the fraudulent or suspicious transactions are identified. When the an attempt to find new
patterns or relationships
developers feel confident the system is highly accurate, the technology can be used in real within the data.
time to monitor transactions as they occur.

Electronic funds transfers

Electronic funds transfers (EFT) allow a payment to be made from one bank account to
another using a digital system.
Examples of electronic funds transfers include:
•• ATM transactions
•• direct deposits

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•• direct debits
•• credit card or debit card transactions
•• online bill payment
•• instant payments.
For credit card and debit card transactions at the point of sale, a payment terminal is
used to facilitate the transaction. A payment terminal is a hardware device that captures
NFC technology credit card or debit card details and sends them to a bank for authorisation. Once authorised,
Weblink funds are transferred from the customer’s bank account into the organisation’s bank account;
sometimes these funds are transferred through an intermediate account known as a merchant
account. Payment terminals can read card details using a card reader, or by using near-field
communication (NFC) technology.
Payment applications, such as Apple Pay, Google Pay and WeChat Pay, which allow the
storage of card details, can be downloaded onto smartphones, reducing the need for people
to physically carry their cards with them (provided they carry their phone).
NFC technology allows contactless
communication at a very close distance,
without the need to configure any settings

Shutterstock.com/Davizro Photography
using radio waves. Many credit cards
and debit cards have a chip installed
that allows the transmission of data via
near-field communication technology,
such as Visa payWave or MasterCard’s
Tap and go. There has been a massive
increase in the number of contactless
transactions in recent years.
Many smartphones have Data communication between the FIGURE 5.18 Chips in credit cards allow contactless
transactions.
near-field communication payment terminal and the bank can
(NFC) technology built be via Bluetooth, a wired network,
in. It is possible to set up
NFC settings to complete wi-fi or a mobile network. Payment terminals used in aeroplanes may even use satellite
a range of tasks, including communication to transfer the data. Encryption is used to protect the details of each
sending messages to
nearby devices, although to transaction.
receive these messages the
receiving device may need Virtual currencies
to install an NFC reader
from an app store. Currency (or money) used to pay for goods and services is issued and controlled by a
country’s government and is legal tender within that country. Currency plays a key role in
the economy of the country in which it was issued.
Virtual currency is unregulated, digital money, which is issued and (usually) controlled
by the virtual currency’s creators, and is used and accepted among the members of an online
virtual community.
One type of virtual currency is cryptocurrency, which uses encryption to secure
transactions. Bitcoin is probably the most well-known cryptocurrency.
In virtual currencies, transactions occur between two users online over an internet peer-
to-peer network. Each user of the currency has a virtual wallet, which stores data about the
user’s account. In cryptocurrencies, the wallet will contain the public and private keys used
to encrypt and decrypt the transaction data. Details of each transaction are then sent to a
blockchain to be verified and stored. A blockchain is a collection of devices connected using
the internet, each device storing a copy of transactions in what is known as a block.

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Users who make their devices available as part of the blockchain are rewarded in the
virtual currency in which they are hosting the database. Find out more about
virtual currencies and
Blockchain Weblink
cryptocurrencies.

Blockchain technology was first utilised with the introduction of Bitcoin virtual currency. A
blockchain is a collection of data records (blocks), or a database, that is stored on multiple
devices (chain). In some cases the data can be stored on millions of computers.
The purpose of a blockchain is to allow data to be input and stored without allowing the
data to be manipulated after storage.
When a financial transaction occurs, the transaction first needs to be verified: all the
computers that store the database or block must confirm the transaction and its details. Once
a transaction is verified, it is given a ‘hash value’. A hash value is a value that is calculated to act
as a unique identifier for that transaction in the database. Once a hash value is calculated, the
data is added to the block or database on each device, along with all the previous data stored.
As the database is stored on multiple devices, it is very difficult for an individual to change
the contents of any transaction because to do so they would need to access every device on
the blockchain to manipulate every copy of the database. Blockchains offer security in that
each new transaction is added to the top of the block, in sequential order to the previous
transaction, making it very difficult for anyone to delete a specific transaction. Also, if any
transaction is edited, a new record and hash value are created, setting up an audit trail that
can be used to alert the users of the blockchain that a modification has occurred.
Devices that are used to store the block or database also require verification. Users who
wish to store the blockchain database on their device need to complete a process known
as ‘proof of work’. To do this, a device needs to complete certain complex mathematical
calculations to prove that it has significant processing power and functionality to be able to
be part of the blockchain.

Global positioning system (GPS)

Global positioning system (GPS) uses a network of satellites that provide location and time data
to any connected device. GPS is operated and controlled by the United States Government.
Satellites orbiting Earth on a range of different paths allow connection to the system from
any location on Earth at any time. Line of sight is required, meaning natural or man-made
obstacles may affect the signal.
The user is not required to transmit any data when using GPS. Rather, each device with
GPS software installed acts as a receiver, which only receives data from the system. Devices
that receive GPS data are known as GPS receivers.
Each GPS satellite transmits data regarding its location, time and date using radio waves.
As radio waves travel at a constant speed, the time taken for each signal to be received by a
receiver indicates how far away it is from the satellite. To determine the precise location of a
receiver, triangulation is required. The receiver receives data from multiple satellites and uses an
algorithm to calculate its location. The accuracy of the location identified by the GPS receiver
may vary depending on a number of factors, but usually it is accurate to within 10 metres.
GPS does not require the services of any other network. The user does not need to be connected
to the internet or to a mobile network to receive GPS data. GPS software is now installed in most
smartphones, allowing individuals and organisations to harness the power of the technology.
The most obvious use for GPS technology is to allow a user to determine their location.
This could apply to an individual trying to orient themselves in a new city, a ship traversing
the ocean or a pilot determining their location while mid-flight.

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Cell tower
GPS satellite

Server

GPS unit

User User

FIGURE 5.19 GPS in your car works by receiving information from satellites about location. This is sent to a
phone tower and onto the internet and to your computer or phone.

Using location data, the navigation required to get from the current location to a specific
destination can be determined. GPS data can be used in conjunction with mapping software
to display the route a vehicle should take to get to a chosen destination. Often, multiple
routes are identified and, by using a combination of live traffic conditions and historical
data, the approximate time each route will take can be determined. This also applies to a
range of other transport options.
GPS also makes it possible for organisations and individuals to track the progress of a person,
a vehicle or an item. Many car hire organisations allow authorised users to view the tracking of
a person’s ride. Businesses can track the progress of a delivery van and use this information to
inform customers of an estimated time when their delivery may arrive. Software applications
are used to track the location of a user’s smartphone in case it has been lost or stolen.
GPS plays an important role in the development of new maps. Location data in the form
of latitude and longitude coordinates can be downloaded.
An often-overlooked functionality of GPS is to deliver the precise time. Each satellite has
an atomic clock installed, and each time it transmits data, it includes the current time and
date. Whenever a GPS receiver collects data and identifies its position, it also calculates
the precise time and date of that location using the data from each satellite.

Robotics
A robot is a device that can complete a specific task with autonomy. Robotics incorporates
intellectual property from a range of different fields, including engineering, which is
related to the design and building of robots, and computing, which is related to creating the
information systems used to control a robot. The range of situations in which robots are used
is constantly increasing. Robots are now used in the agriculture, manufacturing, medical
and military industries, to name just a few.

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There are many types of robots, but they usually have the three following elements:
•• a physical structure designed to achieve a particular task
•• electrical components that power and control the mechanism
•• programming code.
Components usually found in robots
include a power source, which could
range from mains electricity, batteries
or compressed gas to hydraulics or solar
power. Actuators are used to control

Shutterstock.com/Nor Gal
and move the device. The role of an
actuator is to convert the storage energy
from the power source into motion. An
actuator commonly found in robotic
devices is an electric motor that causes
a wheel to rotate, creating movement
within the device. FIGURE 5.20 A robot vacuum cleaner uses mains
Sensors are often used in robots electricity to charge a storage battery. Touch sensors and
infra-red sensors direct its route around the house.
to collect input about their working
environment. This allows robots to perform their tasks and gives them the ability to make
changes in response to any changes in their situation. Sensors may detect touch, sound,
visual nformation or even temperature.
Some robots are used to manipulate objects, and these robots are often produced with
arms and hands that allow them to perform the task for which they were designed. The hands
of a robot are referred to as the end effectors, while the arm is referred to as the manipulator.
The actuators and sensors within a robot are connected to its microcontroller, which is
used to control its actions. Software applications are written using a programming language;
these provide the instructions needed by the robot. Some robots, such as a robot vacuum
cleaner, are programmed to perform stand-alone tasks (Figure 5.20); other robots, such as a
drone, can be controlled by user input via a device like a remote control.

Traffic management
Australia’s population continues to increase, particularly in the capital cities. This is leading to
an increase in the number of cars on the road. The procedures and processes used to efficiently
and effectively control the flow of vehicles on the roads are known as traffic management
strategies. State governments, which have responsibility for traffic management, are turning to
technology to help them. Technologies such as speed cameras, red-light cameras and point-
to-point and bus lane camera systems play an important role in the field of law enforcement.
Red-light cameras often use in-road sensors to detect if a car has passed through an
intersection after the light has turned red. The sensors are installed on individual lanes on a
road so as to be able to detect the exact lane in which a car crossed the stop line after the light
had turned red. When an infringement is noticed, the sensor will trigger the camera, which is
installed above ground and connected using wires, to take an image of the offending vehicle.
Speed cameras transmit a radar beam towards oncoming traffic. As the beam hits a car, signals
are sent back to the camera, which then calculates the speed at which the vehicle is travelling.
In point-to-point camera systems, a number of cameras are set up at various set locations
along a road. As a vehicle passes a camera, an image is taken and the time is recorded. As

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Shutterstock.com/Golden Sikorka
FIGURE 5.21 Cameras are used in traffic management systems.

the vehicle passes the next camera, another image is taken and the time is again recorded.
The average speed of the vehicle is then calculated by dividing the distance between the two
cameras by the time taken.
Cameras are also used to read vehicle number plates. As a number plate is recorded,
details are retrieved from a number of databases to check if there are any known concerns
about either the driver or the vehicle. The data stored and accessed in this way could include
the owner’s current licence status, whether the car is insured and registered, and if the owner
has any outstanding traffic offences.
Cameras can also be set up to capture images of the passenger compartment within a
vehicle to check that drivers are not breaching any road rules, such as by using a mobile
phone while driving.
Traffic management systems also monitor and control the flow of traffic on the roads.
Sensors and cameras can detect how busy sections of roads and highways are. This data is
transmitted to a central server, where decisions can be made to decrease or increase the traffic
limit in some areas, or be used to alter or synchronise a collection of traffic lights that will
improve the flow of traffic in that area. In some countries, once traffic incidents are detected,
the system is able to broadcast traffic warnings over traditional AM/FM radio networks, or
send messages and real-time traffic updates to in-car GPS systems, to alert drivers to avoid
particular areas.

Goals and objectives

Each digital system has a collection of goals. A goal is a broad statement of the desired result
that a digital system is expected to achieve. Goals are roughly similar to purposes or aims.
A Year 11 student might set the following goals for a school year:
•• Receive an A grade in Applied Computing.
•• Participate in extracurricular activities.
•• Investigate university options.
An objective defines how a goal will be achieved. Objectives tend to be specific and
measurable. They specify the ‘who, what, when, where and how’ of the way to achieve a

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goal. There may be one or more objectives that need to be met to ensure that the larger,
more general, goal is achieved. Objectives need to be measurable, so they usually contain
numbers or percentages. The numbers or percentages provide a quantitative measure to
determine whether the goal was achieved.
The Year 11 student could define the following objectives in order to measure whether
each goal is being achieved:
•• Receive no less than 90% for each assessment task in Applied Computing.
•• Attend at least 90% of classes.
5.8
•• Create comprehensive notes in each class. THINK ABOUT
APPLIED COMPUTING
•• Complete five hours homework in Applied Computing per week.
Identify the
•• Read the relevant textbook chapter at least once. quantitative data in
•• Visit the teacher once per week outside class to ask questions. each of the Year 11
student’s objectives.
To achieve the goal of receiving an A grade, the student has created a series of specific
tasks that define what is needed to be done to achieve the final goal.

Goals and objectives of digital systems

Each digital system has a list of goals and objectives that are used to measure whether the
system is achieving the purpose for which it was designed. A swarm of nanosatellites used to
take images of Earth’s surface might have the following goals and objectives.
Goal
•• To develop a composite image of Earth’s entire surface daily.
Objectives
•• 16 nanosatellites are used each day to take imagery of Earth’s surface.
•• Each satellite orbits at 500 km above Earth’s surface. 5.9
THINK ABOUT
•• Each satellite orbits Earth on one of eight orbit paths. APPLIED COMPUTING

•• Each satellite completes one rotation of Earth every 48 hours. Create a list of goals
and objectives for
•• Each satellite takes an image every two seconds. one other emerging
•• Images are sent back to a base station each hour. technology.
•• A composite image of Earth is produced each day.

For Unit 2, Outcome 1, working in groups, you are required to analyse, design, develop
and evaluate an innovative digital solution in response to an identified need or opportunity.
It would be useful to identify the goals and objectives of the innovative solution as part of
your analysis of the need or opportunity. The goals will describe the purpose of the solution
and how each purpose will be achieved.

Economic issues involving

emerging technologies
Economics is the study of the production, distribution and consumption of goods and
services. It involves the study of scarcity and choice, based on the idea that the demand for
resources (e.g. money, supplies, equipment) is greater than the resources that are available.

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Decisions need to be made about how these resources are to be allocated and used. These
decisions sometimes lead to negative consequences for some stakeholders. These are referred
to as economic issues.
Economic issues involving emerging technologies can include:
•• access
•• deskilling
•• job loss
•• misuse
•• sustainability.

Access
Technology has become more affordable. There is a large range of digital devices available, and
The scheme One an increasing variety of methods used to access high-speed internet connections. However, there
Laptop per Child is
attempting to bridge still remains a digital divide in society. This term refers to the gap between those people who have
Weblink the gap within the
digital divide. access to technology and those who do not. This gulf in the availability of technology can be seen
between different countries, between people within a country, and between organisations.
With the increased usage of smartphones around the world, the digital divide is not
necessarily linked to a lack of internet connection, although this is still one factor. Other factors
include the cost, reliability and speed of the internet connection, the cost of new technology,
levels of existing infrastructure, the technology skills of users, training opportunities and the
availability of technical support.
Economic factors play a role in creating a gap between individuals, organisations or
countries in terms of accessing emerging technologies. The availability of resources required
to purchase and maintain new technology can be prohibitive to some users, while reliable,
high-speed bandwidth can also be expensive.
One of the features of many emerging technologies is that they offer additional
functionality and connectivity to existing digital networks. For example, smart devices and
other devices related to the Internet of Things (IoT) use existing network infrastructure
to communicate data, whether to a home network, an organisation’s local area network
or the internet. The full power of these devices can only be achieved if the existing
network infrastructure has the capability to handle this increase in functionality and data
communication.
One initiative to improve infrastructure in Australia is the implementation of the
National Broadband Network (NBN), where a fibre-optic cabling backbone is being installed
to increase internet speeds. This is designed to increase the availability of reliable high-
speed internet to businesses and households throughout Australia. This, in turn, increases
accessibility and the opportunities for users to use existing and emerging technologies.
However, there are still areas of the country where there is no NBN service available or it is
5.10 yet to be installed. In areas where the NBN has been installed, there will be individuals and
THINK ABOUT
APPLIED COMPUTING organisations that are unable to afford the cost of maintaining an NBN connection.
The existing knowledge and skills of a user can also act as a barrier in accessing emerging
What other factors
may restrict a user’s technology. As new technology is developed and released, those users with limited existing
ability to access skills are less likely to be able to adapt to, or even understand, the new technology. For
emerging technology? example, elderly users may be reluctant to embrace assistive technologies that might help
them to complete day-to-day tasks more easily. Some farmers may be reluctant to embrace

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the use of technologies such as drones and satellite imagery – not through a lack of funds
or resources, but rather through lack of knowledge, skills and existing understanding. A
lack of training and technical support may be another barrier to the uptake of emerging
technologies. This could be related to the geographic location of the user, the quality of the
internet connection or the cost of accessing these services.

Deskilling
Deskilling occurs when a skilled worker is replaced, or their job specification is reduced,
as a result of the implementation of technology. In any given industry, this can result in
fewer workers having the skills to complete specific tasks, and can lead to existing jobs being
eliminated altogether. In society more broadly, this can result in an overall reduction in
knowledge and can have negative effects on culture and lifestyles.
In manufacturing, for example, a significantly reduced number of tasks may now require
workers to complete them as robots are installed to complete other tasks. Trained tradespeople
and craftspeople may no longer be required to apply the skills that they were trained in, and
may focus instead on the limited number of tasks that robotic devices are unable to complete.
Technology is introduced in order to achieve an increase in productivity, maintain
product consistency and reduce the overall cost of the production process. The
downstream effect of this could be that workers become less engaged and enthusiastic
about their roles, and the quality of the products manufactured becomes more uniform
and less personalised.
There is a range of traditional jobs and roles in which job specifications have been altered
or reduced following the introduction of automation. Roles have been replaced or redefined
in the field of art and design as the use of software applications in design work becomes
commonplace. Similarly, 3D printing can be used to produce a wide range of products that
were previously designed and manufactured by highly skilled workers. This may eventually
lead to age-old skills involved in manually designing and creating products being lost forever.
In the commercial aviation industry, the number of tasks that are conducted using a
digital system has increased significantly, and the number completed by a human pilot has
Alamy Stock Photo/Alexander Tolstykh

FIGURE 5.22 Automated pilot systems are capable of completing many of

the tasks once completed by human pilots.

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been correspondingly reduced. Automated pilot systems can now conduct up to 90% of the
tasks that are required in the time between when an aeroplane leaves the gate at one airport
and when it arrives at the gate at the destination airport.
5.11 The use of AI, GPS, virtual assistants and IoT devices allows conditions to be monitored,
THINK ABOUT
APPLIED COMPUTING decisions made and tasks completed without the need for human intervention. Human
List 10 skills that pilots are still required to monitor the automated system and complete tasks that cannot
you think might be automated, and are able to override decisions when they deem it appropriate. It is not
be lost due to the uncommon for pilots of large commercial aircraft to spend some time each year flying small,
introduction of less sophisticated aircraft that contain less automation. This ensures that they do not lose
technology.
the skills of flying, such as taking off and landing, that are often performed by autopilots on
regular commercial flights.

Job losses
An economic issue that overlaps with deskilling is that of job losses. A job loss occurs when a
job formerly completed by a human in an organisation is no longer required. This results in
the worker becoming redundant (excess to needs). Sometimes, a job loss occurs as a direct
result of new technology being introduced in the organisation.
Examples of the use of technology leading to job losses include the use of automatic
teller machines, electronic funds transfer and online banking. These have reduced the
number of financial transactions that require the involvement of a human worker, and have
thus reduced the demand for bank staff. One of the reasons for the increasing popularity of
cryptocurrencies is that they avoid traditional banking systems; the growth in cryptocurrencies
may also affect the demand for traditional banking products and banking staff.
Automatic checkout systems at supermarkets and department stores are reducing the
number of situations in which a skilled human worker is needed. The growing use of virtual
assistants and chatbots to interact with customers is replacing the need for customer service
and call centre staff.
The use of robots in the manufacturing process is well documented. The widespread
use of smart devices in businesses has reduced the number of tasks that require a human to
complete them. Smart refrigerators have the ability to keep track of items added to or removed
from them, and can use this information to create shopping lists and place online orders.
The use of smart refrigerators in cafes and restaurants may not lead directly to job losses,
but it has the effect of reducing the number of tasks staff must complete. This, combined
with other efficiencies related to the use of technologies (e.g. the use of automated coffee
machines), may lead to a reduction in the number of staff needed.
Drones are used in the agricultural industry for a range of applications, including crop
spraying, monitoring of crops and irrigation systems and aerial photography. This is reducing
5.12
THINK ABOUT the need for skilled agricultural workers. The use of assistive technology is allowing elderly
APPLIED COMPUTING and disabled people to live a more independent lifestyle, thus reducing the demand for
Research the types of skilled medical and nursing staff.
tasks that businesses As technology and communication methods improve, more organisations are completing
often send offshore. jobs offshore. This allows them to employ workers in other countries, where wages may
What technology do
businesses use to allow be lower, to complete tasks that once were completed by workers in their home country.
offshore workers to A challenge for these organisations and countries is to reskill and retrain their existing
complete these tasks? workforce in areas of new employment; otherwise, these workers may become excess to
needs.

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Sustainability
Sustainability is a process of managing change in a balanced and controlled way so that
other factors such as natural resources, climate, pollution levels and economic resources are
not negatively affected.
As the amount of technology in the world increases, issues related to the production and
use of technology need to be addressed. Technology involves the use of many raw materials,
some of which are in limited supply, and some dangerous chemicals. Technology companies
may decide to manufacture in countries where wage costs are low and the workers come from
lower socio-economic backgrounds. Finally, once a technology has outlived its usefulness or
been replaced by a newer model, what happens to the hardware and associated equipment?

S mar t p hon es are as rare as Earth CASE

STUDY
Since 2014, more than one billion smartphones have been sold worldwide each year.

1750

1500

Data from https://www.statista.com/statistics/263437/

global-smartphone-sales-to-end-users-since-2007
1250
Sales in million units

1000

750

500

250

FIGURE 5.23 Number

0 of smartphones sold each
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 year (millions)

One smartphone can contain around 70 different metals. That is 84% of all the non-
radioactive elements on the periodic table. Some of these metals are called ‘rare-earth
metals’ because they are found scattered in the ground, not in high concentrations like
gold or silver. Mining costs can therefore be high.
These rare-earth metals include scandium and yttrium. It is the properties of these
rare-earth metals that make smartphones so smart. They are used in the smartphone’s
circuitry and display. Without neodymium and dysprosium, your smartphone would not
be able to vibrate. Without indium tin oxide your screen would not work as a touchscreen.
Mines for these rare-earth metals are often located in developing countries such as Chile,
Peru, Zambia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kazakhstan and Mexico, where mine
workers receive very low rates of pay and work in very poor conditions. Often the method
used to extract the metals from the ground is known as surface mining, which results in large

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areas of the land being disrupted and causes long-lasting effects to the landscape. Industrial
5.13 chemicals used in the process of surface mining drain into Earth’s surface and waterways.
THINK ABOUT
APPLIED COMPUTING Manufacturing of many electronic and technological components is completed in
developing countries. As with the mining of raw materials, the workers involved in manufacturing
Give three reasons
work under poor conditions, for incredibly long hours, and receive very low wages. This leads
why smartphone
developers have their to a range of social and health issues for the workers, who often live close to the factory, rarely
products produced in see their families, and may develop health problems as a result of the production process. The
factories owned by production of smartphones takes place in factories owned by third-party organisations that
other organisations. produce the phones on behalf of the smart phone developers.

The distribution and lifespan of smartphones also lead to issues with sustainability.
5.14 Smartphones are sold across the world and are often designed to be hard to repair. New apps
THINK ABOUT
APPLIED COMPUTING requiring greater resources to function are constantly being released, and as a result many
In which country was users purchase a new phone approximately every 18 months. This results in a large quantity of
your smartphone underutilised technology and wastage. There are also issues related to the disposal of discarded
produced? How phones since they often cannot be recycled using the regular services provided by local councils.
much profit did the An ethical issue related to the production process is that the organisations designing and
organisation selling
the smartphone selling smartphones are making significant profits as a result of the low costs of manufacturing
make? devices in developing countries.
Smartphone manufacturers are, however, taking action. Some quirky models are coming to
market with parts that can be swapped out and recycled when they are superseded. Companies
are working towards conflict-free supply chains and setting up recycling depots. Companies
that work with non-profits such as the Electronic Industry Citizenship Coalition (EICC) sign
up to meet certain standards in worker rights, environmental impact and transparency.

Impact of current and emerging

technologies
Emerging technologies are capable of making significant change within society. These
changes can be positive and negative. In Unit 2, Outcome 1, you are required to create an
innovative solution to a need or opportunity. As part of this outcome you are required to
discuss potential issues that may arise due to the development of the innovative solution.
Issues and impacts can be related to:
•• automation
•• cyberbullying
•• human interaction
•• interpersonal skills.

Automation
The term ‘automation’ refers to processes that can be completed without the need for human
intervention. Automation can be used to operate machinery, capture, communicate and store
data and information, control and steer cars, ships, aircraft and other transport vehicles, or in the
manufacture of goods and products.

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Control of an automated system can be as simple as an

on-off switch, or it can be as complicated as a complex algorithm
containing a range of control and processing structures and

Getty Images/Ian Waldie/Bloomberg

multiple variables, and using a range of complex hardware
devices.

Impact of automation
An automated system may be complex and expensive to install.
It is often expected that, over the long term, once a process
is automated, the system will be more efficient and effective
and will produce consistent results and save the organisation
money. In the short term, however, the cost of setting up the FIGURE 5.24 Automation is widely used in the mining
system can be costly and it may take time for the system to be industry.
fine-tuned to become fully effective.
Automation has an impact in deskilling the labour force (see pages 221–22) and creating
job losses (see page 222). A range of new jobs may be created that require workers with new
skills. Existing workers may have to be retrained. One question to ask is how the education
system will cope with training students for a range of jobs that may not yet exist. 5.15
THINK ABOUT
Automation needs a digital system to be designed and programmed to complete specific APPLIED COMPUTING
tasks. If the task changes – to a new task or to one it was not originally designed to do – it
List the impacts of
can be difficult, expensive and time-consuming to re-program the system. In this situation,
automation of the
human workers may still need to be used to complete these activities. workforce, and add
In the manufacturing industry, part of the reason for using automation is to be able to two more that have
produce products of a consistent quality. This has, however, reduced the individuality of not been discussed
here.
manufactured products. Consistency may be achieved, but the quality may not be the same
as that achieved by a human craftsperson.

Cyberbullying
Cyberbullying occurs when a digital system is used to threaten, harass or intimidate another
individual. This could be in the form of lying, spreading rumours, playing cruel jokes or
making threats. Its intent is to cause harm to another person or a group of people.
Bullying existed in various forms before the digital age. However, the anonymity and
accessibility of the internet has been a major contributing factor in the increase in bullying.
Although in many cases a cyberbully may know their target, it is not always the case that the
individual being bullied knows who is responsible.
The increased use of smartphones has led to an increase in cyberbullying as online
platforms and social media have become more accessible to users. Features of a smartphone
such as social media apps, internet access and a camera have contributed to an increase in
bullying using emerging technology.
People posting messages using electronic communication often feel more detached, and
less responsible for their actions, than if they were communicating the same message face
to face. Once messages are posted online, the potential audience who can view them is
unlimited and they are very difficult to delete.
Cyberbullying can cause stress and anxiety for the targeted individual. This can result in
an individual becoming less productive, which also affects their social life, work life and the Cyberbullying
organisation in which they function.

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Human interactions
By nature, humans are social creatures, who require interaction with others, whether in
social situations, forming relationships, creating networks or discussing emotions and
feelings. Human interactions involve people communicating with other people. This can
be through a face-to-face conversation, a text message or a smile. Research has shown that
socialising and interacting with other people is a fundamental human need along with the
need for food, shelter and water.
As technology has advanced, the increased use of automation and the ability to complete
tasks online using an internet connection or to work from remote locations and while
travelling have led to a significant decrease in human interactions, particularly face-to-face
interactions. In many ways these advances in technology have helped people stay connected
with others, whether through email, social networks, video conferencing or forums and blogs.
The rise in popularity of smartphones has accelerated this connectivity but, as a result, actual
face-to-face human interactions are no longer necessarily as frequent as in previous years.

Impact of loss of human interaction

Evidence suggests that regular human interactions offer health benefits for individuals. A
5.16 lack of human interaction has been known to lead to a range of health issues, including
THINK ABOUT loneliness, depression and associated mental health issues.
APPLIED COMPUTING
Human interactions are important within organisations. They help to achieve effective
List the impacts of collaboration between members of the organisation that cannot always be achieved through
the loss of human
interaction due to online communication. By meeting face to face, people are able to have more in-depth
technology, and add conversations, build relationships, and pick up non-verbal signals and body language more easily.
two more that have In the classroom, human interaction plays a major role in learning. The teacher’s role in
not been discussed the classroom is that of a facilitator, interacting with students. Students also interact with one
here.
another through discussion and group work. With the increasing number of courses being
delivered online, many of the advantages of the traditional classroom may be lost to students.

Interpersonal skills
A decrease in human interactions can lead to a reduction in interpersonal skills. Interpersonal
skills, or so-called soft skills, are skills that are required to interact and communicate effectively with
others. These skills are important in building relationships with family, friends and work colleagues.
5.17 More and more organisations are team-based, so employees are expected to be able to build positive
THINK ABOUT relationships with other people, such as being supportive, respectful and collaborative.
APPLIED COMPUTING
Interpersonal skills include the ability to:
Observe the
individuals within a
•• make a decision
group – it might be •• listen
in a coffee shop, a
library, at home, at •• negotiate
school or another •• communicate verbally and non-verbally
place. Write down
three different •• problem-solve.
types of non-verbal Communication can be verbal (spoken and listened to, or written) or non-verbal, such
communication that as through eye contact, smiling, frowning, turning towards the speaker or nodding. Good
you see being used
interpersonal skills result from both types of communication. It is usually the non-verbal
within that group.
forms of communication that suffer when technology is used to communicate.

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5 Essential terms
accessibility aids technological solutions designed to make everyday tasks accessible to
everyone, especially to those with an impairment or disability
assistive technology any technology that allows an individual or organisation to complete
a task that they would not normally be able to complete, or makes it easier or safer to

SUMMARY complete day-to-day activities

augmented reality (AR) overlaying computer-generated images onto real-life images to
provide a composite view
automation when processes or procedures can be completed without the need for human
intervention
blockchain a collection of data records (blocks), or a database, that is stored on multiple
devices (chain)
chatbot software that uses voice or text prompts to mimic human conversation
cognitive aids documents or prompts designed to assist people with a physical, cognitive or
emotional impairment that affects processes such as attention, memory, navigation, planning
or sequencing of events or tasks
cryptocurrency a type of virtual currency that uses encryption to secure transactions
cyberbullying the use of a digital system to bully another individual; this could be in the
form of intimidation, harassment, rumours or threats
datafication the process of turning one or more aspects of everyday life into quantifiable,
measurable data
deskilling the replacement of a skilled worker, or a reduction in their job specification,
occasioned by the implementation of technology
digital divide the gap between those people who have access to technology and those who
do not
digital system a system designed to store, process and communicate information in digital
form
drone an aircraft without a human pilot
economics the study of the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services
electronic funds transfer (EFT) a system of transactions that allows financial payments to
be made from one bank account to another, using a digital system
emerging technologies new technologies that are perceived to be capable of making
significant change within society
fraud detection identification of unauthorised financial transactions
global positioning system (GPS) a network of satellites that provide location and time
data to any connected device
goal a desired result, such as one it is expected that a digital system can achieve
human interactions instances of people communicating with other people
Internet of Things (IoT) collectively, the billions of devices around the world that are
connected to the internet, collecting, receiving and sending data
interpersonal skills skills required to interact and communicate with others
job loss occurs when a job, formerly completed by a human, is no longer needed in an
organisation
microcontroller an integrated circuit that incorporates a processor, memory and input/
output (I/O) controllers within one chip

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multi-factor authentication a process that requires a user to provide two or more pieces of evidence of identity, such as a
username and password combination and an SMS or email code, in order to be able to complete a transaction online
nanosatellite a small satellite that weighs between 1 and 10 kilograms
near-field communication (NFC) technology digital technology using radio waves that allows contactless communication
between devices over a very small distance, without the need to configure settings; examples include payWave and Myki
objective one of a series of steps that define how a goal will be achieved
payment terminal a hardware device that captures credit card or debit card details and sends these details to a bank for
authorisation
robot a device that can complete a specific task with autonomy
satellite an object in space that orbits around a bigger object
smartphone a telephone integrated with a digital system, allowing functionality not traditionally associated with telephones,
such as an operating system, web browsing, email and the ability to run software applications
smart refrigerator a refrigerator with the functionality of a regular refrigerator but that also has the ability to connect to the
internet through a wi-fi connection
sustainability the process of managing change in a balanced, controlled way so that other factors are not negatively affected
Three-dimensional (3D) printing the process of creating a three-dimensional physical object from digital data, usually by
building up material in successive layers
traffic management procedures and processes used to efficiently and effectively control the flow of vehicles on roads
virtual assistant a software agent that can perform tasks or services for an individual
virtual currency unregulated, digital money, which is issued and (usually) controlled by its creator and is used and accepted
among the members of an online virtual community
virtual reality (VR) the use of computer-generated three-dimensional images and specialised equipment to allow a user to
interact with a simulated environment different from the real world
wearable technology small smart devices that can be worn on, or implanted into, the body or woven into clothing

Important facts
1 A digital system consists of hardware and software and can consist of a single device, a collection of devices or a network.
2 A smartphone is a telephone integrated with a digital system allowing functionality not normally associated with
telephones, such as an operating system, web browsing, email and the ability to run software applications.
3 Smart refrigerators offer the functionality of a regular refrigerator but also offer the ability to connect to the internet
through a wi-fi connection.
4 A virtual assistant is a software agent that can perform tasks or services for an individual.
5 Emerging technologies are technologies that are perceived as capable of making significant change within society. These
include drones, microcontrollers, nanosatellites, augmented reality, 3D printing, wearable technology and the Internet of
Things.
6 Assistive technology is any technology that allows an individual or organisation to complete a task that they would not
normally be able to complete, or makes it easier and safer to complete day-to-day activities.
7 Accessibility aids are required to make everyday tasks accessible to everyone, especially those people who have an
impairment or disability.
8 Cognitive aids assist people with a physical, cognitive or emotional impairment that affects processes such as attention,
memory, navigation, planning or sequencing of events or tasks.
9 There is a wide range of technology used within the financial services industry, such as online banking, automatic teller
machines and point-of-sale payment systems.

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10 Multi-factor authentication requires the user to provide two or more pieces of evidence to verify their identity to be able
to complete a transaction online.
11 Fraud detection involves identifying unauthorised financial transactions.
12 Electronic funds transfers (EFT) allow a financial payment to be made from one bank account to another using a digital
system.
13 Near-field communication (NFC) technology uses radio waves to allow contactless communication over a very close
distance, without the need to configure any settings.
14 Virtual currency is unregulated, digital money, which is issued and (usually) controlled by its creators and is used and
accepted among the members of an online virtual community.
15 Global positioning system (GPS) uses a network of satellites that provide location and time data to any connected device.
16 A robot is a device that can complete a specific task with autonomy.
17 Traffic management is a group of procedures and processes that are used to efficiently and effectively control the flow of
vehicles on the roads. This includes speed and red-light cameras and point-to-point and bus lane camera systems.
18 A goal is a broad statement of the desired result that a digital system is expected to achieve.
19 An objective defines how a goal will be achieved. Objectives tend to be specific and measurable.
20 Economic issues involving emerging technologies can include:
•• access
•• deskilling
•• job loss
•• misuse
•• sustainability.
21 Issues and impacts related to emerging technologies include:
•• automation
•• cyberbullying
•• human interaction
•• interpersonal skills.

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Qz Review quiz Components of digital systems

Practice quiz
1 What is meant by a digital system?

Digital devices used for a range of current and

emerging applications
2 List the advantages of using a smart refrigerator rather than a normal refrigerator.
3 List and describe two tasks performed by a virtual assistant.
4 Describe the components included in a microcontroller.
5 Give one example of where augmented reality is used.
6 Discuss two benefits of wearable technology.

Emerging trends in digital systems

7 Explain what is meant by the Internet of Things (IoT). Describe one benefit of the IoT for
organisations.
8 Give two reasons why a person might wear a wearable technology.
9 Explain how robotic devices ensure quality control.
10 Explain how drones are used to improve efficiency in the agricultural industry.
11 What is meant by the term ‘a swarm of satellites’? How appropriate is this term?

Functions and capabilities of digital systems

12 Give two examples of assistive technology and how they are used to improve a person’s quality
of life.
13 List three uses of technology in the financial industry.
14 Describe how GPS identifies a car’s location.
15 Describe the components that are used in a robotic device.
16 Discuss one use of technology in traffic management.

Goals and objectives of digital systems

17 Explain the relationship between goals and objectives.

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Economic issues involving emerging technologies

18 List two factors that will affect a user’s ability to access emerging technology.
19 Explain how deskilling could be a result of emerging technology.
20 Discuss the relationship between automation and possible job loss.
21 Explain how mobile phone production could be made more sustainable.

Impact of current and emerging technologies

22 Describe two ways that automation could affect a worker in the car industry.
23 What is cyberbullying? How does technology contribute to it?
24 Explain why human interactions are important.
25 Give three reasons why good interpersonal skills are important in a workplace.

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KNOWLEDGE

Answer questions 1–3 below for each of the following emerging technologies:
•• Internet of Things (IoT)
•• drones
•• wearable technology
•• augmented reality
•• nanosatellites.
1 Identify the digital system components used.
2 Discuss trends in the use of the technology by individuals or organisations.
3 Discuss economic, legal and social issues related to the use of that technology.

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