Literature Review on Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)

1. Introduction Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) are industrial digital computers adapted for
controlling manufacturing processes, such as assembly lines, robotic devices, or any activity that
requires high-reliability control and ease of programming and process fault diagnosis. Since their
introduction in the late 1960s by General Motors (Clarke, 2005), PLCs have evolved significantly,
embracing modular architectures, high-speed processing, integrated communication, and compatibility
with industrial standards such as IEC 61131-3. The increasing complexity of modern automation
systems has necessitated continuous improvement in PLC architectures, programming paradigms, and
communication protocols.

2. Internal and External Architecture of PLCs PLCs are composed of internal and external
architectural elements, each serving a specific role in the control and automation process.

2.1 Internal Architecture The internal architecture includes the Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory
modules, power supply, and communication interfaces. The CPU executes control instructions based on
the logic programmed by the user. Memory in a PLC is typically categorized into system memory (for
firmware and diagnostics), user memory (for program storage), and data memory (for real-time variable
storage) (Bolton, 2015).

The CPU fetches inputs from connected field devices, processes the control logic, and updates the
outputs accordingly. Watchdog timers, input/output (I/O) scanning routines, and real-time clocks are
also critical internal components (Groover, 2016).

2.2 External Architecture Externally, PLCs consist of input/output modules, Human-Machine Interfaces
(HMIs), communication ports, and various sensors and actuators. Inputs can be digital or analog, while
outputs control actuators such as motors, relays, or solenoids. The I/O modules are typically arranged
in racks or chassis that allow for modular expansion (Petruzella, 2020).

3. The IEC 61131-3 Standard IEC 61131-3 is the international standard for PLC programming and
development, defining five programming languages: Ladder Diagram (LD), Function Block Diagram
(FBD), Structured Text (ST), Instruction List (IL), and Sequential Function Chart (SFC) (Lewis, 1998). These
languages allow for graphical and textual representation of logic, making them suitable for a wide
range of industrial applications.

IEC 61131-3 also defines data types, execution control structures, and software modularity (functions,
function blocks, and programs), supporting reusability and portability across platforms. Its object-
oriented extensions in newer revisions (e.g., IEC 61131-3:2013) enable advanced software engineering
practices in PLC development (Vereecke & De Kock, 2019).

4. Communication Standards and Protocols in PLCs Modern industrial automation systems rely
heavily on robust and standardized communication to enable real-time control, monitoring, and
integration with enterprise-level systems.

4.1 Fieldbus and Ethernet-based Protocols Traditionally, protocols like Modbus (RTU/TCP), Profibus,
and CANopen have been widely adopted. Modbus, a serial communication protocol, is known for its

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simplicity and widespread support (Schweber, 2011). Profibus provides faster communication and
deterministic performance suitable for time-critical applications (Decotignie, 2005).

Ethernet-based protocols such as EtherNet/IP, PROFINET, EtherCAT, and Modbus TCP have become
dominant due to their scalability and integration with IT networks. EtherNet/IP, developed by Rockwell
Automation and managed by ODVA, uses the Common Industrial Protocol (CIP) and supports device-
level communication (Zhang et al., 2019). PROFINET, promoted by Siemens and PI International,
supports real-time and isochronous communication for process and discrete automation (Thomesse,
2005).

4.2 Industrial IoT and OPC UA The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) has brought attention to
protocols like OPC UA, MQTT, and DDS. OPC UA, a platform-independent service-oriented architecture,
allows secure, reliable data exchange and semantic modeling (Mahmoud & Nair, 2018). It is increasingly
integrated with PLCs for interoperability between devices and cloud platforms.

4.3 Wireless Communication Wireless technologies, including IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi), ZigBee, and
LoRaWAN, are also being explored for remote PLC access, especially in smart grid, oil and gas, and
agriculture applications. Security and latency, however, remain significant challenges (Karnouskos,
2011).

5. Conclusion PLCs are a cornerstone of modern industrial automation. Their architecture, standardized
programming environment through IEC 61131-3, and evolving communication standards support a
wide range of applications across industries. Future trends include tighter integration with cloud
systems, edge computing, and AI-enabled control strategies. Continuous innovation in communication
protocols and software standardization ensures that PLCs remain relevant in the face of rapid
technological change.

References

1. Bolton, W. (2015). Programmable Logic Controllers (6th ed.). Newnes.

2. Clarke, J. (2005). The evolution of the programmable controller. IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Electronics, 52(2), 321–326.
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1103–1122.
4. Groover, M. P. (2016). Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (4th
ed.). Pearson.
5. Lewis, R. W. (1998). Programming Industrial Control Systems Using IEC 1131-3. IEE Control
Engineering Series.
6. Mahmoud, Q. H., & Nair, N. G. (2018). OPC UA and the Industrial Internet of Things. IEEE
Potentials, 37(1), 20–25.
7. Petruzella, F. D. (2020). Programmable Logic Controllers (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
8. Schweber, B. (2011). Modbus: The Everyman Protocol. EE Times.
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14. ODVA (2020). EtherNet/IP Specification. Open DeviceNet Vendors Association.
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