Computer Architecture I

Unit 2

Basic Computer Organization and Design

Third Stage

Asst.Lec. HAYDER ALI HUSSEIN

Computer Engineering Department/ AL-Farabi University College

 Outline
Looping
• Instruction Codes
• Computer Registers
• Computer Instructions
• Timing and Control
• Instruction Cycle
• Memory-Reference Instructions
• Input-output and Interrupt
• Complete Computer Description
• Design of Accumulator Unit
• Questions Asked in GTU Exam
Instruction Codes
Section - 1
Instruction Codes
 Program
 A program is a set of instructions that specify the operations, operands and the sequence by which
processing has to occur.
 Computer Instruction
 A computer instruction is a binary code that specifies a sequence of micro-operations for the computer.
 The computer reads each instruction from memory and places it in a control register.
 The control then interprets the binary code of the instruction and proceeds to execute it by issuing a
sequence of micro-operations.
 Instruction Code
 An instruction code is a group of bits that instruct the computer to perform a specific operation.
 Example Unique Binary
ADD 1547
code is assigned
 Operation Code (Opcode) to every Opcode
 The operation code of an instruction is a group of bits that define such operations as add, subtract, multiply,
shift, and complement.
 The number of bits required for the operation code of an instruction depends on the total number of
operations available in the computer.
 The operation code must consist of at least n bits for a given 2n (or less) distinct operations.
Stored Program Organization

Memory
4096 x 16

15 12 11 0
Opcode Address
Instructions
(program)
Instruction Format

15 0 Operand
Binary Operand (data)

Processor Register
(accumulator or AC)
Stored Program Organization
 The simplest way to organize a computer is to have one processor register(AC) and an
instruction code format with two parts.
 The first part specifies the operation (opcode) to be performed and the second specifies an address
(operand).
 The memory address tells the control where to find an operand in memory.
 This operand is read from memory and used as the data to be operated on together with the
data stored in the processor register.
 Instructions are stored in one section of memory and data in another.
 For a memory unit with 4096 words, we need 12 bits to specify an address since 212 = 4096.
 If we store each instruction code in one 16-bit memory word, we have available four bits for
operation code (opcode) to specify one out of 16 possible operations, and 12 bits to specify
the address of an operand.
 The control reads a 16-bit instruction from the program portion of memory.
 It then executes the operation specified by the operation code.
Instruction format of basic computer

Instruction Format
15 14 12 11 0
I Opcode Address

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
Add Instruction – ADD 457
Direct & Indirect Addressing of Memory
Memory Memory
 If the second part of an
instruction format specifies the
22 0 ADD 457 35 1 ADD 300 address of an operand, the
instruction is said to have a
direct address.
300 1350
 In Indirect address, the bits in
457 Operand the second part of the
1350 Operand instruction designate an
address of a memory word in
which the address of the
operand is found.
+ +

AC AC
Direct & Indirect Addressing of Memory
15 14 12 11 0 15 14 12 11 0
22 0 ADD 457 35 1 ADD 300

 A direct address instruction is placed at  The instruction in address 35 has a mode bit
address 22 in memory. I = 1, recognized as an indirect address
 The I bit is 0, so the instruction is recognized instruction.
as a direct address instruction.  The address part is the binary equivalent of
 The opcode specifies an ADD instruction, 300.
and the address part is the binary equivalent  The control goes to address 300 to find the
of 457. address of the operand.
 The control finds the operand in memory at  The address of the operand in this case is
address 457 and adds it to the content of 1350.
AC.  The operand found in address 1350 is then
added to the content of AC.
Computer Registers
Section - 2
Computer Registers
11 0 15 0
Program Counter(12) Accumulator(16)
PC Holds address of instruction AC Processor register
11 0 7 0
Address Register(12) Output Register(8)
AR Holds address for memory OUTR Holds output character
15 0 7 0
Instruction Register(16) Input Register(8)
IR Holds instruction code INPR Holds input character
15 0
TR Temporary Register(16) Memory
Holds temporary data
4096 words
15 0
Data Register(16)
16 bits per word
DR Holds memory operand
 1 S2

Common Bus
0 S1 Bus
Memory 0 S0
4096 x 16 7

System of
Address
WriteAR
Read
AR 1

Basic PC
LD INR CLR
PC 2

Computer AC
DR
LD INR CLR
DR 3
1 LD INR CLR

Adder E AC

AC 4
& Logic
LD INR CLR
INPR

INPR
DR AC IR

IR 5
LD
AC DR TR

TR 6

OUTR
LD INR CLR
OUTR
Clock
LD
AC
Computer Instructions
Section - 3
Types of Computer Instructions
1. Memory Reference Instruction
15 14 12 11 0
I Opcode Address

01 01 01 01 Address

0xxx 8xxx AND AND the content of memory to AC

1xxx 9xxx ADD Add the content of memory to AC
2xxx Axxx LDA Load memory word to AC
3xxx Bxxx STA Store content of AC in memory
4xxx Cxxx BUN Branch unconditionally
5xxx Dxxx BSA Branch and save return address
6xxx Exxx ISZ Increment and skip if zero
Types of Computer Instructions
2. Register Reference Instruction
15 14 13 12 11 0
0 1 1 1 Register Operation

0 1 1 1 10 10 01 10 01 10 01 0 0 0 0 0

7800 CLA Clear AC

7400 CLE Clear E
7200 CMA Complement AC
7100 CME Complement E
7080 CIR Circulate right AC and E
7040 CIL Circulate left AC and E
7020 INC Increment AC
Types of Computer Instructions
2. Register Reference Instruction

15 14 13 12 11 0
0 1 1 1 Register Operation

0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 01 10 01 10

7010 SPA Skip next instruction if AC is positive

7008 SNA Skip next instruction if AC is negative
7004 SZA Skip next instruction if AC is zero
7002 SZE Skip next instruction if E is zero
7001 HLT Halt computer
Types of Computer Instructions
3. Input – Output Instruction
15 14 13 12 11 0
1 1 1 1 I/O Operation

1 1 1 1 10 01 10 01 10 01 0 0 0 0 0 0

F800 INP Input character to AC

F400 OUT Output character from AC
F200 SKI Skip on input flag
F100 SKO Skip on output flag
F080 ION Interrupt on
F040 IOF Interrupt off
Instruction Set Completeness
 Instruction set is said to be complete if it includes enough instructions in each of the following
categories:
1. Arithmetic, logical and shift instructions
2. Instructions for moving information to and from memory and processor registers
3. Program control instructions together with instructions that check status conditions
4. Input and output instructions
Timing and Control
Section - 4
Control Organization
 Hardwired Control
 The control logic is implemented with gates, flips-flops, decoders and other digital circuits.
 It can be optimized to produce a fast mode of operation.
 It requires changes in the wiring among the various components if the design has to be modified or changed.
 Microprogrammed Control
 The control information is stored in a control memory.
 The control memory is programmed to initiate the required sequence of micro-operations.
 Any required changes or modifications can be done by updating the microprogram in control memory.
Control Unit of Basic Computer
0 0 0 Instruction
1 0 Register
10001010111
Other inputs
15 14 13 12 11 - 0
0 0 0 1
3x8
Decoder
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Control
D0 Control O/p
I D1 D7 Logic
Gates
T15
T0
15 14 ... 2 1 0
4 x 16
Decoder

4-bit sequence Increment (INR)

Clear (CLR)
counter (SC) Clock
Control Unit
 Components of Control unit are
1. Two decoders
2. A sequence counter
3. Control logic gates
 An instruction read from memory is placed in the instruction register (IR).
 In control unit the IR is divided into three parts: I bit, the operation code (12-14)bit, and bits 0
through 11.
 The operation code in bits 12 through 14 are decoded with a 3 x 8 decoder.
 Bit-15 of the instruction is transferred to a flip-flop designated by the symbol I.
 The eight outputs of the decoder are designated by the symbols D0 through D7.
 Bits 0 through 11 are applied to the control logic gates.
 The 4‐bit sequence counter can count in binary from 0 through 15. The outputs of counter are
decoded into 16 timing signals T0 through T15.
 The sequence counter SC can be incremented or cleared synchronously.
Control Unit
 Most of the time, the counter is incremented to provide the sequence of timing signals out of 4
X 16 decoder.
 Once in awhile, the counter is cleared to 0, causing the next timing signal to be T0.
 As an example, consider the case where SC is incremented to provide timing signals T0, T1, T2,
T3 and T4 in sequence. At time T4, SC is cleared to 0 if decoder output D3 is active. This is
expressed symbolically by the statement
D3T4: SC ← 0
 Initially, the CLR input of SC is active.
 The first positive transition of the clock clears SC to 0, which in turn activates the timing T0 out
of the decoder.
 T0 is active during one clock cycle.
 The positive clock transition labeled T0 in the diagram will trigger only those registers whose
control inputs are connected to timing signal T0.
Timing Cycle for D3T4: SC ← 0
𝑇0 𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇4 𝑇5

Clock

𝑇0

𝑇1

𝑇2

𝑇3

𝑇4

𝐷3

CLR SC
Control Unit
 SC is incremented with every positive clock transition, unless its CLR input is active.
 This procedures the sequence of timing signals T0, T1, T2, T3 and T4, and so on. If SC is not
cleared, the timing signals will continue with T5, T6, up to T15 and back to T0.
 The last three waveforms shows how SC is cleared when D3T4 = 1.
 Output D3 from the operation decoder becomes active at the end of timing signal T2.
 When timing signal T4 becomes active, the output of the AND gate that implements the control
function D3T4 becomes active.
 This signal is applied to the CLR input of SC.
 On the next positive clock transition the counter is cleared to 0.
 This causes the timing signal T0 to become active instead of T5 that would have been active if
SC were incremented instead of cleared.
Instruction Cycle
Section - 5
Instruction Cycle
 A program residing in the memory unit of  Fetch & Decode
the computer consists of a sequence of  PC is loaded with the address of the first
instructions. In the basic computer each instruction in the program.
instruction cycle consists of the following  The micro-operations for fetch and decode phases
phases: are as follows:
1. Fetch an instruction from memory. • 𝑇0 ∶ 𝐴𝑅 ← 𝑃𝐶
2. Decode the instruction. • 𝑇1 ∶ 𝐼𝑅 ← 𝑀 𝐴𝑅 , 𝑃𝐶 ← 𝑃𝐶 + 1
3. Read the effective address from memory if • 𝑇2 ∶ 𝐷0 , … , 𝐷7 ← 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝐼𝑅 12 − 14 , 𝐴𝑅 ← 𝐼𝑅 0 − 11
the instruction has an indirect address. , 𝐼 ← 𝐼𝑅(15)
4. Execute the instruction.  Determine the type of instruction
 After step 4, the control goes back to step  During time 𝑇3 , the control unit determines the type of
1 to fetch, decode and execute the next instruction i.e. Memory reference, Register reference or
Input-Output instruction.
instruction.  If 𝐷7 = 1 then instruction must be register reference or
 This process continues unless a HALT input-output else memory reference instruction.
instruction is encountered.
 Start
SC ← 0
𝑇0
AR ← PC
𝑇1
IR ← M[AR], PC ← PC + 1

𝑇2
Decode operation code in IR(12-14)
AR ← IR(0-11), I ← IR(15)

(Register or I/O) = 1 = 0 (Memory-reference)

D7
(I/O) = 1 = 0 (register) (indirect) = 1 = 0 (direct)
I I

𝑇3 𝑇3 𝑇3 𝑇3
Execute Execute
input-output register-reference AR ← M[AR] Nothing
instruction instruction
SC ← 0 SC ← 0
Execute
memory-reference
instruction
SC ← 0
Memory-Reference Instructions
Section - 6
Memory Reference Instructions
1. AND: AND to AC
This is an instruction that performs the AND logic operation on pairs of bits in AC and the
memory word specified by the effective address. The result of the operation is transferred to
AC.
D0T4: DR  M[AR]
D0T5: AC  AC  DR, SC  0
2. ADD: ADD to AC
This instruction adds the content of the memory word specified by the effective address to
the value of AC. The sum is transferred into AC and the output carry Cout is transferred to the
E (extended accumulator) flip-flop.

D1T4: DR  M[AR]
D1T5: AC  AC + DR, E  Cout, SC  0
Memory Reference Instructions
3. LDA: Load to AC
This instruction transfers the memory word specified by the effective address to AC.
D2T4: DR  M[AR]
D2T5: AC  DR, SC  0

4. STA: Store AC
This instruction stores the content of AC into the memory word specified by the effective
address.
D3T4: M[AR]  AC, SC  0
Memory Reference Instructions
5. BUN: Branch Unconditionally
This instruction transfers the program to instruction specified by the effective address. The
BUN instruction allows the programmer to specify an instruction out of sequence and the
program branches (or jumps) unconditionally.
D4T4: PC  AR, SC  0

6. BSA: Branch and Save Return Address

This instruction is useful for branching to a portion of the program called a subroutine or
procedure. When executed, the BSA instruction stores the address of the next instruction in
sequence (which is available in PC) into a memory location specified by the effective address.

D5T4: M[AR]  PC, AR  AR + 1

D5T5: PC  AR, SC  0
Memory Reference Instructions (BSA)

20 0 BSA 135 20 0 BSA 135

PC = 21 Next Instruction 21 Next Instruction

AR = 135 135 21
136 PC = 136

Subroutine Subroutine

1 BUN 135 1 BUN 135

Memory, PC and AR at Time T4 Memory and PC after execution

Memory Reference Instructions
7. ISZ: Increment and Skip if Zero
These instruction increments the word specified by the effective address, and if the
incremented value is equal to 0, PC is incremented by 1. Since it is not possible to increment
a word inside the memory, it is necessary to read the word into DR, increment DR, and store
the word back into memory.

D6T4: DR  M[AR]
D6T5: DR  DR + 1
D6T6: M[AR]  DR, if (DR = 0) then (PC  PC + 1), SC  0
Register Reference Instruction
D7I’T3 = r (common to all register reference instructions)
IR(i) = Bi [bit in IR(0-11) that specifies the operation]
CLA rB11 AC ← 0 Clear AC
CLE rB10 E ← 0 Clear E
CMA rB9 AC ← AC’ Complement AC
CME rB8 E ← E’ Complement E
CIR rB7 AC ← shr AC, AC(15) ← E, E ← AC(0) Circulate right
CIL rB6 AC ← shl AC, AC(0) ← E, E ← AC(15) Circulate left
INC rB5 AC ← AC + 1 Increment AC
SPA rB4 If (AC(15) = 0) then (PC ← PC + 1) Skip if AC is positive
SNA rB3 If (AC(15) = 1) then (PC ← PC + 1) Skip if AC is negative
SZA rB2 If (AC = 0) then (PC ← PC + 1) Skip if AC is zero
SZE rB1 If (E = 0) then (PC ← PC + 1) Skip if E is zero
HLT rB0 S ← 0 (S is a start-stop flip-flop) Halt Computer
Input-output and Interrupt
Section - 7
Input-Output of basic computer

Input-Output Serial Computer registers

terminal communication and flip-flop
interface
FGO =1 =0

Receiver
Printer OUTR
Interface

AC

Transmitter
Keyboard INPR
Interface

FGI =0 =1
Input-Output of basic computer
 A computer can serve no useful purpose unless it communicates with the external
environment.
 To exhibit the most basic requirements for input and output communication, we will use a
terminal unit with a keyboard and printer.
 The terminal sends and receives serial information and each quantity of information has eight
bits of an alphanumeric code.
 The serial information from the keyboard is shifted into the input register INPR.
 The serial information for the printer is stored in the output register OUTR.
 These two registers communicate with a communication interface serially and with the AC in
parallel.
Process of input & output information transfer
Input Transfer Output Transfer
 Initially, the input flag FGI is cleared to 0.  The output register OUTR works similarly but
When a key is struck in the keyboard, an 8-bit the direction of information flow is reversed.
alphanumeric code is shifted into INPR and  Initially, the output flag FGO is set to 1. The
the input flag FGI is set to 1. computer checks the flag bit; if it is 1, the
 As long as the flag is set, the information in information from AC is transferred in parallel
INPR cannot be changed by striking another to OUTR and FGO is cleared to 0. The output
key. The computer checks the flag bit; if it is device accepts the coded information, prints
1, the information from INPR is transferred in the corresponding character, and when the
parallel into AC and FGI is cleared to 0. operation is completed, it sets FGO to 1.
 Once the flag is cleared, new information can  The computer does not load a new character
be shifted into INPR by striking another key. into OUTR when FGO is 0 because this
condition indicates that the output device is
in the process of printing the character.
Input-Output Instruction
D7IT3 = p (common to all input-output instructions)
IR(i) = Bi [bit in IR(6-11) that specifies the operation]
INP pB11 AC(0-7) ← INPR, FGI ← 0 Input Character
OUT pB10 OUTR ← AC(0-7), FGO ← 0 Output Character
SKI pB9 If (FGI = 1) then (PC ← PC + 1) Skip on input flag
SKO pB8 If (FGO = 1) then (PC ← PC + 1) Skip on output flag
ION pB7 IEN ← 1 Interrupt enable on
IOF pB6 IEN ← 0 Interrupt enable off
Interrupt Cycle

Instruction cycle = 0 = 1 Interrupt cycle

R

Fetch & Decode Store return address

instruction in location 0
M[0] ← PC
Execute =0
IEN
instruction
=1 Branch to location 1
PC ← 1
=1 FGI
=0
IEN ← 0
=1 FGO R←0
=0
R←1
Interrupt Cycle
 The interrupt cycle is a hardware implementation of a branch and save return address
operation.
 An interrupt flip-flop R is included in the computer.
 When R = 0, the computer goes through an instruction cycle.
 During the execute phase of the instruction cycle IEN is checked by the control.
 If it is 0, it indicates that the programmer does not want to use the interrupt, so control
continues with the next instruction cycle.
 If IEN is 1, control checks the flag bits.
 If both flags are 0, it indicates that neither the input nor the output registers are ready for
transfer of information.
 In this case, control continues with the next instruction cycle. If either flag is set to 1 while IEN
= 1, flip-flop R is set to 1.
 At the end of the execute phase, control checks the value of R, and if it is equal to 1, it goes to
an interrupt cycle instead of an instruction cycle.
Register transfer statements for Interrupt cycle
 The flip-flop is set to 1 if IEN = 1 and either FGI or FGO are equal to 1. This can happen with any
clock transition except when timing signals T0, T1 or T2 are active.
 The condition for setting flip-flop R = 1 can be expressed with the following register transfer
statement:
T0 T1 T2 (IEN) (FGI + FGO): R  1
 The symbol + between FGI and FGO in the control function designates a logic OR operation.
This is AND with IEN and T0 T1 T2.
 The fetch and decode phases of the instruction cycle must be modified and Replace T0, T1, T2
with R'T0, R'T1, R'T2
 Therefore the interrupt cycle statements are :
RT0 : AR  0, TR  PC
RT1 : M[AR]  TR, PC  0
RT2 : PC  PC + 1, IEN  0, R  0, SC  0
Register transfer statements for Interrupt cycle
 During the first timing signal AR is cleared to 0, and the content of PC is transferred to the
temporary register TR.
 With the second timing signal, the return address is stored in memory at location 0 and PC is
cleared to 0.
 The third timing signal increments PC to 1, clears IEN and R, and control goes back to T0 by
clearing SC to 0.
 The beginning of the next instruction cycle has the condition RT0 and the content of PC is equal
to 1. The control then goes through an instruction cycle that fetches and executes the BUN
instruction in location 1.
Demonstration of Interrupt Cycle

0 0 256
1 0 BUN 1120 PC = 1 0 BUN 1120

255 255
PC = 256 256
Main Program Main Program

1120 1120
I/O program I/O program

1 BUN 0 1 BUN 0

Before Interrupt After Interrupt

Complete Computer Description
Section - 8
 Start
SC ← 0, IEN ← 0, R ← 0

(Instruction cycle) = 0 =1 (Interrupt cycle)

R

𝑅′𝑇0 𝑅𝑇0
AR ← PC AR ← 0, TR ← PC
𝑅′𝑇1 𝑅𝑇1
IR ← M[AR], PC ← PC + 1 M[AR] ← TR, PC ← 0

𝑅′𝑇2 𝑅𝑇2
Decode operation code in IR(12-14) PC ← PC + 1, IEN ←
AR ← IR(0-11), I ← IR(15) 0, R ← 0, SC ← 0

(Register or I/O) = 1 = 0 (Memory-reference)

D7
(I/O) = 1 = 0 (register) (indirect) = 1 = 0 (direct)
I I

𝑇3 𝑇3 𝑇3 𝑇3
Execute input- Execute AR ← M[AR] Nothing
output register-reference
instruction instruction
SC ← 0 SC ← 0
Execute
memory-reference
instruction
SC ← 0
Design of Accumulator Unit
Section - 9
Design of Accumulator Logic
 In order to design the logic associated with AC, it is necessary to extract all the statements that
change the content of AC.

D0T5: AC  AC  DR, SC  0 AND with DR

D1T5: AC  AC + DR, SC  0 ADD with DR
D2T5: AC  DR Transfer from DR
pB11: AC(0-7) ← INPR, FGI ← 0 Transfer from INPR
rB9: AC ← AC’ Complement
rB7: AC ← shr AC, AC(15) ← E Shift right
rB6: AC ← shl AC, AC(0) ← E Shift left
rB11: AC ← 0 Clear
rB5: AC ← AC + 1 Increment
Design of Accumulator Logic

Circuit associated with AC

16
16 Adder and logic 16 Accumulator register 16
From DR
circuit (AC) To bus
8
From INPR

LD INR CLR
Clock

Control gates
Design of Accumulator Logic
Gate structure for controlling LD, INR and CLR of AC
D0 AND
T5 16 16
AC
D1 ADD From To bus
Adder &
D2 DR Logic LD INR CLR
T5
Clock
p
B11 INPR
r CMA
B9

SHR
B7
SHL
B6
INC
B5
CLR
B11
Questions Asked in GTU Exam
Section - 10
Questions asked in GTU exam
1. Write a detailed note on instruction cycle with neat diagrams.
2. Explain control unit of basic computer and its working with diagram.
3. For the basic computer explain following instructions
1. LDA
2. ADD
3. AND
4. CLA
4. Draw and explain flowchart for interrupt cycle.
5. For the basic computer explain following instructions
1. BUN
2. BSA
3. CIL
4. SZE
6. Explain how Input/Output can be performed using interrupts.
7. State the differences between hardwired control and microprogrammed control.
Questions asked in GTU exam
8. A computer uses a memory unit with 256K words of 32 bits each. A binary instruction code is
stored in one word of memory. The instruction has four parts: an indirect bit, an operation
code, a register code part to specify one of 64 registers, and an address part. 1) How many
bits are there in operation code, the register code part, and the address part? 2) Draw the
instruction word format and indicate the number of bits in each part. 3) How many bits are
there in the data and address inputs of the memory?
9. Draw and explain basic computer instruction formats.
10. Differentiate MRI and non-MRI.
11. Explain Direct and Indirect Addressing.
12. Give an example of register transfer of data through accumulator.
13. What is Interrupt? How it is useful for a system?
14. Explain CLA, ISZ, INP instruction.
15. Explain seven register common bus system.
Questions asked in GTU exam
16. Explain with clear diagram, how data can be input to the computer using INP instruction.
17. What is a Program Counter?
18. What is an Accumulator?
19. What is an Instruction Register?
20. What do you understand by Memory Address?
21. What is a Carry Flag?
22. Explain Instruction Fetch.
23. Explain Instruction Decode.
24. Enlist major components of CPU.
25. Effective address.