1) What is an Embedded System?

How is it different from a General-

Purpose System?

Embedded System: A combination of hardware and software (firmware)

designed to perform a specific function.

Example: Washing machine, ATM, microwave oven.

🆚 Difference:

General-
Feature Embedded System Purpose
System

Multiple
Purpose Specific task only
tasks

OS May or may not have Always has

User can
Flexibility Fixed program install
programs

Faster is
Speed Priority Depends on task
better

Not always
Power Saving Highly optimized
optimized

2) History and Classification of Embedded Systems

📜 History:

 Started before IT revolution with vacuum tubes and transistors.

 First modern system: Apollo Guidance Computer (NASA).

 First mass-produced: Autonetics D-17 (1961).

🔢 Classification:

1. Based on Generation:

o 1st: 8-bit, simple (e.g., keypad)

o 2nd: 16-bit (e.g., SCADA)

 o 3rd: 32-bit + DSPs, OS support

o 4th: SoC, reconfigurable

o 5th (Next): AI, IoT-enabled

2. Based on Complexity:

o Small (e.g., toys)

o Medium (e.g., cameras)

o Large (e.g., spacecraft)

3. Based on Behavior:

o Deterministic: Predictable

o Non-deterministic: Flexible

4. Based on Triggering:

o Event-triggered: Alarm rings when triggered

o Time-triggered: Happens at fixed time (e.g., irrigation)

3) Purpose of Embedded Systems (with examples)

Function Example

Digital
Data Collection
camera

Router,
Data Communication network
switch

Signal Processing Hearing aid

Monitoring ECG machine

Air
Control
conditioner

Mobile phone
User Interface
keypad
4) Core of Embedded System and Categories

The core is the brain of an embedded system.

🔸 Types of Cores:

1. Processors/Controllers:

o Microprocessors (CPU only)

o Microcontrollers (CPU + memory + I/O)

o Digital Signal Processors (DSP)

2. ASICs – Application-specific

3. PLDs – Programmable Logic Devices

5) Difference between Microprocessor and Microcontroller

Microcontrol
Feature Microprocessor
ler

CPU + RAM +
Components CPU only
ROM + I/O

Dependency Needs external chips Self-contained

Cost Costly Cheap

High-performance Embedded
Use
tasks applications

Power Saving Low High

6) Short Note on Digital Signal Processors (DSP)

 DSPs are special processors for audio, video, communication.

 Faster than regular CPUs for signal tasks.

 Used in hearing aids, music players, telecom devices.

Key Features:

 Program memory + Data memory

  Fast real-time processing

 Specialized ALUs and shifters

7) Difference between RISC and CISC

Feature RISC CISC

Complex
Reduced Instruction
Full Form Instruction
Set
Set

Many,
Instructions Few, simple
complex

Speed Fast (pipelining) Slower

Code Length Longer Shorter

Example ARM 8051

8) Difference between Harvard and Von Neumann Architectures

Von
Feature Harvard Neuma
nn

Separate for code Single

Memory
and data memory

One
Bus Two (parallel)
(shared)

Speed Fast Slower

Cost Costly Cheaper

Intel
Example DSP
8086

9) Difference between Big Endian and Little Endian

 Exampl
Format Description
e

Big High byte at low Motorol

Endian address a

Little Low byte at low

Intel
Endian address

Think of it like storing digits of a number:

Big Endian = 1234 (stored as 12 → 34)
Little Endian = 1234 (stored as 34 → 12)

10) Different Communication Interfaces in Microcontrollers

1. Internal (Onboard) – Used between chips inside a PCB:

 I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit)

 SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface)

 UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter)

2. External (Outside devices) – Used with other systems:

 USB

 Bluetooth

 ZigBee

 Wi-Fi

 RS-232

11) Short Note on Passive Components and PCB

 PCB (Printed Circuit Board): Base for mounting all components and
wiring.

 Used for power flow and data flow.

🧩 Passive Components:
Compone
Function
nt

Resistor Controls current

Capacitor Stores electric charge

Allows current in one direction

Diode
only

These support the working of the main ICs.

✅ Short Note on Embedded Firmware

🔹 What is Firmware?

Firmware is a set of instructions or code written to control the hardware

in an embedded system. It’s like the “brain” of the device that tells it how to
behave.

🔹 Where is it Stored?

 Stored in non-volatile memory like ROM, EEPROM, or Flash memory.

 Unlike normal software, it is not meant to be changed frequently.

🔹 Why is it Important?

 It directly controls sensors, actuators, displays, and other components.

 Without firmware, the hardware cannot function.

🔹 Example:

 In a microwave oven, firmware decides:

o What happens when you press a button

o How long to heat food

o How to control the display and beeps

✅ Embedded System Design Process Requirements

The design process involves planning, designing, and testing the
embedded system before actual development.

🔷 1. Requirement Analysis

 Understand what the system must do.

 Define functional (what it does) and non-functional (performance,

cost, power) requirements.

🔷 2. System Specification

 Define hardware and software components.

 Example: OS type, sensors used, memory size.

🔷 3. Hardware Design

 Choose:

o Microcontroller/microprocessor

o I/O interfaces

o PCB design

o Power supply

🔷 4. Firmware Design

 Develop the embedded software using C or assembly.

 Includes device drivers, control algorithms, interrupt handling, etc.

🔷 5. Integration & Testing

 Combine hardware + firmware.

 Test the full system using simulators and debuggers.

🔷 6. Debugging and Optimization

 Remove bugs and improve:

o Speed

o Memory use

o Power consumption

🔷 7. Final Deployment
  Program firmware into final product.

 Test for real-world conditions.

 Release for use.

🎯 Summary:

 Firmware is the control software stored inside embedded devices.

 The design process ensures the system is built correctly — from

concept to working product.