MODULE -4 INSTITUTIONAL MISSION AND VISION

ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

Vision
• Development of academically excellent, culturally vibrant, socially responsible and
globally competent human resources.

Mission
• To keep pace with advancements in knowledge and make the students competitive and
capable at the global level.
• To create an environment for the students to acquire the right physical, intellectual,
emotional and moral foundations and shine as torch bearers of tomorrow's society.
• To strive to attain ever-higher benchmarks of educational excellence.

DEPARTMENTAL MISSION AND VISION

Vision

To develop highly skilled and globally competent professionals in the field of Electronics and
Communication Engineering to meet industrial and social requirements with ethical
responsibility.

Mission

• To provide State-of-art technical education in Electronics and Communication at

undergraduate and post-graduate levels to meet the needs of the profession and society.
• To adopt the best educational methods and achieve excellence in teaching-learning and
research.
• To develop talented and committed human resource, by providing an opportunity for
innovation, creativity and entrepreneurial leadership with high standards of
professional ethics, transparency and accountability.
• To function collaboratively with technical Institutes/Universities/Industries and offer
opportunities for long-term interaction with academia and industry.
• To facilitate effective interactions among faculty and students, and promote networking
with alumni, industries, institutions and other stake-holders.

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 Program outcomes (POs) Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

Engineering Graduates will be able to: At the end of graduation, the student will be able,
• To Comprehend the Fundamental ideas in Electronics and communication Engineering and
PO1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering Apply them to identify, formulate and effectively solve Societal engineering problems using
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering latest tools and techniques.
problems.
• To work effectively in a group as an independent visionary, team member and leader having
the ability to understand the requirement and develop feasible solutions to emerge as potential
PO2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
entrepreneur.
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)
PO3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
• Graduates will have a successful professional career and will be able to pursue higher
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
education and research globally in the field of Electronics and Communication
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
Engineering thereby engaging in lifelong learning.
considerations.
• Graduates will be able to analyze, design and create innovative products by adapting to
the current and emerging technologies while developing a conscience for
PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
environmental/ societal impact.
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions. • Graduates with strong character backed with professional attitude and ethical values
will have the ability to work as a member and as a leader in a team.
PO5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and • Graduates with effective communication skills and multidisciplinary approach will be
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering able to redefine problems beyond boundaries and develop solutions to complex
activities with an understanding of the limitations. problems of today’s society.

PO6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice.

PO7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
for sustainable development.

PO8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.

PO9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

PO10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the

engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.

PO11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.

PO12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

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 MODULE 4
Analog and Digital Communication
Modern communication system scheme - Information source, and input transducer,
Transmitter, Channel or Medium – Hardwired and Softwired, Noise, Receiver,
Multiplexing, Types of communication systems.
Text 3: 1.2, 1.2.1, 1.3, 1.4 – 1.4.1, 1.4.2, 1.5, 1.5.2, 1.6, 1.14, 1.15
From Summary portion of Chapter 1 of Text 3:
Types of modulation (only concepts) – AM (only 2.2, no 2.2.1 and rest), FM, Phase
Modulation, Pulse Modulation, PAM (Fig. 6.5b), PWM (Fig. 6.8), PPM, PCM.
Concept of Radio wave propagation (Ground, space, sky with Fig. 1.28)
From Summary portion of Chapter 6 – Digital Communication of Text 3:
Concepts of Sampling theorem, Nyquist rate, Digital Modulation Schemes (also see 6.12)
– ASK, FSK, PSK
Radio signal transmission – Text 3: 6A.1.1, Fig. 6A.1, Fig. 6A.3
Multiple access techniques – Text 3: 6A.1.4, 6A.1.5
Multipath and fading – Text 3: 6A.2.1
Error Management – Text 3: 6A.3.1, 6A.3.2
Antenna - Types of antennas – Text 3: 13.1, 13.3 (only definition and antenna model,
exclude radiation patterns).
Teaching-Learning Process:
Chalk and talk method, PowerPoint Presentation, YouTube videos
Self-study topics:
Multiplexing techniques – TDM, FDM, CDM, WDM, OFDM
Textbooks:
1. Mike Tooley, ‘Electronic Circuits, Fundamentals & Applications’, 4th Edition,
Elsevier, 2015.
2. K V Shibu, ‘Introduction to Embedded Systems’, 2nd Edition, McGraw Hill
Education (India), Private Limited, 2016.
3. S L Kakani and Priyanka Punglia, ‘Communication Systems’, New Age International
Publisher, 2017.
4. D P Kothari, I J Nagrath, ‘Basic Electronics’, 2nd edition, McGraw Hill Education
(India), Private Limited, 2018

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 21ELN14_Module 4_Analog and Digital Communication 21ELN14_Module 4_Analog and Digital Communication
21ELN14_Module 4_Analog and Digital
Communication

4.10 Concepts of Sampling Theorem

A continuous time signal can be represented in its samples and can be recovered back when
sampling frequency fs is greater than or equal to the twice the highest frequency component
of message signal. i. e.
fs ≥ 2W.
Where W= Highest frequency in base band continuous time signal.
Aliasing refers to an effect that causes different signals to become indistinguishable when
sampled. It also refers to the distortion or artifact that results when the signal reconstructed
from samples is different from the original continuous signal.

4.11 Nyquist Rate

The theoretical minimum sampling rate at which a signal can be sampled and still can be
reconstructed from its samples without any distortion is called the Nyquist rate of sampling.
Mathematically,

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 4.12.3 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
4.12.2 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
• Conveys data by changing (modulating) the phase of constant frequency carrier
• Digital information is transmitted through discrete frequency changes of a • Each symbol (pattern of bits) is represented by a particular phase.
carrier signal • BPSK (Binary PSK), the simplest form of PSK, uses phases 0 degree and 180 degrees
• The simplest FSK is binary FSK (BFSK). • It is widely used for wireless LANs, RFID and Bluetooth communication
• BFSK uses a pair of discrete frequencies to transmit binary (0s and 1s) information
Nyquist Rate, fN=2fm
Where, fm is the maximum frequency component present in the signal.
• If the signal is sampled at the rate greater than the Nyquist rate, then the signal is called
over sampled.
• If the signal is sampled at the rate less than its Nyquist rate, then it is said to be under
sampled.

4.12 Digital Modulation Schemes 4.13 Radio Signal Transmission

• In digital communications, the modulating signal consists of binary data or M-ary The transmitter accepts a stream of bits from the application software and encodes these bits
version of it. onto a radio wave, known as a carrier, by adjusting parameters of the wave such as its
• When it is required to transmit digital signals, the amplitude, frequency or phase of the amplitude or phase.
sinusoidal carrier is varied in accordance with the incoming digital data. Transmitter processes the incoming bits in two stages
• Digital modulation schemes are classified as
o Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) 1. Modulator – accepts the incoming bits and computes symbols that represent the
o Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) amplitude and phase of the outgoing wave.
o Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

4.12.1 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

• Represents digital data as variations in
the amplitude of a carrier wave
• ASK signal may be generated by simply
applying the incoming binary data and the
sinusoidal carrier to the inputs of a product
modulator.

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 21ELN14_Module 4_Analog and Digital Communication 21ELN14_Module 4_Analog and Digital Communication

Modulation scheme used –QPSK – the modulator takes 2 bits at a time and transmits them Modulation schemes used in LTE
using radio waves having 4 different states with phases 45-degree, 135 degree,225 degree
] ]
and 315 degrees
2.Analogue transmitter – Generates the radio wave

Modulation scheme used – QPSK

The distance of each state from the origin represents the amplitude of the transmitted wave
while angle measured anti-clockwise from x-axis represents the phase.

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 LTE ((Long Term Evolution(LTE) - standard for wireless broadband communication
for mobile devices marketed as 4G)
• Binary Phase Shift Keying - BPSK
• Quadrature Phase Shift Keying - QPSK
• 16 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation -16 QAM
• 64 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation - 64 QAM
• Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) - Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) - sends
bits one at a time, using 2 states that can be interpreted as phases 0 and 180 or
as amplitudes +1 and -1.

Constellation diagram of
BPSK
• Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) – sends bits 2 at a time, using 4 states
that can be interpreted as phases 45,135,215 and 315 which correspond to bit
combinations of00, 10, 11 and 01 respectively.

Constellation diagram of
QPSK
• 16 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (16 - QAM) – Sends bits 4 at a time,
using 16 states that have different amplitudes and phases

Constellation diagram of
16-QAM
• 64 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (64-QAM) – Sends bits 6 at a time
using 64 different states. Data rate is six times greater than that of BPSK.

] ]

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 21ELN14_Module 4_Analog and Digital Communication 21ELN14_Module 4_Analog and Digital Communication

TDMA
Because, it will make their data as inflexible and inefficient.

Constellation diagram of 64-QAM

4.14 Multiple Access technique

In cellular network, the base station has to transmit to many different mobiles at once by
sharing the resources of air interface using a technique known as multiple access.
The multiple access techniques are
• Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
• Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
FDMA
• In this type of multiple access, we assign each signal a different type of frequency band
(range). So, any two signals should not have same type of frequency range. Hence, there
won’t be any interference between them, even if we send those signals in one channel.
• One perfect example of this type of access is our radio channels. We can see that each
station has been given a different frequency band in order to operate.
• Let’s take three stations A, B and C. We want to access them through FDMA technique.
So we assigned them different frequency bands.

• As shown in the figure, satellite station A has been kept under the frequency range of 0
to 20 HZ. Similarly, stations B and C have been assigned the frequency range of 30-60
Hz and 70-90 Hz respectively. There is no interference between them.
• The main disadvantage of this type of system is that it is very burst. This type of multiple
access is not recommended for the channels, which are of dynamic and uneven.

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 slot than the channel which is transmitting lighter loads. This is the biggest advantage
• TDMA is a time-based access. Here, we give certain time frame to each channel. of TDMA over FDMA. Another advantage of TDMA is that the power consumption
Within that time frame, the channel can access the entire spectrum bandwidth. will be very low.
Each station got a fixed length or slot. The slots, which are unused will remain in
idle stage. CDMA
• Suppose, we want to send five packets of data to a particular channel in TDMA • In CDMA technique, a unique code has been assigned to each channel to distinguish
technique. So, we should assign them certain time slots or time frame within from each other. A perfect example of this type of multiple access is our cellular system.
which it can access the entire bandwidth. We can see that no two persons’ mobile number match with each other although they
are same X or Y mobile service providing company’s customers using the same
bandwidth.
• In figure, packets 1, 3 and 4 are active, which transmits data. Whereas, packets 2 • In CDMA process, we do the decoding of inner product of the encoded signal and
and 5 are idle because of their non-participation. This format gets repeated chipping sequence. Therefore, mathematically it can be written as
every time we assign bandwidth to that particular channel.
Encoded signal = Original data × chipping sequence
• The basic advantage of this type of multiple access is that it allows all users to coexist
and use the entire bandwidth at the same time. Since each user has different code, there
won’t be any interference.
• In this technique, a number of stations can have number of channels unlike FDMA and
TDMA. The best part of this technique is that each station can use the entire spectrum
• If a channel is transmitting heavier loads, then it can be assigned a bigger time at all time.
] ] ] ]

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 21ELN14_Module 4_Analog and Digital Communication 21ELN14_Module 4_Analog and Digital Communication

FDD and TDD Modes

• By using the various multiple access techniques, a base station can distinguish the
transmissions to and from the individual mobiles in the cell.
• To distinguish the mobiles’ transmissions from those of the base stations, a mobile
communication system can operate in the transmission modes.
4.15 Multipath and fading
• LTE standard specifies two different duplex modes; Frequency Division Duplexing
(FDD) and Time Division Duplexing (TDD) As a result of reflections, rays can take several different paths from the transmitter to the
• Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) -the base station and mobile transmit and receive receiver. This phenomenon is known as multipath.
at the same time, but using different carrier frequencies.
• Time Division Duplex (TDD) - the base station and mobile transmit and receive on the
same carrier frequency but at different times.
Operation of FDD and TDD modes
In FDD mode,
• the bandwidths of the uplink and downlink are fixed and are usually the same
• suitable for voice communications, in which the uplink and downlink data rates are very
similar. Interference - At the receiver, the incoming rays can add together in different ways

In TDD mode,
• the system can adjust how much time is allocated to the uplink and downlink
• suitable for applications such as web browsing, in which the downlink data rate can be
much greater than the rate on the uplink.

Constructive Interference - If the peaks of the incoming rays coincide then they reinforce each
other, a situation known as constructive interference.

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 21ELN14_Module 4_Analog and Digital Communication times as long.

Destructive interference - If the peaks of one ray coincide with the troughs of another, the
result is destructive interference, in which the rays cancel.

Destructive interference can make the received signal power drop to a very low level, a
situation known as fading.
Fading as a function of time and frequency - If the mobile moves from one place to another,
then the ray geometry changes, so the interference pattern changes between constructive and
destructive. Fading is therefore a function of time, as shown in Fig.

Coherence time and Doppler Frequency - The amplitude and phase of the received signal
vary over a timescale called the coherence time, Tc which can be estimated as follows:
TC=1/fD Here fD is the mobile’s Doppler frequency:
fD = (𝑣/𝑐) *(fc) where fc is the carrier frequency, ʋ is the speed of the mobile and c is
the speed of light (3 x 108 ms-1)
Coherence Bandwidth - If the carrier frequency changes, then the wavelength of the radio
signal changes.
This also makes the interference pattern change between constructive and destructive.
The amplitude and phase of the received signal vary over a frequency scale called the
coherence bandwidth, Bc which can be estimated as follows:
Bc=1/г
Here, г is the delay spread of the radio channel

4.16 Error Management

• Noise and interference lead to errors in a wireless communication
• Forward error correction - technique used for controlling errors in data
transmission over unreliable or noisy communication channels.
• the transmitted information is represented using a codeword that is typically two or three

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 21ELN14_Module 4_Analog and Digital Communication at the points where information was discarded. It can then pass the result through a
turbo decoder for error correction.
• The extra bits supply additional, redundant data that allow the receiver to
recover the original information sequence.
Forward Error Correction
• For example, a transmitter might represent the information sequence 101 using
the codeword 110010111. After an error in the second bit, the receiver might
recover the codeword 100010111. If the coding scheme has been well
designed, then the receiver can conclude that this is not a valid codeword, and
that the most likely transmitted codeword was 110010111.
• The coding rate - number of information bits divided by the number of
transmitted bits(1/3 in the example above).
• forward error correction algorithms operate with a fixed coding rate. Despite
this, a wireless transmitter can still adjust the coding rate using the two- stage
process shownin the fig
• The main algorithm used by LTE is known as Turbo coding and has a fixed Block diagram of a transmitter and receiver using
coding rateof 1/3. forward error correction and rate matching
• In the second stage, called rate matching, some of the coded bits are selected
for transmission, while the others are discarded in a process known as • If the coding rate is low, the transmitted data contain many redundant bits which allows
puncturing. the receiver to correct a large number of errors and to operate successfully at a low
• The receiver has a copy of the puncturing algorithm, so it can insert dummy bits SINR(Signal to Interference & Noise ratio), but at the expense of a low information rate.

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 21ELN14_Module 4_Analog and Digital Communication

• If the coding rate is close to 1, then the information rate is higher but the system is more
vulnerable to errors.
• A trade-off between information rate and SINR has to be achieved.
• Note: SINR(Signal to Interference & Noise ratio) - the power of a certain signal of
interest divided by the sum of the interference power (from all the other interfering
signals) and the power of some background noise.
Automatic Repeat Request
Automatic repeat request (ARQ) is another error management technique, which is illustrated
in Fig.

Block diagram of a transmitter and receiver

using automatic repeat request
• Transmitter takes a block of information bits and uses them to compute some extra bits
that are known as a cyclic redundancy check (CRC).
• It appends these to the information block and then transmits the two sets of data in the
usual way.
• Receiver separates the two fields and uses the information bits to compute the expected
CRC bits.
• If the observed and the expected CRC bits are the same, then it concludes that the
information has been received correctly and sends positive acknowledge back to the
transmitter.
• If CRC bits are the different, then it concludes that the error has occurred and sends
negative acknowledge back to the transmitter to request retransmission
• Positive and negative acknowledgements are often abbreviated to ACK and NACK
respectively.
• A wireless communication system often combines these two error management
techniques. Such a system corrects most of the bit errors by the use of forward error
correction and then uses automatic repeat requests to handle the remaining errors that
leak through.

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 Module 4 – Communication Systems Module 4 – Communication Systems
Antenna
COMMON ANTENNAS
1. Omnidirectional Antenna
• An antenna is a device for converting electromagnetic radiation in space into electrical
• An omnidirectional antenna is an antenna that has a non-directional pattern (circular pattern) in
currents in conductors or vice-versa, depending on whether it is being used for receiving or
a given plane with a directional pattern in any orthogonal plane.
for transmitting, respectively.
• Examples: Dipoles and collinear antennas.
• Antennas transform wire propagated waves into space propagated waves.
• As a matter of principle all the features of passive antennas can be applied for reception and
Dipole Antennas (a half-wavelength (4/2) dipole)
transmission alike (reciprocity).
• The physical antenna is constructed of conductive elements whose combined length is about half
• The antenna appears to be a dual gate, although in reality it is a quad gate. The connection
of a wavelength at its intended frequency of operation.
which is not made to a RF-cable is connected to the environment, therefore the surroundings
of the antenna have a strong influence on the antenna’s electrical features.
• Passive radio telescopes are receiving antennas. It is usually easier to calculate the properties
of transmitting antennas.
• Fortunately, most characteristics of a transmitting antenna (e.g., its radiation pattern) are
unchanged when the antenna is used for receiving.

An antenna must have the following features:

• Strictly defined radiation patterns for a most accurate network planning.
• This is a simple antenna that radiates its energy out toward the horizon.
• Growing concern for the level of intermodulation due to the radiation of many HF carriers
via one antenna.
Collinear Omni Antennas
• Dual polarization.
• In order to create an omnidirectional antenna with higher gain, multiple omnidirectional
• Electrical down-tilting of the vertical diagram.
structures (either wires or elements on a circuit board) can be arranged in a vertical, linear fashion
• Unobtrusive design.
to retain the same omnidirectional pattern in the azimuth plane but a more focused elevation
plane beam which then has higher gain.
• This is frequently referred to as a collinear array. Note that the higher gain doesn’t imply that the
antenna creates more power. It means that the same amount of power is radiated in a more focused
way.

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 Module 4 – Communication Systems Module 4 – Communication Systems

2. Directional Antennas
• A directional antenna is one that radiates its energy more effectively in one (or some) direction Patch Array Antennas
than others. • A patch array antenna is some arrangement of multiple patch antennas that are all driven by the
• These antennas have one main lobe and several minor lobes. same source, this arrangement consists of patches arranged in orderly rows and columns (a
• Examples: Directional antennas are patches and dishes, horns. rectangular array) as shown in Figure.
• Directional antennas are used for coverage as well as point-to-point links. • The reason for these types of arrangements is higher gain. Higher gain commonly implies a
narrower beamwidth and that is, indeed, the case with patch arrays.
Patch Antennas
• A patch antenna is a single rectangular (or circular) conductive plate that is spaced above a ground
plane.
• Patch antennas have low profile and easy for fabrication.
• The radiation pattern of a single patch is characterized by a single main lobe of moderate
beamwidth.
• Frequently, the beam widths in the azimuth and elevation planes are similar, resulting in a fairly
circular beam.

• The array shown here has a gain of about 18 dBi with an azimuth and elevation plane beamwidth
of about 20 degrees. Notice that the back lobes are very small and that the front-to-back ratio is
about 30 dB. The first sidelobes are down from the peak about 14 dB.

Yagi Antennas
• A Yagi antenna is formed by driving a simple antenna, typically a dipole or dipole-like antenna,
and shaping the beam using a well-chosen series of non-driven elements whose length and spacing
• The beamwidths can be manipulated to produce an antenna with higher or lower gain, depending are tightly controlled. The Yagi shown here in Figure, is built with one reflector (the bar behind
on the requirements. the driven antenna) and 14 directors (the bars in front of the driven antenna).
• An antenna built with a single patch will have a maximum gain of about 9 dBi or a bit less. • This configuration yields a gain of about 15 dBi with azimuth and elevation plane beamwidths
• The patch antenna in Figure shown below. This is a simple rectangular patch built over a that are basically the same, around 36 degrees. That is a common feature of Yagi antennas.
rectangular ground plane. There is a single main lobe with a wide beamwidth with shallow nulls • These antennas are designed so that they can be rotated for either horizontal or vertical
pointing up and down from the antenna. The one shown in figure is designed to have higher gain polarization. The Yagi antenna is a directional antenna that radiates its energy out in one main
rather than symmetrical plane patterns. direction.

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 Module 4 – Communication Systems

• These antennas are enclosed in a tube, with the result that the user may not see all the antenna
elements. Their directional nature seems to be somewhat intuitive due to their common, tubular
form factor.

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