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The document discusses the interrelationship between culture and society, emphasizing that society consists of individuals sharing a common culture and that culture encompasses beliefs, practices, and artifacts learned and shared within a group. It highlights the dynamic, adaptive, and shared nature of culture, as well as its transmission through socialization and language. Additionally, it outlines the characteristics of culture, including its learned and symbolic aspects, and the importance of communication in cultural transmission.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
6 views9 pages

Write All PAGE 1 Image 1 Discussi...

The document discusses the interrelationship between culture and society, emphasizing that society consists of individuals sharing a common culture and that culture encompasses beliefs, practices, and artifacts learned and shared within a group. It highlights the dynamic, adaptive, and shared nature of culture, as well as its transmission through socialization and language. Additionally, it outlines the characteristics of culture, including its learned and symbolic aspects, and the importance of communication in cultural transmission.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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[Image 1]

Discussion

Reading 1: Society and Culture

In Module 1, we discussed the importance of anthropology, political science, and sociology as


tools in understanding society and culture [173]. In this module, we will look closely at the
nature of culture and society primarily from the vantage point of anthropology and sociology
[174, 175]. Society refers to a group of people sharing a common culture [175]. It may also be
defined as an organized group or groups of people who generally share a common territory,
language, culture, and who act together for collective survival and well-being [177]. The ways
in which people depend upon one another can be seen in the features of their society, such
as their economic, communication, and defense systems [178]. They are also bound together
by a sense of common identity (Haviland, et. al., 2012: 312) [179]. Since culture and society are
closely related concepts, anthropology and sociology study both [180].

Although culture and society are interrelated, these concepts are not exactly the same [181]. A
society has more comprehensive sets of culture in the sense that the group is culturally
self-sufficient [182]. This means that diverse cultures exist in a specific society [183]. A
society, for instance, may engage in trade with other societies and yet the cultural patterns
involved in this trade relation are an integral part of a culture of [184]

22 UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY, AND POLITICS

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the society itself [185]. In most cases, the people's entire set of social interaction occurs
within a society [185]. All social systems have vitally important connections with societies,
either as part of them or as a system cutting across societies but dependent upon them [186].
Human society is characterized by a territorially localized population, the members of which
interact in a network of relationships, which are distinctive, culturally defined and limited, and
affectively bonded by common linguistic patterns and other forms of symbolic representations
(Dash, 2004: 42-43) [187].

Society arises only when individuals are knit together in a network of mutual stimulus and
response [188]. In other words, society exists when social beings behave toward each other in
ways determined by their recognition of one another [189]. The most important characteristic
that distinguishes human from non-human societies lies in the specific ways in people strive
to meet their basic needs [190]. They meet these needs for social survival primarily through
learned behavior, which is invented, generally agreed upon, and transmitted through various
mediums of communication [191]; the most prominent of which is the use of language [192]. In
general, culture develops as a response to a society's conditions and immediate solutions to
the problems of individuals and groups [193].

Culture is "the complex whole which encompasses beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, laws,
norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything that a person learns and shares as a
member of society" (Tylor, 1920 (1871): 1) [194]. This set of behavior and the fact that humans
are characterized by them by virtue of being born as "human beings" apart from other
creatures in the animal kingdom suggests the universal nature of the concept [195]. They are
behaviors that people possess which other primates do not [196]. As John Honigmann, an
anthropologist, has pointed out, there are three components that go together that make up
culture: ideas, activities, and artifacts [197]. Ideas are thoughts, beliefs, feelings, and rules
[198]. Examples of ideas are aversion to incest, the Holy Spirit, and food-sharing desires
among relatives [198]. Ideas also include ways on how to make things, abstract concepts such
as love, peace, and happiness, and the Decalogue of Conduct, which is also known as the Ten
Commandments [199]. Ideas may be directly part of some behavior, the underlying cause or
even by-products of it [200].

Activities, on the one hand, are the dynamic components of culture [201]. It is what people do
as opposed to what they believe or feel [202]. Such may include the act of punishing
incestuous behavior, sacrifice in religion, and the celebration of Christmas and other religious
holidays [203]. Finally, artifacts are man-made products of ideas and activities [204].

Culture as a concept has been defined in many ways. In capsule form, culture may be defined
as the complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, laws, custom, and any
other capabilities and habits acquired, shared, and transmitted by man through interaction
within a social group (Tylor, 1920 (1871): 1) [205]. In fact, Edward Burnett Tylor, an
anthropologist, attempted to demonstrate that culture evolved from simple to complex [206].
Thus, it is possible to reconstruct the simple beginnings of culture by the study of surviving
vestiges of the past such as those considered by the West as "primitive" and "backward" but
in reality possessing the nuances and wisdom of homegrown indigenous knowledge systems
[207]. According to Tylor, culture is learned, shared, and symbolic [208]. It is learned from
parents, peers, teachers, leaders, and others [208]. Culture is not biological or genetic; any
person can acquire any person's culture [209]. Somebody who can recite Rizal's "Mi Ultimo
Adios" and listens to Beethoven is no more cultural than one who reads Wattpad stories and
prefers the music of Gloc-9 [210]. MODULE 2 23 [211]

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Culture is also shared. Although each person is endowed with a critical mind to understand
things as well as cultivate his or her own values and worldviews, members of the human group
also share some basic ideas about the world and their place in it [212]. Lastly, culture is
symbolic [213]. This is often manifested in language, wherein meanings are socially
constructed [213]. In Ellen Rudolf's study of the Japanese language culture, she found out
that men and women used language very differently [214]. Both sexes are expected to be
polite; but women must be more polite than men [215]. However, the scenario is reversed in
business and government, as more women now are highly educated and occupying more
powerful positions in commerce and government than men (Whitten and Hunter, 1993) [216].

Reading 2: Aspects of Culture

For us to see the importance and the function of culture in society, a very careful study of its
characteristics is needed [218]. Below are some of the major characteristics of culture [218]:
●​ culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive [218];
●​ it is shared and contested [218];
●​ it is learned through socialization or enculturation [219];
●​ it is composed of patterned social interactions; integrated and, at times, unstable [219];
●​ it is transmitted through socialization or enculturation [220]; and
●​ it requires language and other forms of communication [220].

Let us examine each of these characteristics [221].

Dynamic, Flexible, and Adaptive

Cultural behaviors allow people to fit into and adapt to their respective environments [222].
For instance, people wear clothes to protect their body from harsh climate [222]. They also
search food for nourishment and survival [222]. In contemporary societies, where culture is
highly developed, people can even fit their environment to their daily needs [223]; for
example, building temperate houses in tropical regions or constructing an ice amusement
park in countries like the Philippines [224]. The cumulative and social nature of human ideas,
activities, and artifacts gives a tremendous potential source of variability in adaptation [225].
It permits people to specialize for short run activities like having a snow amusement park in
the tropics during December to simulate Christmas in temperate countries [226]. It also allows
people to maintain universal and generalized affairs like settling permanently on places where
jobs are generally available and the locality is safe for residence, and further improving of
one's self [227].

24 UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY, AND POLITICS [228]

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People can also borrow such potential from other groups if their cultural behaviors are found
to have survival value: a sort of hyper-developed gene flow but with tremendously magnified
results [229]. This means that some cultures through experience have developed diverse ways
in adapting to their environment [230], which is even tantamount to their survival in the planet
[231]. This does not mean, however, that all human societies have opted to employ the
flexibility of cultural behavior or have even been aware of its potential [232].

Shared and Contested


This concept means that various members of a society or group commonly share ideas,
activities, and artifacts [233]. Hence, the behavior of people in a group or society often
becomes socially and conventionally standardized in form and manner [234].

If such behaviors become useful and gratifying, and if they are helpful to people in gaining
ends and satisfying needs, then they must be parties to the same cultural ways [235]. In short,
shared culture provides order and meaning in interpreting behavioral patterns of individuals in
a society [236]. In this sense, then, cultural behaviors are considered as a "teamplayer"
phenomenon that creates shared expectations and results [237]. From a sociological
perspective, people do not only interact together to share a common culture but also to
validate it [237].

The transmission of culture is not simply automatic but largely depends on the willingness of
people to give and receive it [237]. People, at least potentially, alter ideas, activities, and
artifacts if they no longer give them satisfaction [237]. They can change ideas, activities, and
artifacts prior to their transmission and even reject them afterwards [237]. Thus, cultural
behaviors are shared by groups of people and depend much on those groups for validity and
transmission, even if people do not always exercise that privilege (Collins, 1975: 206-207)
[238].

Learning through Socialization or Enculturation

Behavior patterns that constitute a specific culture are not genetically or biologically
determined [239]. Every normal infant has the potential to learn any culture as he or she
grows and survives the various stages of life [239]. Often, the culture that a child learns and
imbibes is a result of chance or simply accidental because of his or her place of birth [239].
Through the process of socialization or enculturation, the child eventually acquires the
prevailing attitudes and beliefs, the forms of behavior appropriate to the social roles he or she
occupies, and the behavior patterns and values of the society into which he or she is born
[240]. Because culture is learned rather than transmitted biologically, it is sometimes called
man's social heritage [241]. However, human beings do not only learn cultural traits, they can
also abandon or disregard certain aspects of culture, and adapt new ones [242].

Patterned Social Interactions

Social interaction, as commonly viewed, implies theories of reciprocity, complementarity, and


mutuality of response [243]. For example: A question implies an answer [244]. A statement
implies acknowledgement of the communication [244]. A hostile act is countered or allayed
[245]. These samples simply illustrate primary patterns of social integration [245]. The
patterns of social interaction may be viewed (a) as inherent characteristics of the participants
merely given the opportunity to be exposed (the subject is willing or volunteers to [246]

MODULEL 25 [246]
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interact) [247]; or (b) as "emergent" in the sense that they arise in the interaction as a product
(the subject interacts because of the introduction of stimuli to respond) [247]. There is barely
a shade of difference in these two views, one suggesting primarily a notion of crystallization
of individual patterns [248]; the other an unfolding in group process (Borgatta, 1965: 28) [249].

Integrated and at times Unstable

For a society or group, ideas, activities, and artifacts are not only shared [250]; their
arrangement more or less fit together and interlock to form a consistent whole [251]. For
example, technology and its relation with social and political patterns [252]. Certainly, the
various behaviors we observe are different kinds of cultural expressions and are acted for
different reasons and purposes [253]. Nonetheless, they can be viewed as patterned general
responses to the problem of existence [254]. In other words, the tools available, which include
preconditioned impulses and preconceived ideas or notions, the social behaviors associated
with their use, concepts of ownerships [255], concepts of leadership, and even religion must
in some degree be interrelated if the whole culture is to be effective [256]. It seems a truism
that a society cannot possess a set of tools if it lacks the social system that can properly
manipulate such tools and vice-versa [257]. Simply, preconditioned impulses and
preconceived ideas are by-products of man's interaction to his or her society [258].
Preconditioned impulses and preconceived ideas also help determine social behavior patterns
[259]. Although integration is never complete (culture is not a closed system), changes in
some aspects of culture generally necessitate changes in other areas [260].

Transmitted through Socialization or Enculturation

Acquired through learning, cultural ideas, activities, and artifacts are handed down from
generation to generation as a super organic inheritance, which means it is inherently passed
on through generations [261]. For instance, epic chanting as a super organic inheritance is
passed on to the next generation of chanters through teaching the craft to younger ones
[262]. This is why the Philippine government through the National Commission for Culture and
the Arts (NCCA) has implemented the establishment of School of Living Traditions (SLT) and
indigenous communities in various parts of the country to facilitate and ensure the
transmission of dying or endangered facets of Philippine traditions [263]. A good example is
the SLT established in Central Panay [264]. This SLT not only teaches younger ones to chant
but also how to dance "binanog," among others [265]. By doing so, these oral traditions will
not be forgotten in the years to come especially at this time of globalization and technological
challenges [266]. Some forms of cultural ideas, activities, and artifacts are also acquired
through social learning-by imitating the act of others-and through communication and
language [267]. Language is considered the most important part, "the soul," of culture [268].
Because people possess language, we can be told on what to do and when and where [269].
Words are like genes in producing behavior: "This is how to make a stone tool." [270] "This is
why we avoid close relatives and marriage." [271] In a nutshell, traditions passed on through
oral means or "word of mouth" possess a sort of social norm to be taken like a grain of truth
[271]. Not only we are given social heritage through transmission, this is also bestowed to us
in a cumulative fashion [272]. There are more [273]

26 UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY, AND POLITICS [273]

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ideas, activities, and artifacts added to cultural behavior in each generation (although it varies
from one society to another) [274]. The sum total of such behaviors, then, tends to increase
over time [275].

Requires Language and Other Forms of Communication [276]

Language is a shared set of spoken (often written) symbols and rules used in meaningful ways
[276]. Language has been called "the storehouse of culture." It is the primary means of
capturing, communicating, discussing, changing, and passing shared understandings to new
generations (and new citizens) [277]. Language is the most important means of cultural
transmission, the process by which one generation passes culture to the next [278]. Without
language, people will not be able to inform others about events, emotions, and other
experiences [279]. The study and analysis of language and other human communication
systems falls on the field of linguistics [280]. Linguists attempt to reconstruct the earlier
language forms from which our contemporary languages evolved [281]. Some of them even
study modern languages in order to learn how they encode the wide range of human
experiences as part and parcel of evolving history of human progress [282]. These things
include grammatical forms and what separates languages from the communication systems of
other species in the planet [283]. There are also linguists who are more concerned with what
language usage can reveal about the different social groups in society [284]. Other linguists
are preoccupied on what can be learned on the nature of the human mind from the study of
languages, such as the perspectives and attitudes of individuals on certain phenomena and
the approaches and techniques in handling everyday life from food preference to human
interaction and even views on issues and concerns affecting both the local and global
community [285]. After all, linguistics is not just learning languages but a fitting means to
better understand the nature of human beings and the ways on how they connect with other
species [286]. Aside from language, much of human behavior involves symbols or non-verbal
forms, such as signs, sounds, emblems, and other things that are linked to something or
someone else and represented in meaningful ways [287]. These symbols and their meanings
become part of every aspect of culture, such as in religion, politics, and daily life (Haviland, et.
al., 2012) [288]. Thus, the characteristics of culture discussed above have produced ideas and
expectations to a certain society or a member of such society to engage actively toward
solidarity and collectivism [289]. The cultural characteristics of each society may also allow
them to regard their own culture as distinctively proper and superior than others [290].
MODULE 2 27 [291]
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[Image 2]

Reading 3: Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism

Each culture differs from another as each defines reality differently [292]. As a result, some
people find it difficult to get along with or understand other people's ways of thinking and
doing [293]. Moreover, each group tends to believe that its view of reality is right and proper
and anything outside its context is absolutely the opposite [294].

Members of a particular society have the tendency to regard its culture as the best and more
superior compared to another society [295]. Even primordial societies have strong feelings
that their customs are more proper and decent compared to other societies [296]. In fact,
each group takes pride of its own culture and develops a strong foundation of ethnicity and
cultural identity [297]. Collectively, people may assert their folkways as the only right and
proper custom and regard others as improper or uncivilized [298]. In the same way, some
groups claim that their faith is the only true religion, downplaying other religions as false
[299]. The view that one's group is superior compared to another is called ethnocentrism
[300]. In an ethnocentric viewpoint, a group is considered as the core of everything and other
groups are considered inferior [301], hostile, and different [302]. In many cases, a group or
society uses their own values and norms as yardsticks in measuring other folkways and values
[302]. In short, cultures that are viewed as different and strange are [303]

28 UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY, AND POLITICS [303]

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compounded by ethnocentrism-the tendency to evaluate other cultures in terms of one's own


and to conclude that other cultures are inferior, barbaric, or immoral [304]. All societies and
groups display a certain amount of ethnocentrism and, in moderation, it has the positive
effect of promoting solidarity and loyalty within the group [305]. Collectivism develops
cultural pride and identity, the most important ingredients in nation building [306]. However,
ethnocentrism in excess leads to conflict with groups considered inferior [307]. For example,
western imperialism in the past centuries provided the polarization of relations between the
colonizers and the colonized, the first world and third world countries, and the developed and
developing economies [308].

It should be noted that ethnocentric mentality cultivates helplessness and hopelessness and
simply an end by itself [309]. In fact, ethnocentrism is a by-product of day-to-day
socialization [310]. School groups, occupational groups, recreational groups, social groups,
civic groups, regional and ethnic groups unconsciously and unwittingly develop the
ethnocentric tendencies towards its members [310]. Though ethnocentrism can create
solidarity to a particular group, it can however cause antagonism, hostility, and even conflict
when such particular group interacts with other groups [311].

To mitigate the negative effects of ethnocentrism, it has been suggested that cultural
relativity be popularized [312]. Advocates of cultural relativity or relativism assert that cultures
must be viewed and analyzed on their own terms, in the context of their own societal setting
[313]. No culture should be considered better than another; different cultures should be
accepted, tolerated, and appreciated rather than condemned [314]. No society has the right
to use its own values and norms as yardsticks to view the traits of another society [315].
Cultural relativism proposes that one must suspend judgment on other people's practices in
order to better understand them in their own cultural terms [316]. By practicing cultural
relativism, a person can better understand the beliefs and values of other people and groups
[317].

MODULE 2 [317]

29 [317]

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[Image 3]

Reading 4: Cultural Forms and Threats

In studying culture, it is important to determine its forms [318]. A good portion of culture is
visible and tangible since it consists of a huge number of products conceived and
manufactured by people [319]. The diversity of culture is a source of creativity, innovation, and
renewal, and is vital for the continuity of human development (Engelhardt: 57) [320]. Tangible
cultural heritage includes all material objects, such as artifacts, buildings or landscapes, tools,
furniture, bridges, and any physical substance which has been changed and used by people
[321]. In fact, tangible heritage provides the physical space for the non-physical expressions
of culture [322].

The other form of culture is non-material or intangible [324]. It consists of abstractions that
include knowledge, beliefs, values, rules for behavior, traditional skills and technologies,
religious ceremonies [324], performing arts, and storytelling [325]. Both the tangible and
intangible forms of culture, according to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO), are considered as "cultural heritage" [325]. Cultural heritage
also includes traditions and living expressions that people inherited from their ancestors and
passed on through the years [326]. Examples of these practices are oral traditions,
performing arts, rituals, festivities, social practices, and skills or know-how on how to make
traditional crafts [327].

30 UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY, AND POLITICS [328]


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In particular, the UNESCO emphasized the preservation of intangible cultural heritage [329].
This nonmaterial form of cultural heritage can be characterized as traditional, contemporary
and living, inclusive, representative, and community-based [330]. This type of heritage also
represents contemporary rural and urban practices that cultural groups take part [331].
Intangible cultural heritage has been passed from one generation to another [332]. It has
evolved in response to the changes in the community that it belongs to [333]. It gives a sense
of identity and continuity to people and his or her community [334]. As such, intangible
cultural heritage provides a link from mankind's past through the present and into the future
[335].

Intangible cultural heritage is shared and contributes to social cohesion [336]. It helps
individuals have a sense of identity and responsibility [336]. It also gives a sense of
belongingness, making individuals feel part of different communities or society at large [337].

However, forms of intangible cultural heritage have witnessed certain changes brought about
by globalization, technological revolution, and even cultural homogenization through the years
[338]. Some expressions and manifestations of intangible cultural heritage do not have the
appreciation and support of people [339]. Intangible cultural heritage should be nurtured so it
will continue to live on and be part of people's culture [340].

Assessment

Essay. Answer the following questions [341].


1.​ How can you contribute in the preservation of intangible and tangible forms of culture in
the Philippines? [342]
2.​ Why is language one of the most important characteristics of culture? [343]
3.​ Do you believe that society can exist without culture? Why or why not? Explain your
answer. [344]
4.​ Is ethnocentrism a good or bad cultural practice? Why? Explain your answer. [344]

MODULE 2 [344]

31 [344]

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