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Lung Cancer Prediction by Using Machine Learning Models

with Distributed System and Weka Visualization
Şenol PARUй
, Fathia A. H. LAZRAG²
, Abdulhamid JABRR ²
, Ebtisam M.H. FAKROUN³
¹ Kastamonu University, Science Faculty, Biology Department, Kastamonu/Türkiye
² Kastamonu University, Institute of Science and Technology, Department of
Aquaculture, Kastamonu/Türkiye
³ Misurata University, Ebtisam Mohamed Fakroun, Department of Engineering and
Information Technology
*E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT

Lung cancer is one of the most common and deadly types of cancer worldwide. Modern lifestyle, carcinogens,
smoking, and air pollution are the biggest causes of lung cancer. Early detection and accurate diagnosis are
essential for effective treatment and improved survival rates. Machine learning models have shown great
potential in predicting lung cancer, which can help in early detection and personalized treatment planning.
This technology uses algorithms to analyze large amounts of data, including medical images, patient history,
and genetic information to identify patterns and predict outcomes. In this paper, we will explore the use of
machine learning models for lung cancer prediction, based on distributed systems and the Python language.
In this protection, an implement on Predicting lung cancer using machine learning techniques based on
distributed system application, using Python language

Keyword: - Lung Cancer Prediction, Machine Learning, Models, Distributed System, Weka Visualization

1. Introduction
Lung cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in one or both lungs (Kaur and Garg,
2021); (Rustam and Kharis, 2020); (Jagdale Swati et al., 2023); (Wang et al., 2022); (Hadisaputri et al.,
2020). These abnormal cells do not perform the functions of normal lung cells and do not develop into healthy
lung tissue. Tumors form and impede lung function (Kaur and Garg, 2021); (Rustam and Kharis, 2020).
Furthermore, smoking Cigarettes are the main cause of lung cancer, accounting for about 85% of lung
cancer cases. The risk of developing lung cancer varies according to the number of cigarettes smoked and
the number of years of smoking (Wang et al., 2022); (Hadisaputri et al., 2020). However, some heavy
smokers do not develop lung cancer. The risk of lung cancer decreases in people who quit smoking, but ex-
smokers will continue to have a higher risk of developing lung cancer than people who have never smoked
(Kaur and Garg, 2021); (Rustam and Kharis, 2020); (Jagdale Swati et al., 2023); (Hadisaputri et al., 2020).

About 15-20% of people who develop lung cancer have never smoked or smoked lightly. It is not
known why these people develop lung cancer, but certain genetic mutations may be responsible. Lung cancer
is a type of cancer that begins in the cells of the lungs, the vital organs responsible for breathing (Kaur and
Garg, 2021); (Rustam and Kharis, 2020); (Jagdale Swati et al., 2023). It is one of the most prevalent and

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deadliest forms of cancer worldwide. Lung cancer can develop in both smokers and non-smokers, although
it is strongly associated with tobacco smoke (Hadisaputri et al., 2020). There are two main types of lung
cancer: non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and small cell lung cancer (SCLC) (Che et al., 2020); (Zadian
et al., 2021) . Non-small cell lung cancer is the most common type, accounting for approximately 80-85% of
all cases. It usually grows and spreads more slowly than small-cell lung cancer. Small cell lung cancer, on
the other hand, is less common and tends to grow and spread rapidly (Che et al., 2020); (Zadian et al., 2021)
.

The primary cause of lung cancer is cigarette smoking, including both active smoking (smoking
cigarettes directly) and passive smoking (inhaling secondhand smoke). Other risk factors include exposure
to certain chemicals and substances like asbestos, radon gas, arsenic, and diesel exhaust (Liu et al., 2020);
(Bhateja et al., 2019); (Chen et al., 2020); (Sehgal et al., 2020). Additionally, a family history of lung cancer,
previous radiation therapy to the chest, and certain genetic mutations can also increase the risk. Lung cancer
may not exhibit obvious symptoms in its early stages, which makes it difficult to detect and diagnose.
However, as the disease progresses, common symptoms may include persistent cough, coughing up blood,
chest pain, shortness of breath, fatigue, unexplained weight loss, and recurrent respiratory infections (Liu et
al., 2020); (Bhateja et al., 2019); (Chen et al., 2020); (Sehgal et al., 2020). If any of these symptoms persist,
it is crucial to consult a healthcare professional for further evaluation. Diagnosis of lung cancer typically
involves a combination of imaging tests such as chest X-rays, CT scans, and MRIs (Liu et al., 2020); (Bhateja
et al., 2019); (Chen et al., 2020); (Sehgal et al., 2020), as well as biopsies to examine the lung tissue for
cancer cells. Once diagnosed, the stage of the cancer is determined to guide treatment decisions. Lung cancer
is staged based on the size and location of the tumor, the presence of lymph node involvement, and whether
it has spread to other parts of the body (Liu et al., 2020); (Bhateja et al., 2019). Treatment options for lung
cancer depend on the type and stage of the disease. They may include surgery, radiation therapy,
chemotherapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy, or a combination of these approaches. The choice of
treatment aims to remove or destroy cancer cells, alleviate symptoms, and improve overall survival rates.
Palliative care is also provided to manage symptoms and improve the quality of life for patients with
advanced or metastatic lung cancer (Liu et al., 2020); (Bhateja et al., 2019); (Chen et al., 2020); (Sehgal et
al., 2020).

Prevention plays a crucial role in reducing the risk of developing lung cancer. Avoiding tobacco
smoke, including quitting smoking and staying away from secondhand smoke, is the most effective
preventive measure (Liu et al., 2020); (Bhateja et al., 2019); (Chen et al., 2020); (Sehgal et al., 2020).
Additionally, minimizing exposure to environmental and occupational carcinogens, such as radon and
asbestos, can also help reduce the risk. Early detection through screening programs can improve survival
rates for individuals at high risk, such as long-term smokers (Liu et al., 2020); (Bhateja et al., 2019); (Chen
et al., 2020); (Sehgal et al., 2020). Screening methods include low-dose computed tomography (LDCT)
scans, which can detect lung cancer at an earlier stage when it is more treatable. Lung cancer is a serious and
potentially life-threatening disease that affects the lungs. It can be caused by various factors, with tobacco
smoke being the primary culprit. Early detection, timely diagnosis, and appropriate treatment are essential in
improving outcomes for individuals affected by lung cancer (Liu et al., 2020); (Bhateja et al., 2019).

1.1 SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

The lung cancer prediction system consists of machine learning algorithms and a data set, which the
system trains in order to form a model (Raoof et al., 2020); (Chaturvedi et al., 2021); (Cui et al., 2020);
(Riquelme and Akhloufi, 2020); (Shanthi and Rajkumar, 2021). The model is a program or algorithm that
utilizes a set of data that enables it to recognize certain patterns (Raoof et al., 2020); (Chaturvedi et al., 2021).
This allows it to reach a conclusion or make a prediction when provided with sufficient information, often a
huge amount of data (Cui et al., 2020); (Riquelme and Akhloufi, 2020); (Shanthi and Rajkumar, 2021). In
this paper, these processes will be used using distributed systems using the Ray framework.

1.2 Dataset:

The data set, Lung Cancer Prediction, was formed by collecting and organizing previous data, for
people with lung cancer, or for people who were suspected of having lung cancer, (Raoof et al., 2020);
(Chaturvedi et al., 2021); (Cui et al., 2020); (Riquelme and Akhloufi, 2020); (Shanthi and Rajkumar, 2021),

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of different ages, and this data is of high value, as it helps in predicting the incidence of lung cancer (Raoof
et al., 2020); (Chaturvedi et al., 2021). These data were entered into the machine learning algorithm, the
programs were trained on previous models, and knowledge was extracted from it to give the correct
prediction, for the new data that was not entered. in the system before, this data was stored in a database,
where it was collected, and turned into a data file, so that the machine learning algorithm could deal with it,
Dataset as shown in Figure (1). below.

Figure (1) Screenshot of MY-SQL file as a data set of lung cancer.

Figure. (2). Entity relationship diagram (ERD) of the lung cancer files.

2. RAY framework

RAY is an open source project of a language Python for parallel programming and distributed
systems (Aziz et al., 2021); (Kim et al., 2020); (Sahin, 2019). It is one of the modern systems and frameworks
that helps to prepare software based on the logic of working parallelism and distributed systems (Aziz et al.,
2021); (Kim et al., 2020); (Sahin, 2019), for which parallel and distributed processing is an integral part of
modern applications (Aziz et al., 2021); (Kim et al., 2020). This research needs to use multiple cores or
multiple machines to accelerate applications or run them at scale (Aziz et al., 2021); (Kim et al., 2020). The
software and network application infrastructure and query and query-response systems are not single-

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threaded programs running on someone's laptop, but rather a set of services that communicate and interact
with one another. distributed and running in parallel. Shown in the Figure (3) below.

Figure (3) RAY Framework Architecture (https://www.mecbot.ai/scaling-python-modules-using-

ray-framework/).

In this project, the RAY framework will be used, and defined (locally within the computer), (Aziz
et al., 2021); (Kim et al., 2020) because the RAY framework is a virtual environment containing 4 cores,
each core representing a remote computer.

2.1 Machine Learning Concepts

Machine learning, one of the branches of artificial intelligence, is constantly evolving (Abdulkareem
et al., 2019); (Janiesch et al., 2021); (Doupe et al., 2019); (Hüllermeier and Waegeman, 2021); (Alam, 2022).
Machine learning helps a person make the right decision, especially in cases of cancer diagnosis, where
machine learning can be used for a greater understanding of real-world events (Abdulkareem et al., 2019);
(Janiesch et al., 2021); (Doupe et al., 2019); (Hüllermeier and Waegeman, 2021). For example, suppose a
person comes to the doctor and reports that they have lung cancer. The doctor based on his belief system
which he has learned using his experience and knowledge predicts (essentially decides) whether or not a
person will have lung cancer (Abdulkareem et al., 2019); (Janiesch et al., 2021); (Doupe et al., 2019);
(Hüllermeier and Waegeman, 2021); (Alam, 2022). Depending on the clinician's expertise, to increase the
reliability of the assessment, we can then replace the "human belief system" with the AI/ML system (one or
more models) and the "experience and knowledge" with the data fed into this AI/ML system (Doupe et al.,
2019); (Hüllermeier and Waegeman, 2021); (Alam, 2022). Doctors can also use ML models trained using
historical data along with their experience and intelligence to predict whether or not a person will develop a
disease. When human and machine learning intelligence are used together, this is why it is also called an
augmentative system (Abdulkareem et al., 2019); (Janiesch et al., 2021); (Doupe et al., 2019). The doctor's
decision to diagnose lung cancer. Machine learning differs from traditional programming, in the way the
output is, in the case of machine learning it is the rules that are based on predictions, through training and
testing. For this, input and output data are used with machine learning algorithms to output (model). Figure
(4) below.

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Figure (4) Difference between Machine learning and traditional programming

3. Types of machine learning

Machine learning involves showing a large amount of data to a machine so that it can learn and
predict, find patterns, or classify the data (Alloghani et al., 2020); (Haidari et al., 2021); (Ajay et al., 2022);
(Dhall et al., 2020); (Palacio-Niño and Berzal, 2019); (Rozemberczki et al., 2020). The algorithm used
determines the type of machine learning, which works a little differently. There are two types of machine
learning: supervised learning and unsupervised learning (Alloghani et al., 2020); (Heidari et al., 2021); (Ajay
et al., 2022); (Dhall et al., 2020).

3.1 Supervised learning

This type of machine learning gets its name because the machine is "supervised" while learning,
which means that the research feed information to the algorithm to help it learn (Alloghani et al., 2020);
(Heidari et al., 2021); (Ajay et al., 2022); (Dhall et al., 2020); (Palacio-Niño and Berzal, 2019);
(Rozemberczki et al., 2020). The score you provide to the device is compiled on the data, and the rest of the
information you provide is used as input features. Supervised learning is effective for a variety of business
purposes, including sales forecasting, inventory optimization, and fraud detection, and medical purposes such
as lung cancer prediction (Alloghani et al., 2020); (Heidari et al., 2021).

3.2 Unsupervised learning

While supervised learning requires users to help the machine learn, unsupervised learning does not
use the same training sets and labeled data. Instead, the machine looks for less obvious patterns in the data
(Alloghani et al., 2020); (Heidari et al., 2021); (Ajay et al., 2022); (Dhall et al., 2020); (Palacio-Niño and
Berzal, 2019); (Rozemberczki et al., 2020). This type of machine learning is very useful when the research
need to identify patterns and use data to make decisions (Alloghani et al., 2020); (Heidari et al., 2021); (Ajay
et al., 2022); (Dhall et al., 2020) Unsupervised learning can also compile the text document to extract the
topic. This type of machine learning is widely used to create predictive models (Alloghani et al., 2020);
(Heidari et al., 2021); (Ajay et al., 2022). Common applications also include aggregation, which creates a
model that groups objects together based on certain properties, and association, which defines rules between
collections, figure (4) shows types of machine learning (Palacio-Niño and Berzal, 2019); (Rozemberczki et
al., 2020).

Figure (5) shows types of machine learning types adapted from (Alloghani et al., 2020); (Heidari et al.,
2021).

The classification and Logistic Regression Classifier

This research idea into preset categories a.k.a “sub-populations.” With the help of these pre-
categorized training datasets, classification in machine learning programs leverage a wide range of algorithms
to classify future datasets into respective and relevant categories (Shah et al., 2020); (Itoo and Singh, 2021);
(Thabtah et al., 2019); (Robles-Velasco et al., 2020). Classification algorithms used in machine learning
utilize input training data for the purpose of predicting the likelihood or probability that the data that follows
will fall into one of the predetermined categories (Shah et al., 2020); (Itoo and Singh, 2021). The logistic

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regression model is one of the most important statistical models for modeling the probability of a particular
class or event such as success/fail (Shah et al., 2020); (Itoo and Singh, 2021); (Thabtah et al., 2019); (Robles-
Velasco et al., 2020). This is because logistic regression uses several predicted variables which can be either
continuous or categorical. This can be extended to model several classes of events such as determining if the
image contains a cat, tiger, fish, etc. Each object detected in the image will be assigned a probability between
0 and 1, such that the sum total is equal to one. Logistic regression is also known by other names such as
Logit model or general entropy classifier. Logistic regression falls under supervised machine learning
algorithms intended for classification tasks. Below is an outline of the general use of logistic regression and
other common linear classifiers (Shah et al., 2020); (Itoo and Singh, 2021); (Thabtah et al., 2019); (Robles-
Velasco et al., 2020).

The Logistic Curve

The logistic curve relates the independent variable, X, to the rolling mean of the DV, P ( ). The formula
to do so may be written either

OR

where P is the probability of a 1 (the proportion of 1s, the mean of Y), e is the base of the natural
logarithm (about 2.718) and a and b are the parameters of the model. The value of a yields P when X is zero,
and b adjusts how quickly the probability changes with changing X a single unit (we can have standardized
and un standardized b weights in logistic regression, just as in ordinary linear regression). Because the
relation between X and P is nonlinear, b does not have a straightforward interpretation in this model as it
does in ordinary linear regression (Shah et al., 2020); (Itoo and Singh, 2021).

Loss Function

A loss function is a measure of fit between a mathematical model of data and the actual data. We
choose the parameters of our model to minimize the badness-of-fit or to maximize the goodness-of-fit of the
model to the data. With least squares (the only loss function we have used thus far), we minimize SSres, the
sum of squares residual. This also happens to maximize SSreg, the sum of squares due to regression. With
linear or curvilinear models, there is a mathematical solution to the problem that will minimize the sum of
squares, that is, b = (X' Or = R-1r

With some models, like the logistic curve, there is no mathematical solution that will produce least
squares estimates of the parameters. For many of these models, the loss function chosen is called maximum
likelihood. A likelihood is a conditional probability, for instance, (P(Y|X), the probability of Y given X). We
can pick the parameters of the model (a and b of the logistic curve) at random or by trial-and-error and then
compute the likelihood of the data given those parameters (actually, we do better than trail-and-error, but not
perfectly). We will choose as our parameters, those that result in the greatest likelihood computed. The
estimates are called maximum likelihood because the parameters are chosen to maximize the likelihood
(conditional probability of the data given parameter estimates) of the sample data. The techniques actually
employed to find the maximum likelihood estimates fall under the general label numerical analysis. There
are several methods of numerical analysis, but they all follow a similar series of steps. First, the computer
picks some initial estimates of the parameters. Then it will compute the likelihood of the data given these
parameter estimates. Then it will improve the parameter estimates slightly and recalculate the likelihood of

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the data. It will do this forever until we tell it to stop, which we usually do when the parameter estimates do
not change much (usually a change .01 or .001 is small enough to tell the computer to stop). Sometimes we
tell the computer to stop after a certain number of tries or iterations, for instance, 20 or 250. This usually
indicates a problem in estimation. X)-1X'y

Figure. 6. explaining the logistic regression algorithm

After explaining the logistic regression algorithm, this algorithm was used to predict the incidence
of lung cancer, in the data set, which was formed in hospitals, and from the data of patients with lung cancer.
Now, this research shows a diagram to apply the logistic regression classifier algorithm in a project Predicting
lung cancer using machine learning techniques depending on a distributed system application Figure (7).

Figure (7) diagram to apply the logistic regression classifier algorithm in a project Predicting lung cancer
using machine learning techniques.

GUI implements the system by Python language:

When the program is executed, the RAY framework is prepared to start operating, and 4 cores are
prepared to work as separate computers. First, the first core fetches the data set from the source, and the
second core prepares the pre-processing process for the data and then displays the data it retrieved. The third
core is doing the training and testing group, for the logistic regression algorithm, and here the machine
learning technique is used in Figure (8),

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Figure (8) A screenshot of the pre-processing dataset and prepare mode in the background

Moreover, a model for logistic regression is prepared, and all these operations are worked in the
background. After completing all the previous operations, the visual interface of Predicting lung cancer using
machine learning techniques depending on a distributed system application Figure (9) below.

Figure (9) The screenshot of the GUI of Predicting lung cancer using Machine learning techniques

When the Run an Application button is pressed, the process of model for data by using logistic regression
starts, where the fourth kernel in the Ray framework receives a model that has been trained and tested,
performs the final evaluation process and shows the result of testing Score of the Model figure (10) below.

Figure (10) A screenshot logistic regression model Accuracy

After the implementation, the logistic regression algorithm is applied to the lung cancer dataset, and
the number of samples between training and testing is clear. and tested the accuracy of the final model for
predicting lung cancer.

4. EVALUATION

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After completing the implementation of the program, and working on the lung cancer data set, a number
of results emerged, the most important of which were: Figure (11) showing the number of cases of Infected
and non-infected cases of lung cancer

Figure (11) Infected and non-infected cases of lung cancer

In addition, the program shows charts of the most important attribute in the dataset of lung cancer, Figure
(12) below.

Figure (12): an attribute view of lung cancer,

The logistic regression model predicts possible cases of lung cancer, and this is a practical application
of one of the machine learning models in Python language and distributed systems.

Weka evaluation

Weka is a powerful data mining application that can help you better understand the data acquired (Verma,
2019); (Attwal and Dhiman, 2020); (Hammoodi et al., 2021). The application features powerful data analysis
tools that can be used to extract information and develop new machine-learning schemes (Verma, 2019);
(Attwal and Dhiman, 2020). Overall, the app is an excellent data analysis tool. Shown in Figure (13) below.

Figure (13): weka software

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This example illustrates the use of k-means clustering with WEKA The sample data set used for this
example is based on the "lung_canser_data" available in comma-separated format (lung_cancer_data.csv).
This document assumes that appropriate data preprocessing has been performed. The resulting data file is "
lung_cancer_data.csv " and includes 60 instances. As an illustration of performing clustering in WEKA, the
research used its implementation of the K-means algorithm to cluster the data in this lung cancer data set,
and to characterize the resulting customer segments (Verma, 2019); (Attwal and Dhiman, 2020); (Hammoodi
et al., 2021). Figure (14) shows the main WEKA Explorer interface with the data file loaded.

Figure (14) Main WEKA Explorer interface with the data file loaded.

All fields' in (lung_cancer_data.csv) file can be viewed by clicking on the visualize All button figure
(15)

Figure (15) has visualize all Fields in select the "Cluster" tab, and select "Simple k-Mean". Figure
(16) below.

Figure (16) Select the "Simple k-Mean" algorithm. After that, the properties of the algorithm
(simple k- mean) are chosen. The research has defined the number of clusters = 5, figure (17).

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Figure (17) Simple k-Mean" algorithm cluster of data for the lung cancer dataset

Figure (18) Screenshot of Canoby a logarithm cluster of data for the lung cancer dataset .

Figure (19) Screenshot of Hirercal cluster a logarithm cluster of data for the lung cancer dataset.

5. SCALABILITY AND RELIABILITY

After applying the lung cancer prediction system using machine learning techniques depending on
distributed system application, and evaluating the results, it turned out that, working on parallel (distributed)
systems using the beam framework helps in improving the speed of work, and this was shown through
practical experience, whereas the process of loading the data set takes place in a remote program (a simulation
of a separate computer), and the training and testing process of logistic regression on the data set takes place
in a separate kernel, and the final evaluation process of the model takes place in a separate kernel, all these
operations of Machine learning take place in the background, unnoticed by the system operator so that multi-
core systems make optimal use of computer resources. One of the most important of these sources is the main

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memory. Parallelism gives the advantage of speed in completing the work. Cloud computing can be used to
speed up the completion of the work, which greatly helps in making calculations and evaluating the system
quickly. This depends on the cost of the project and the budget allocated for expanding the system.

6. TRADE-OFF AND LIMITATIONS

In this project, a logistic regression classifier algorithm was implemented on a data set, specific to lung
cancer, based on data collected from specialized treatment and diagnostic centers, where a local version of
the RAY framework was used, as it provides a RAY framework with a maximum of 4 Centers to work on
personal computers. Therefore, no more than 4 centers were made to implement the system, and the
calculations showed the speed of implementation because it works in parallel, and this reinforces the
hypothesis that distributed systems save time and effort, and increase the efficiency of results, by updating
the workgroup data, through the branches for providing Data, and improving the training process, based on
the data, will increase the accuracy of the final model, and this is one of the objectives of the project
implementation.

7. FUTURE WORK

In the future, a lung cancer prediction system can be developed by machine learning, based on
distributed systems, by using deep learning techniques. The Ray framework supports deep learning
techniques, and this helps in creating new ideas, to increase the accuracy of the final model after the prediction
process, and other algorithms can be used for the classification and comparison of results, to find out which
techniques are better in terms of accuracy of the comparison result.

8. CONCLUSIONS

After completing the implementation of the Predicting lung cancer system using machine learning
techniques depending on a distributed system application. , where four cores were used as far as the ray
framework allows, in the local version, in the PC, where each core represents an independent remote machine,
and it is noted by the program that, the process of training the lung cancer prediction model is done in the
core, it is considered a remote machine remote, and the process of evaluating the model is done in another
remote ready, and this realizes the idea of working in parallel with others. The importance of using computer
resources, which is the advantage of memory management, increased performance, and speed of work
completion, was taken advantage of with the application of the principle of distributed systems that work in
parallel using the Python language.

9. REFERENCES
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