RSG 101 Geoinformatics for Precision Farming (1+0)

Department of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System

Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Coimbatore – 641003
2018
 CONTENTS

1 Concepts and Foundations of Remote Sensing .............................. 10

1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 10
2 Energy Sources and Radiation Principles .................................................................. 11
3 Energy Interactions in the Atmosphere..................................................................... 15
4 Energy Interactions with Earth Surface Features .................................................... 17
5 Spectral reflectance curve ............................................................................................. 20
6 Spectral Reflectance of Vegetation, Soil, and Water ................................................ 20
7 Spectral reflectance pattern .......................................................................................... 23
8 Advantages of Remote Sensing ................................................................................... 24
9 Disadvantages of Remote Sensing .............................................................................. 24
10 References....................................................................................................................... 24
2 Platforms and Sensors: Types and Characteristics ........................ 25
1 Sensors ............................................................................................................................ 25
2 Classification of Sensors ............................................................................................... 25
3 Resolution ....................................................................................................................... 26
4 Platforms ......................................................................................................................... 28
5 References....................................................................................................................... 29
3 Elements of Visual Photo / Image Interpretation ......................... 30
1 Tone................................................................................................................................. 31
2 Size ................................................................................................................................... 31
3 Shape ............................................................................................................................... 31
4 Texture ............................................................................................................................ 31
5 Pattern ............................................................................................................................. 31
6 Shadow ............................................................................................................................ 31
7 Site.................................................................................................................................... 32
8 Association ..................................................................................................................... 32
9 Ancillary information .................................................................................................... 33
4 Digital Image Processing ............................................................... 34
1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 34
2 Digital data...................................................................................................................... 34
3 Radiometric Characteristics of Image Data............................................................... 35
4 Geometric Characteristics of Image Data ................................................................. 35
5 Digital Image Processing in Remote Sensing............................................................ 36
 6 Supervised classification ............................................................................................... 37
7 Unsupervised classification .......................................................................................... 38
8 References....................................................................................................................... 38
5 GIS : Definition, Components and functions ................................. 39
1 What is GIS? .................................................................................................................. 39
2 GIS application potential ............................................................................................. 39
3 Component of GIS ....................................................................................................... 39
4 GIS Software: Commercial versus Open/free ......................................................... 40
5 Advantages of GIS ........................................................................................................ 41
6 Disadvantages of GIS ................................................................................................... 41
7 Need for GIS ................................................................................................................. 41
8 Functions of GIS ........................................................................................................... 42
9 References....................................................................................................................... 42
6 Data Models .................................................................................... 44
1 Data Model ..................................................................................................................... 44
2 Entity Definition............................................................................................................ 44
3 Spatial Data Models ...................................................................................................... 46
4 Comparison of Raster and Vector Models ................................................................ 48
5 Non spatial Data ............................................................................................................ 49
7 Raster Data Analysis ....................................................................... 52
1 Local Functions ............................................................................................................. 52
2 Focal Functions (Neighbourhood functions) ........................................................... 53
3 Zonal Functions............................................................................................................. 54
4 Global Functions ........................................................................................................... 55
8 Vector Data Analysis....................................................................... 57
1 Measurements in GIS ................................................................................................... 57
2 Queries ............................................................................................................................ 57
3 Buffering Functions ...................................................................................................... 58
4 Map Overlay ................................................................................................................... 59
5 Network analysis ............................................................................................................ 61
6 References....................................................................................................................... 62
9 Geodesy ........................................................................................... 63
1 Geodesy........................................................................................................................... 63
2 Map Projection............................................................................................................... 66
3 Classification of map projections ................................................................................ 68
 4 Choosing a map projection .......................................................................................... 70
10 GPS - Components and Functions ................................................. 71
1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 71
2 GNSS Architecture ....................................................................................................... 71
3 GNSS SIGNALS........................................................................................................... 73
4 The Position Fix By Trilateration ............................................................................... 74
5 Errors in Position .......................................................................................................... 75
6 Differential Correction ................................................................................................. 77
11 Precision Agriculture ...................................................................... 79
1 Why Precision Agriculture? ......................................................................................... 79
2 Many names of Precision Agriculture ........................................................................ 79
3 The Basic Components of Precision Farming .......................................................... 79
4 Application of Remote Sensing, GIS and GPS in Precision Farming .................. 80
5 Steps in Precision Farming .......................................................................................... 81
6 Soil Test Crop Response (STCR) Studies – Concept and Methodology ............. 82
12 Variable Rate Technology .............................................................. 83
1 Map-based Technologies .............................................................................................. 84
2 Sensor-Based Technologies ......................................................................................... 87
3 Advantages of Map-Based Variable-Rate Application ............................................ 88
4 Advantages of Sensor-Based Variable Rate Application......................................... 88
13 Crop Discrimination and Yield Monitoring using Remote Sensing..
............................................................................................... 89
1 Crop mapping / discrimination .................................................................................. 89
2 Yield monitoring ............................................................................................................ 91
14 Soil Mapping and Fertilizer Recommendation using Remote
Sensing & GIS................................................................................. 93
1 Detailed Soil Survey (Conventional method)............................................................ 93
2 Visual image interpretation .......................................................................................... 95
3 Computer-aided approach ........................................................................................... 95
4 Fertilizer Recommendation Tool ................................................................................ 98
15 Crop Simulation Models ................................................................ 99
1 Terminologies related to Model .................................................................................. 99
2 Why Model?.................................................................................................................... 99
3 What models can produce? ........................................................................................ 100
4 Some important crop models .................................................................................... 100
5 DSSAT .......................................................................................................................... 101
 6 ORYZA: A crop growth simulation model for rice .............................................. 101
7 Benefits of Crop Simulation Models ........................................................................ 102
8 Limitations of Crop Simulation Models .................................................................. 102
9 Integration of remote sensing data with crop growth model ............................... 102
16 Drones for Precision Agriculture ................................................... 103
1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 103
2 What is an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (Drone)? ..................................................... 103
3 Fixed Wing vs Copter ................................................................................................. 103
4 Terms related to Drones ............................................................................................ 103
5 Advantages of Drones ................................................................................................ 104
6 What does Drones do? ............................................................................................... 104
7 How does Drones work? ........................................................................................... 105
8 Challenges of Drone usage ........................................................................................ 106
9 Application of Drones in Agriculture ...................................................................... 106
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Remote Sensing Process.......................................................................................... 10

Figure 1.2 Electromagnetic wave .............................................................................................. 11
Figure 1.3 Electromagnetic spectrum ...................................................................................... 12
Figure 1.4 Spectral distribution of energy radiated from blackbodies of various
temperatures .................................................................................................................. 14
Figure 1.5 Spectral characteristic of (a) energy sources, (b) atmospheric transmittance,
and (c) common remote sensing system (note that wavelength scale is
logarithmic) ................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 1.6 Basic interactions between electromagnetic energy and an earth surface
feature............................................................................................................................. 18
Figure 1.7 Generalized spectral reflectance envelopes for deciduous (broad-leaved) and
coniferous (needle-bearing trees) ............................................................................... 19
Figure 1.8 Typical spectral reflectance curve of dominant earth features (adopted from
Lillesand et al., 2004) .................................................................................................... 20
Figure 1.9 Spectral reflectance curve of typical vegetation showing chlorophyll and water
absorption bands .......................................................................................................... 21
Figure 1.10 Influence of moisture content on spectral reflectance of soil ........................ 22
Figure 1.11 Spectral response of water with varying suspended solids .............................. 23
Figure 2.1 Across Track Scanning ............................................................................................ 25
Figure 2.2 Along Track Scanning ............................................................................................. 26
Figure 3.1 Primary ordering of Elements of Image Interpretation ..................................... 30
Figure 3.2 Significance of shadow in image interpretation................................................... 32
Figure 3.3 Example for Association ......................................................................................... 32
Figure 4.1 View of raster data ................................................................................................... 34
Figure 4.2 FOV and IFOV ........................................................................................................ 35
Figure 4.3 Relationship between a detector and its ground projection .............................. 36
Figure 6.1 Spatial entity data model ......................................................................................... 45
Figure 6.2 Raster and vector spatial data ................................................................................. 47
Figure 6.3 Effect of changing resolution in the vector and raster worlds ......................... 47
Figure 7.1 A local function multiplies each cell in the input grid by 3 to produce the
output grid ..................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 7.2 A local function ........................................................................................................ 53
Figure 7.3 A focal sum function ............................................................................................... 54
Figure 7.4 A Focal mean function ............................................................................................ 54
Figure 7.5 A Zonal maximum function ................................................................................... 55
Figure 7.6 A Euclidean distance function ............................................................................... 56
Figure 8.1 Boolean operators: Venn diagrams ....................................................................... 58
Figure 8.2 Buffer zones around (a) point, (b) line and (c) area features ............................. 58
Figure 8.3 Vector overlays: (a) point-in-polygon; (b) line-in-polygon; (c) polygon-on-
polygon .......................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 9.1 Ellipsoid ..................................................................................................................... 63
Figure 9.2 Example Ellipsoids .................................................................................................. 63
Figure 9.3 Geoidal Shape ........................................................................................................... 64
Figure 9.4 Latitude and Longitude ........................................................................................... 65
Figure 9.5 Ellipsoidal and Geoidal Height .............................................................................. 66
Figure 9.6 Map Projection ......................................................................................................... 67
Figure 9.7 Lines of Projection ................................................................................................... 67
Figure 9.8 Class of Projections.................................................................................................. 68
Figure 9.9 Secant projection classes ......................................................................................... 69
Figure 9.10 Transverse and oblique map................................................................................. 69
Figure 10.1 Distance calculation ............................................................................................... 74
Figure 10.2 Concept of Trilateration........................................................................................ 75
Figure 15.5 Differential Correction .......................................................................................... 77
Figure 12.1 An illustration of a map based system for varying crop inputs ...................... 84
Figure 12.2 An illustration of a sensor based system for varying crop inputs .................. 84
Figure 12.3 Two alternatives for representing systematic soil sampling data.................... 85
Figure 12.4 Example of an application rate map ................................................................... 86
Figure 13.1 Methodology for Crop Mapping and Acreage estimation............................... 90
Figure 13.2 Methodology for Yield mapping ......................................................................... 92
Figure 14.1 Methodology for soil mapping through visual interpretation approach ....... 96
Figure 14.2 Methodology for soil mapping through computer aided approach ............... 97
Figure 16.1 Fixed wing UAV................................................................................................... 103
Figure 16.2 Quodcopter ........................................................................................................... 103
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 5.1 List of GIS software available commercially / as a open source/ freely to the
user community ............................................................................................................ 40
Table 6.1 Example of Relational Database ............................................................................. 51
Table 10.1 The Various sources of Error .............................................................................. 76
Table 15.1 Important Crop Models ...................................................................................... 100
 LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1 Selected list of sensors and their missions ...................................................... 109

Appendix 2 List of Indian Earth Observation Satellites..................................................... 112
 1 CONCEPTS AND FOUNDATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING

1 Introduction

Remote sensing is the science and art of obtaining information about an object, area, or phenomenon
through the analysis of data acquired by a device that is not in contact with the object, area, or phenomenon
under investigation.

In remote sensing, the sensors are not in direct contact with the objects or events being
observed. The information needs a physical carrier to travel from the objects/events to
the sensors through an intervening medium. The electromagnetic radiation is normally
used as an information carrier in remote sensing. The output of a remote sensing system
is usually an image representing the scene being observed. A further step of image
analysis and interpretation is required in order to extract useful information from the
image. The human visual system is an example of a remote sensing system in this general
sense.

The generalized processes and elements involved in electromagnetic remote sensing are
schematically illustrated in Figure 1.1. The two basic processes involved are data acquisition
and data analysis.

Figure 1.1 Remote Sensing Process

The elements of the data acquisition process are:

1. Energy sources
2. Propagation of energy through the atmosphere
3. Energy interactions with earth surface features
4. Retransmission of energy through the atmosphere
5. Airborne and / or spaceborne sensors
6. Generation of sensor data in pictorial and / or digital form

In short, we use sensors to record variations in the way earth surface features
reflect and emit electromagnetic energy.
 Concepts and Foundations of Remote Sensing | 11

The data analysis process involves

7. Examining the data using various viewing and interpretation devices to analyze
pictorial data and / or a computer to analyze digital sensor data

Reference data about the resources being studied (such as soil maps, crop statistics, or
field-check data) are used when and where available to assist in the data analysis. With the
aid of the reference data, the analyst extracts information about the type, extent, location, and
condition of the various resources over which the sensor data were collected.

8. Compilation of information in the form of hard copy maps and tables or as

computer files that can be merged with other "layers" of information is a geographic
information system (GIS)

9. Presented of information to users who apply it to their decision-making process

2 Energy Sources and Radiation Principles

Visible light is only one of many forms of electromagnetic energy. Radio waves, heat,
ultraviolet rays and X-rays are other familiar forms. All this energy is inherently similar
and radiates in accordance with basic wave theory. This theory describes electromagnetic
energy as traveling in a harmonic, sinusoidal fashion at the "velocity of light," c. The distance from
one wave peak to the next is the wavelength λ, and the number of peaks passing a fixed
point in space per unit time is the wave frequency v (Figure 1.2).

Waves obey the general equation

c = v λ ……………….………….……Equation 1.1

(Adopted from Lilliesand et.al. 2004)

Figure 1.2 Electromagnetic wave

Components of a Electromagnetic wave include a sinusoidal electric wave (E) and a

similar magnetic wave (M) at right angles, both being perpendicular to the direction of
propagation

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12 | Concepts and Foundations of Remote Sensing

Since c is essentially a constant (here, 3 x 108 m/sec), frequency v and wavelength λ for
any given wave are related inversely, and either term can be used to characterize a wave
into a particular form.

In remote sensing, it is most common to categorize electromagnetic waves by their

wavelength location within the electromagnetic spectrum (Figure 1.3). The most
prevalent unit used to measure wavelength along the spectrum is the micrometer (1μm is 10-
6m and 1Angstrom (Å) is 10-10m). Although names (such as "ultraviolet" and

"microwave") are generally assigned to regions of the electromagnetic spectrum for convenience,
there is no clear-cut dividing line between one nominal spectral region and the next.
Divisions of the spectrum have grown out of the various methods for sensing each type of radiation
more so than from inherent differences in the energy characteristics of various
wavelengths. Also, it should be noted that the portions of the electromagnetic spectrum
used in remote sensing lie along a continuum characterized by magnitude changes of many
powers of 10. Hence, the use of logarithmic plots to depict the electromagnetic spectrum
is quite common. The "visible" portion of such a plot is an extremely small one, since the
spectral sensitivity of the human eye extends only from about
0.4 μm to approximately 0.7 μm. The color "blue" is ascribed to the approximate range of
0.4 to 0.5 μm, "green" to 0.5 to 0.6 μm, and "red" to 0.6 to 0.7 μm. Ultraviolet (UV)
energy adjoins the blue end of the visible portion of the spectrum. Adjoining the red end
of the visible region are three different categories of infrared (IR) waves: near-IR (from
0.7 to 1.3 μm), mid-IR (from 1.3 to 3 μm), and thermal-IR (beyond 3 μm). At much
longer wavelengths (1 mm to 1 m) is the microwave portion of the spectrum.

(Adopted from Lilliesand et.al. 2004)

Figure 1.3 Electromagnetic spectrum

Most common sensing systems operate in one or several of the visible, IR, or microwave
portions of the spectrum. Within the IR portion of the spectrum, it should be noted that only thermal
IR energy is directly related to the sensation of heat; near- and mid-IR energy is not.

Although many characteristics of electromagnetic radiation are most easily described by

wave theory, another theory offers useful insights into how electromagnetic energy
interacts with matter. This theory - the particle theory - suggests that electromagnetic
radiation is composed of many discrete units called photons or quanta. The energy of a
quantum is given as

Q=hv…………………………..Equation 1.2
 Concepts and Foundations of Remote Sensing | 13

Where,
Q = energy of a quantum, Joules (J)
h = Planck's constant, 6.626 x 10-34 J sec
v = frequency

We can relate the wave and quantum models of electromagnetic radiation

behavior by solving Eq. 1.1 for v and substituting into Eq. 1.2 to obtain

hc ………………………..Equation 1.3
Q 


Thus, we see that the energy of a quantum is inversely proportional to its wave length.
The longer the wavelength involved, the lower its energy content.

The sun is the most obvious source of electromagnetic radiation for remote sensing.
However, all matter at temperatures above absolute zero (0K, or -273ºC) continuously
emits electromagnetic radiation. Thus, terrestrial objects are also sources of radiation,
though it is of considerably different magnitude and spectral composition than that of the
sun. How much energy any object (that behaves as a blackbody) radiates is, among other
things, a function of the surface temperature of the object. This property is expressed by
the Stefan Boltzmann Law, which states that

M = σT4………………………Equation 1.4

Where,
M = total radiant exitance from the surface of a material, watts (W) m-2
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.6697 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4
T = absolute temperature (K) of the emitting material

It is important to note that the total energy emitted from an object varies as T4 and
therefore increases very rapidly with increases in temperature. Just as the total energy
emitted by an object varies with temperature, the spectral distribution of the emitted
energy also varies.

Figure 1.4 shows energy distribution curves for blackbodies at temperatures ranging from
200 to 6000 K. The units on the ordinate scale (W m-2 μm-1) express the radiant power
coming from a black body per 1μm spectral interval. Hence, the area under these curves
equals the total radiant exitance, M, and the curves illustrate graphically what the Stefan-
Boltzmann law expresses mathematically: the higher the temperature of the radiator, the
greater the total amount of radiation it emits. The curves also show that there is a shift
toward shorter wavelengths in the peak of a blackbody radiation distribution as
temperature increases.

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14 | Concepts and Foundations of Remote Sensing

Figure 1.4 Spectral distribution of energy radiated from blackbodies of various

temperatures
(Adopted from Lilliesand et.al. 2004)

The dominant wavelength, or wavelength at which a blackbody radiation curve reaches a

maximum, is related to its temperature by Wien's displacement law,

A ………………………Equation 1.5
m 
T

Where,

λm = wavelength of maximum spectral radiant exitance, μm

A = 2898 μm K
T = temperature, K

Thus, for a blackbody, the wavelength at which the maximum spectral radiant exitance
occurs varies inversely with the blackbody's absolute temperature. We observe this
phenomenon when a metal body such as a piece of iron is heated. As the object becomes
progressively hotter, it begins to glow and its color changes successively to shorter
wavelengths - from dull red, to orange, to yellow, and eventually to white.

The sun emits in the same manner as a blackbody radiator whose temperature is about
6000 K (Figure 1.4). Many incandescent lamps emit radiation typified by a 3000 K
blackbody radiation curve. Consequently, incandescent lamps have a relatively low output
of blue energy, and they do not have the same spectral constituency as sunlight. The earth's
ambient temperature (that is, the temperature of surface materials such as soil, water, and
vegetation) is about 300 K (27º C). From Wein's displacement law, this means the
 Concepts and Foundations of Remote Sensing | 15

maximum spectral radiant exitance from earth features occurs at a wavelength of about
9.7 μm. Because this radiation correlates with terrestrial heat, it is termed "thermal infrared"
energy. This energy can neither be seen nor photographed, but it can be sensed with such
thermal devices as radiometers and scanners. By comparison, the sun has a much higher
energy peak that occurs at about 0.5 μm, as indicated in Figure 1.4. Our eyes and
photographic film are sensitive to energy of this magnitude and wavelength. Thus, when
the sun is present, we can observe earth features by virtue of reflected solar energy. Once
again, the longer wavelength energy emitted by ambient earth features can be observed only
with a nonphotographic sensing system. The general dividing line between reflected and emitted
IR wavelengths is approximately 3 μm. Below this wavelength, reflected energy predominates;
above it, emitted energy prevails.

3 Energy Interactions in the Atmosphere

Irrespective of its source, all radiation detected by remote sensors passes through some
distance, or path length, of atmosphere. The path length involved can vary widely. For
example, space photography results from sunlight that passes through the full thickness
of the earth's atmosphere twice on its journey from source to sensor. On the other hand,
an airborne thermal sensor detects energy emitted directly from objects on the earth, so a
single, relatively short atmospheric path length is involved. The net effect of the
atmosphere varies with these differences in path length and also varies with the magnitude
of the energy signal being sensed, the atmospheric conditions present, and the
wavelengths involved.

The atmosphere can have a profound effect on, among other things, the intensity and spectral
composition of radiation available to any sensing system. These effects are caused principally
through the mechanisms of atmospheric scattering and absorption.

3.1 Scattering

Atmospheric scattering is unpredictable diffusion of radiation by particles in the

atmosphere. Rayleigh scatter is common when radiation interacts with atmospheric
molecules and other tiny particles that are much smaller in diameter than the wavelength of the interacting
radiation. The effect of Rayleigh scatter is inversely proportional to the fourth power of wavelength.
Hence, there is a much stronger tendency for short wavelengths to be scattered by this
scattering mechanism than long wavelengths.

A "blue" sky is a manifestation of Rayleigh scatter. In the absence of scatter, the sky
would appear black. But, as sunlight interacts with the earth's atmosphere, it scatters the
shorter (blue) wavelengths more dominantly than the other visible wavelengths.
Consequently, we see a blue sky. At sunrise and sunset, however, the sun's rays travel
through a longer atmospheric path length than during midday. With the longer path, the
scatter (and absorption) of short wavelengths is so complete that we see only the less
scattered, longer wavelengths of orange and red.

Rayleigh scatter is one of the primary causes of "haze" in imagery. Visually, haze
diminishes the "crispness", or "contrast", of an image. In color photography, it results in
a bluish-gray cast to an image, particularly when taken from high altitude. Haze effect can
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16 | Concepts and Foundations of Remote Sensing

often be eliminated, or at least minimized, in photography by introducing, in front of the

camera lens, a filter that does not transmit short wavelengths.

Another type of scatter is Mie scatter, which exists when atmospheric particle diameters
essentially equal the energy wavelengths being sensed. Water vapor and dust are major causes of Mie
scatter. This type of scatter tends to influence longer wavelengths compared to Rayleigh
scatter. Although Rayleigh scatter tends to dominate under most atmospheric conditions,
Mie scatter is significant in slightly overcast ones.

A more bothersome phenomenon is Non-selective scatter, which comes about when

the diameters of the particle causing scatter are much larger than the energy wavelengths being sensed.
Water droplets, for example, cause such scatter. They commonly have a diameter in the
range 5 to 100 μm and scatter all visible and near-to-mid-IR wavelengths about equally.
Consequently, this scattering is "nonselective" with respect to wavelengths. In the visible
wavelengths, equal quantities of blue, green, and red light are scattered, hence fog and clouds
appear white.

3.2 Absorption

In contrast to scatter, atmospheric absorption results in the effective loss of energy to

atmospheric constituents. This normally involves absorption of energy at a given
wavelength. The most efficient absorbers of solar radiation in this regard are water vapor,
carbon dioxide, and ozone. Because these gases tend to absorb electromagnetic energy in
specific wavelength bands, they strongly influence "where we look" spectrally with any
given remote sensing system. The wavelength ranges in which the atmosphere is
particularly transmissive of energy are referred to as atmospheric windows.

Figure 1.5 shows the interrelationship between energy sources and atmospheric
absorption characteristics. Figure 1.5a shows the spectral distribution of the energy
emitted by the sun and by earth features. These two curves represent the most common
sources of energy used in remote sensing. In Figure 1.5b, spectral regions in which the
atmosphere blocks energy as shaded. Remote sensing data acquisition is limited to the
nonblocked spectral regions, called "atmospheric window". Note in Figure 1.5c that the
spectral sensitivity range of the eye (the "visible" range) coincides both with an atmospheric window
and the peak level of energy from the sun. Emitted "heat" energy from the earth, shown by the
small curve in (a) is sensed through the windows at 3 to 5 μm and 8 to 14 μm using such
devices as thermal scanners. Multispectral scanners sense simultaneously through
multiple, narrow wavelength ranges that can be located at various points in the visible
through the thermal spectral region. Radar and passive microwave systems operate
through a window in the region 1 mm to 1 m.

(a)

(b)
 Concepts and Foundations of Remote Sensing | 17

(Adopted from Lilliesand et.al. 2004)

Figure 1.5 Spectral characteristic of (a) energy sources, (b) atmospheric
transmittance, and (c) common remote sensing system (note that wavelength
scale is logarithmic)

The important point to note from Figure 1.5 is the interaction and the interdependence
between the primary sources of electromagnetic energy, the atmospheric windows
through which source energy may be transmitted to and from earth surface features, and
the spectral sensitivity of the sensors available to detect and record the energy. One
cannot select the sensor to be used in any given remote sensing task arbitrarily; one must
instead consider (1) the spectral sensitivity of the sensors available, (2) the presence or
absence of atmospheric windows in the spectral range(s) in which one wishes to sense,
and (3) the source, magnitude, and spectral composition of the energy available in these
ranges. Ultimately, however, the choice of spectral range of the sensor must be based on
the manner in which the energy interacts with the features under investigation.

4 Energy Interactions with Earth Surface Features

When electromagnetic energy is incident on any given earth surface feature, three
fundamental energy interactions with the feature are possible. This is illustrated in Figure
1.6 for an element of the volume of a water body. Various fractions of the energy incident
on the element are reflected, absorbed, and/or transmitted. Applying the principle of
conservation of energy, we can state the interrelationship between these three energy
interactions as

EI(λ) = ER(λ) + EA(λ) + ET(λ)………………………....Equation 1.6

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18 | Concepts and Foundations of Remote Sensing

Where EI denotes the incident energy, ER denotes the reflected energy, EA denotes the
absorbed energy, and ET denotes the transmitted energy, with all energy components
being a function of wavelength λ. Equation 1.6 is an energy balance equation expressing
the interrelationship among the mechanisms of reflection, absorption, and transmission.

(Adopted from Lilliesand et.al. 2004)

Figure 1.6 Basic interactions between electromagnetic energy and an earth
surface feature

Two points concerning this relationship should be noted. First, the proportions of energy
reflected, absorbed, and transmitted will vary for different earth features, depending on their material type
and condition. These differences permit us to distinguish different features on an image.
Second, the wavelength dependency means that, even within a given feature type, the proportion
of reflected, absorbed, and transmitted energy will vary at different wavelengths. Thus, two features may
be indistinguishable in one spectral range and be very different in another wavelength band. Within the
visible portion of the spectrum, these spectral variations result in the visual effect called
color. For example, we call objects "blue" when they reflect highly in the blue portion of
the spectrum, "green" when they reflect highly in the green spectral region, and so on.
Thus, the eye utilizes spectral variations in the magnitude of reflected energy to
discriminate between various objects.

The geometric manner in which an object reflects energy is also an important

consideration. This factor is primarily a function of the surface roughness of the object.
Specular reflectors are flat surfaces that manifest mirror like reflections, where the angle of
reflection equals the angle of incidence. Diffuse (or Lambertian) reflectors are rough
surfaces that reflect uniformly in all directions. Most earth surfaces are neither perfectly
specular nor diffuse reflector. Their characteristics are somewhat between the two
extremes.
 Concepts and Foundations of Remote Sensing | 19

(Adopted from Lilliesand et.al. 2004)

Figure 1.7 Generalized spectral reflectance envelopes for deciduous (broad-
leaved) and coniferous (needle-bearing trees)

Figure 1.7 illustrates the geometric character of specular, near-specular, near-diffuse, and
diffuse reflectors. The category that characterizes any given surface is dictated by the
surface's roughness in comparison to the wavelength of the energy incident upon it. For example, in
the relatively long wavelength radio range, rocky terrain can appear smooth to incident
energy. In comparison, in the visible portion of the spectrum, even a material such as fine
sand appears rough. In short, when the wavelength of incident energy is much smaller
than the surface height variations or the particle sizes that make up a surface, the surface
is diffuse.

Diffuse reflections contain spectral information on the "color" of the reflecting surface,
whereas specular reflectance does not. Hence, in remote sensing, we are most often interested in
measuring the diffuse reflectance properties of terrain features.

The reflectance characteristics of earth surface features may be quantified by measuring

the portion of incident energy that is reflected. This is measured as a function of
wavelength and is called spectral reflectance, ρλ. It is mathematically defined as

E R ( )
  …………………………..Equation 1.7
E I ( )

= energy of wavelength  reflected from the object x100

energy of wavelength  incident upon the object

where ρλ is expressed as a percentage.

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5 Spectral reflectance curve

A graph of the spectral reflectance of an object as a function of wavelength is termed a spectral

reflectance curve. The configuration of spectral reflectance curves gives us insight into
the spectral characteristics of an object and has a strong influence on the choice of
wavelength region(s) in which remote sensing data are acquired for a particular
application.

6 Spectral Reflectance of Vegetation, Soil, and Water

Figure 1.8 Typical spectral reflectance curve of dominant earth features

(adopted from Lillesand et al., 2004)

Figure 1.8 shows typical spectral reflectance curves for three basic types of earth features
viz., healthy green vegetation, dry bare soil (gray-brown loam), and clear lake water. The
lines in this figure represent average reflectance curves compiled by measuring a large
sample of features. Note how distinctive the curves are for each feature. Spectral
reflectance curves for healthy green vegetation almost always manifest the “peak-and-
valley” configuration. The valleys in the visible portion of the spectrum are dictated by
the pigments in plant leaves. Chlorophyll, for example, strongly absorbs energy in the
wavelength bands centered at about 0.45 and 0.67 μm. Hence, our eyes perceive healthy
vegetation as green in color because of the very high absorption of blue and red energy
by plant leaves and the very high reflection of green energy. If a plant is subject to some
form of stress that interrupts its normal growth and productivity, it may decrease or cease
chlorophyll production. The result is less chlorophyll absorption in the blue and red bands.
Often the red reflectance increases to the point that we see the plant turn yellow
(combination of green and red).

As we go from the visible to the near-infrared portion of the spectrum at about 0.7 μm,
the reflectance of healthy vegetation increases dramatically. In the range from about 0.7
to 1.3 μm, a plant leaf typically reflects 40 to 50 percent of the energy incident upon it.
Most of the remaining energy is transmitted, since absorption in this spectral region is less
 Concepts and Foundations of Remote Sensing | 21

than 5 percent. Plant reflectance in the range 0.7 to 1.3 µm results primarily from the
internal structure of plant leaves. Because this structure is highly variable between plants
species, reflectance measurements in this range often permits us to discriminate between
species, even if they look the same in visible wavelength.
Figure 1.9 explain the dominant factor controlling the spectral reflectance.

Figure 1.9 Spectral reflectance curve of typical vegetation showing chlorophyll

and water absorption bands

Beyond 1.3 µm, energy incident upon vegetation is essentially absorbed or reflected, with
little to no transmittance of energy. Dips in reflectance occur at 1.4, 1.9, and 2.7 µm
because water in the leaf absorbs strongly at these wavelengths. Accordingly, wavelengths
in these spectral regions are referred to as water absorption bands. Reflectance peaks
occur at about 1.6 and 2.2 µm, between the absorption bands. Throughout the range
beyond 1.3 µm, leaf reflectance is approximately inversely related to the total water present
in a leaf. This total is function of both the moisture content and the thickness of a leaf.

The soil curve in Figure 1.10 shows considerably less peak-and-valley variation in
reflectance. That is, the factors that influence soil reflectance act over less specific spectral
bands. Some of the factors affecting soil reflectance are moisture content, soil texture,
surface roughness, presence of iron oxide, and organic matter content. These factors are
complex, variable, and interrelated. For example, the presence of moisture in soil will
decrease its reflectance. As with vegetation, this effect is greatest in the water absorption
bands at about 1.4, 1.9, and 2.7 µm (clay soils also have hydroxyl absorption bands at
about 1.4 and 2.2 µm). Soil moisture content is strongly related to the soil texture: coarse,
sandy soils are usually well drained, resulting in low moisture content and relatively high
reflectance; poorly drained fine textured soils will generally have lower reflectance (Figure
1.10).

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22 | Concepts and Foundations of Remote Sensing

Figure 1.10 Influence of moisture content on spectral reflectance of soil

In the absence of water, however, the soil itself will exhibit the reverse tendency: coarse
textured soils will appear darker than fine textured soils. Thus, the reflectance properties
of a soil are consistent only within particular ranges of conditions. Two other factors that
reduce soil reflectance are surface roughness and content of organic matter. The presence
of iron oxide in a soil will also significantly decrease reflectance, at least in the visible
wavelengths. In any case, it is essential that the analyst be familiar with the conditions at
hand.

Considering the spectral reflectance of water, probably the most distinctive characteristics
is the energy absorption at near-infrared wavelengths. In short, water absorbs energy in
these wavelengths whether we are talking about water features per se (such as lakes and
streams) or water contained in vegetation or soil. Locating and delineating water bodies
with remote sensing data are done most easily in near-infrared wavelengths because of
this absorption property. However, various conditions of water bodies with remote
sensing data are done most easily in near-infrared wavelengths because of this absorption
property. However, various conditions of water bodies manifest themselves primarily in
visible wavelengths. The energy / matter interactions at these wavelengths are very
complex and depend on a number of interrelated factors. For example, the reflectance
from a water body can stem from an interaction with the water's surface (specular
reflection), with material suspended in the water, or with the bottom of the water body.
Even with deep water where bottom effects are negligible, the reflectance properties of a
water body are a function of not only the water per se but also the material in the water.

Clear water absorbs relatively little energy having wavelengths less than about 0.6 µm.
High transmittance typifies these wavelengths with a maximum in the blue-green portion
of the spectrum. However, as the turbidity of water changes (because of the presence of
organic or inorganic materials), transmittance - and therefore reflectance - changes
dramatically. For example, waters containing large quantities of suspended sediments
resulting from soil erosion normally have much higher visible reflectance than other
"clear" water in the same geographic area (Figure 1.11).
 Concepts and Foundations of Remote Sensing | 23

Figure 1.11 Spectral response of water with varying suspended solids

Likewise, the reflectance of water changes with the chlorophyll concentration involved.
Increases in chlorophyll concentration tend to decrease water reflectance in blue
wavelengths and increase it in green wavelengths. These changes have been used to
monitor the presence and estimate the concentration of algae via remote sensing data.
Reflectance data have also been used to determine the presence or absence of tannin dyes
from bog vegetation in lowland areas and to detect a number of pollutants, such as oil and
certain industrial wastes.

Many important water characteristics, such as dissolved oxygen concentration, pH, and
salt concentration, cannot be observed directly through changes in water reflectance.
However, such parameters sometimes correlate with observed reflectance. In short, there
are many complex interrelationships between the spectral reflectance of water and
particular characteristics. One must use appropriate reference data to correctly interpret
reflectance measurements made over water.

7 Spectral reflectance pattern

The spectral reflectance characteristics of vegetation, soil, and water are normally
spectrally separable. However, the degree of separation between types is a function of
“where we look spectrally”. For example, water and vegetation might reflect nearly equal
in visible wavelengths, yet these features are almost always separable in near-infrared
wavelengths.

Because spectral response measured by remote sensors over various features often permit
an assessment of type and/or condition of the features, these response have often been
referred to as spectral signatures.

Although it is true that many earth surface features manifests very distinctive spectral
reflectance and/or emittance characteristics, these characteristics result in spectral
response pattern rather than spectral signatures. The reason for this is that the term
signature tends to imply a pattern that is absolute and unique. This is not the case with
the spectral patterns observed in the natural world. Spectral response pattern measured

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24 | Concepts and Foundations of Remote Sensing

by remote sensors may be quantitative but they are not absolute. They may be distinctive
but they are not necessarily unique.

8 Advantages of Remote Sensing

 Provides data of large areas
 Provides data of very remote and inaccessible regions
 Able to obtain imagery of any area over a continuous period of time through
which the any anthropogenic or natural changes in the landscape can be analyzed
 Relatively inexpensive when compared to employing a team of surveyors
 Easy and rapid collection of data
 Rapid production of maps for interpretation

9 Disadvantages of Remote Sensing

 The interpretation of imagery requires a certain skill level
 Needs cross verification with ground (field) survey data
 Data from multiple sources may create confusion
 Objects can be misclassified or confused
 Distortions may occur in an image due to the relative motion of sensor and source

10 References

Campbell, J.B. 1996. Introduction to Remote Sensing. Taylor & Francis, London. Colwell,
R.N. (Ed.) 1983. Manual of Remote Sensing. Second Edition. Vol I: Theory,
Instruments and Techniques. American Society of Photogrammetry and Remote
Sensing

John R. Jensen, 2007. Remote Sensing of Environment – An Earth resource perspective.

Pearson education published as Prentice Hall. Pp 583
Lillesand, T. M., R.W. Kiefer. and J.W. Chipman 2004. Remote Sensing and Image
Interpretation, 5th edition, John Wiley and Sons, ASIA Pte Ltd. Singapore, 763
p.

Klaus Tempfli, Norman Kerle, Gerrit C. Huurneman and Lucas L.F. Janssen. 2009.
Principles of remote sensing – An introductory textbook, ITC Educational
Textbook Series, ITC

Sabins, Floyd F. 1996. Remote Sensing: Principles and Interpretation. 3rd ed. New York:
Freeman.

Thomas M. Lillesand, Ralph W. Keifer, Jonathan W. Chipman. 2004. Remote Sensing and
Image Interpretation, Fifth edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. pp 1-16.
 2 PLATFORMS AND SENSORS: TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS

1 Sensors

A Sensor is a device that gathers energy (EMR or other), converts it into a signal and
presents it in a form suitable for obtaining information about the target under
investigation.

2 Classification of Sensors

2.1 Sensors based on Source of Energy

Sensors can be divided into two groups: Passive sensors which depend on an external
source of energy, usually the Sun, and sometimes the Earth itself. Current operational
passive sensors cover the electromagnetic spectrum in the wavelength range from less
than 1 picometer (gamma rays) to larger than 1 meter (microwaves). The oldest and most
common type of passive sensor is the photographic camera.

Active sensors have their own source of energy. Measurements by active sensors are more
controlled because they do not depend upon varying illumination conditions. Active
sensing methods include radar (radio detection and ranging), lidar (light detection and
ranging) and sonar (sound navigation ranging), all of which may be used for altimetry as
well as imaging.

2.2 Sensors based on Method of Scanning

Across Track Scanning (Whisk broom)

Across-track scanner scans the Earth in a series of lines. The lines are oriented
perpendicular to the direction of motion of the sensor platform. Each line is scanned
from one side of the sensor to the other, using a rotating mirror. As the platform moves
forward over the Earth, successive scans build up a two-dimensional image of the Earth’s
surface.

Figure 2.1 Across Track Scanning

26 | Platforms and Sensors: Types and Characteristics

Along track scanner (push broom)

These types of scanners use a linear array of detectors located at the focal plane of the
image (B) formed by lens systems, which are "pushed" along in the flight track direction
(i.e. along track). Along-track scanners also use the forward motion of the platform to
record successive scan lines and build up a two-dimensional image. The array of detectors
combined with the push broom motion allows each detector to "see" and measure the
energy from each ground resolution cell for a longer period of time (dwell time). This
allows more energy to be detected and improves the radiometric resolution. Because
detectors are usually solid-state microelectronic devices, they are generally smaller, lighter,
require less power, and are more reliable and last longer because they have no moving
parts

Figure 2.2 Along Track Scanning

3 Resolution

Resolution is defined as the ability of the system to render the information at the smallest
discretely separable quantity in terms of distance (spatial), wavelength band of EMR
(spectral), time (temporal) and/or radiation quantity (radiometric).

Types of resolution
• Spatial Resolution
• Spectral Resolution
• Radiometric Resolution
• Temporal Resolution
 Platforms and Sensors: Types and Characteristics | 27

3.1 Spatial resolution

Spatial resolution is the capability of sensor to discriminate the smallest object on ground.
This is a measure of the area or size of the smallest dimension on the earth’s surface over
which an independent measurement can be made by the sensor.
The spatial resolution specifies the pixel size of satellite images covering the earth surface.
High spatial resolution: 0.6 - 4 m
Medium spatial resolution: 4 - 30 m
Low spatial resolution: 30 - > 1000 m

3.2 Spectral resolution

Spectral resolution describes the ability of a sensor to define fine wavelength intervals.
The finer the spectral resolution, the narrower the wavelengths range for a particular
channel or band. Hyperspectral sensors detect hundreds of very narrow spectral bands
throughout the visible, NIR and MIR of the electromagnetic spectrum. High spectral
resolution helps in fine discrimination between different targets based on their spectral
response in each of the narrow bands.

3.3 Radiometric resolution

The ability to distinguish the finer variation of the reflected or emitted radiation from
different objects is characterized by the radiometric resolution. Imagery data are
represented by positive digital numbers which vary from 0 to (one less than) a selected
power of 2. This range corresponds to the number of bits used for coding numbers in
binary format. Each bit records an exponent of power 2 (e.g. 1 bit = 21 = 2). The
maximum number of brightness levels available depends on the number of bits used in
representing the energy recorded. Thus, if a sensor used 8 bits to record the data, there
would be 28 = 256 digital values available, ranging from 0 to 255. If only 4 bits were used,
then only 24 = 16 values ranging from 0 to 15 would be available.

3.4 Temporal resolution

Temporal resolution is the capability of the satellite to image the exact same area at the
same viewing angle at different points of time. It is the revisit period of the satellite which
refers to the length of time taken for a satellite to complete one entire orbit cycle. It is
also the frequency of obtaining data over a given area. Actual temporal resolution depends
on the sensor capabilities, swath, overlap and latitude.

It is an important aspect in remote sensing when

• Persistent cloud offers limited clear views of the earth’s surface
• Short lived phenomenon need to be imaged (flood, oil slicks etc.)
• Multi temporal comparisons are required (agriculture application)
• Changing appearance of a feature over time can be used to distinguish it from
near similar features (wheat/maize)

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28 | Platforms and Sensors: Types and Characteristics

4 Platforms

Platform is a stage to mount the camera or sensor to acquire the information about a
target under investigation. Based on its altitude above earth surface, platforms may be
classified as (1) Ground borne, (2) Air borne and (3) Space borne

4.1 Ground-based platforms

The ground based remote sensing system for earth resources studies are mainly used for
collecting the ground truth or for laboratory simulation studies.

Ground-based sensors are often used to record detailed information about the surface
which is compared with information collected from aircraft or satellite sensors. In some
cases, this can be used to better characterize the target which is being imaged by these
other sensors, making it possible to better understand the information in the imagery.

4.2 Air-borne platforms

Aircraft’s are generally used to acquire aerial photographs for photo-interpretation and
photogrammetric purposes. Scanners are tested against their utility and performance from
these platforms before these are flown onboard satellite missions.

Sensors may be placed on a ladder, scaffolding, tall building, cherry-picker, crane,

etc. Aerial platforms are primarily stable wing aircraft, although helicopters are
occasionally used. Aircraft are often used to collect very detailed images and facilitate the
collection of data over virtually any portion of the Earth's surface at any time.

4.3 Space-borne platforms

Platforms in space are not affected by the earth's atmosphere. These platforms are freely
moving in their orbits around the earth, and entire earth or any part of the earth can be
covered at specified intervals. The coverage mainly depends on the orbit of the satellite.

It is through these space-borne platforms, we get the enormous amount of remote sensing
data and as such the remote sensing has gained international popularity.

For remote sensing purpose the following orbital characteristics are relevant.

Altitude: It is the distance (in Km) from the satellite to the mean surface level of the earth.
The satellite altitude influences the spatial resolution to a large extent.

Inclination angle: The angle (in degrees) between the orbit and the equator. The inclination
angle of the orbit determines the field of view of the sensor and which latitudes can be
observed. If the inclination angle is 60° then the satellite flies over the earth between the
latitudes 60° South and 60° North, it cannot observe parts of the earth above 60° latitude.

Period: It is the time (in minutes) required to complete one full orbit. A polar satellite
orbiting at an altitude of 800 km has a period of 90 mins.
 Platforms and Sensors: Types and Characteristics | 29

Repeat Cycle: It is the time (in days) between two successive identical orbits.

Swath: As a satellite revolves around the Earth, the sensor sees a certain portion of the
Earth's surface. The area is known as swath. The swath for satellite images is very large
between tens and hundreds of kilometers wide.

Depending on their altitude and orbit these platforms may be divided in two categories.

(a) Geostationary and (b) Polar orbiting or Sun-synchronous

a. Geostationary satellites

An equatorial west to east satellite orbiting the earth at an altitude of 35000 km.,
the altitude at which it makes one revolution in 24 hours, synchronous with the earth's
rotation. These platforms are covering the same place and give continuous near
hemispheric coverage over the same area day and night. These satellites are put in
equatorial plane orbiting from west to east Its coverage is limited to 70°N to 70°S latitudes
and one satellite can view one-third globe. These are mainly used for communication and
meteorological applications viz. GOES METEOSAT, INTELSAT, and INSAT satellites.

b. Sun-synchronous satellites

An earth satellite orbit in which the orbital plane is near polar and the altitude is
such that the satellite passes over all places on earth having the same latitude twice in each
orbit at the same local sun-time. This ensures similar illumination conditions when
acquiring images over a particular area over a series of days.

5 References

Klaus Tempfli, Norman Kerle, Gerrit C. Huurneman and Lucas L.F. Janssen.
2009. Principles of remote sensing – An introductory textbook, ITC Educational
Textbook Series, ITC

Geoinformatics for Precision Farming

 3 ELEMENTS OF VISUAL PHOTO / IMAGE INTERPRETATION

Introduction

So far we have been focusing primarily on the concepts of remote sensing and on how
images of Earth’s surface is represented based on the reflection of electromagnetic energy
by the surface features. It is understood that, such images bring on minute and
comprehensive details which cannot be derived from other sources. Yet the information
is not available to us directly. The information we need is encoded in various tones or
textures as we see on the image.

To translate these images into valuable information, we must apply specialized knowledge
and skill, which forms the basis for image interpretation. What makes interpretation of
imagery more difficult than the everyday visual interpretation of our surroundings. The
first reason being, we lose our sense of depth when viewing a two-dimensional image.
Secondly, viewing objects from directly above the head also provides a new and different
perspective that we are not familiar with. So, combining an unfamiliar perspective with a
different scale and lack of recognizable detail can make the most familiar object
unrecognizable in an image. Finally, we are used to seeing only the visible wavelengths
and the imaging outside the visible wavelength is more difficult for use to understand.

An image interpreter has to take clue from lot of aspects in an image and study the image
carefully before arriving at a conclusion. Recognizing targets is the key to interpretation
and information extraction. Observing the differences between targets and their
backgrounds involves comparing different targets based on any, or all of the visual
elements. By tradition, image interpreters use some combination of eight elements
of image interpretation viz., tone, size, shape, texture, pattern, shadow, site and
association. In the coming pages, we will discuss the elements of visual image
interpretation in detail. The following figure (Figure 3.1) shows the elements of
interpretation in decreasing order of complexity

Figure 3.1 Primary ordering of Elements of Image Interpretation

 Elements of Visual Photo / Image Interpretation | 31

1 Tone
Tone refers to the relative brightness or colour of objects in an image. Tone is the
fundamental aspect for discerning different features. For black and white images, tone
may be differentiated as “light”, “dark grey”, “dark” and so on, whereas for colour images,
tone refers to terms such as “dark green”, “light blue”, etc. Wet sand appears in a dark
tone in an image, whereas a dry sand appears in a light tone. Variations in tone also allows
the elements of shape, texture, and pattern of objects to be distinguished.

2 Size
Size of objects in an image is a function of scale. It is important to assess the size of a
target relative to other objects in an image, as well as the absolute size to aid in the
interpretation. A quick approximation of size of target feature can aid an interpreter to
appropriate result quicker. For example, if an interpreter had to distinguish zones of land
use and has identified an area with a number of buildings in it, large buildings such as
factories, warehouses would suggest commercial property, whereas small buildings would
indicate residential use. Another example is though roads may reflect same tone on the
image, the size (or width) of highways and narrow streets differ considerably thereby
helping in differentiating them.

3 Shape
Shape indicates the form of an object. For example, individual structures and vehicles
have characteristic shapes that, if visible in sufficient detail, provide basis for their
identification. Features in nature often have such distinctive shapes that shape alone
might be sufficient to provide clear identification. For example, ponds, lakes, rivers occurs
in specific shapes unlike others found in nature. For example, the crown of a conifer tree
looks like a circle, while that of a deciduous tree has an irregular shape. Airports, harbors,
factories and so on, can also be identified by their shape.

4 Texture
Texture is the frequency of tonal variations in an image. If the tone changes abruptly
across an image, it is rough textured. If there is very little tonal variation, then the image
will be smooth textured. Golf courses, Grasslands appear smooth textured, whereas
forest canopy results in a rough textured appearance.

5 Pattern
Pattern is the spatial arrangement of individual objects into distinctive recurring forms
that help in their recognition. Pattern on an image usually follows from a functional
relationship between the individual features that compose the pattern. The best example
is the distinctive spacing of orchard trees leading to a pattern and helps it distinguishable
from a forest, although orchard and forest may have same tone.

6 Shadow
Shadow helps the interpreter in understanding the elevation profile and relative height of
targets. The following figure (Figure 3.2) depicts an open field in which scattered shrubs

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32 | Elements of Visual Photo / Image Interpretation

and bushes are separated by areas of open land. At the edges between the trees in the
hedgerows and the adjacent open land, trees cast shadows that form a dark strip that
enhances the boundary between the two zones as seen on the imagery.

Figure 3.2 Significance of shadow in image interpretation

However, shadows can also reduce or eliminate interpretation in their area of influence,
since targets within shadows are much less discernible from their surroundings.

7 Site
Site refers to topographic location. For example, tea estates in higher elevations, sewage
treatment facilities are positioned at low topographic sites.

8 Association
Association takes into account the relationship between other recognizable objects or
features in proximity to the target of interest. Association specifies the occurrence of
certain objects or features, usually without the strict spatial arrangement implied by
pattern. For example schools or colleges are always associated with playground, which can
be easily identified on an image (Figure 3.3).

Figure 3.3 Example for Association

 Elements of Visual Photo / Image Interpretation | 33

9 Ancillary information

In addition to all these elements of image interpretation, an interpreter may or will use
non-image information known as ancillary information to assist in the process of
interpretation. Ancillary information can consist of information from books, maps,
statistical tables, field observations or other disparate sources. All image interpreters use
ancillary information in the form of implicit, often intuitive, knowledge that every
interpreter brings to an interpretation in the form of everyday science.

Identify various features / objects (1 to 7) on the given image using elements of image
interpretation.

Geoinformatics for Precision Farming

 4 DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING

1 Introduction

The goal of digital image processing is to produce a processed image that is suitable for a
given application. For example, we might require an image that is easily inspected by a
human observer or an image that can be analyzed and interpreted by a computer. There
are two distinct strategies to achieve this goal. First, the image can be displayed
appropriately so that the conveyed information is maximized. Hopefully, this will help a
human (or computer) extract the desired information. Second, the image can be processed
so that the informative part of the data is retained and the rest discarded. This requires a
definition of the informative part, and it makes an enhancement technique application
specific. Nevertheless, these techniques often utilize a similar framework.

2 Digital data

Digital images are arrays of numbers, i.e. an image is represented logically as a matrix of
rows and columns. These image data arrays are included in the general class of ‘raster
data’, which means that the individual data value is not explicitly associated with a
particular location on the ground. The location of each data value (or picture element,
corrupted into ‘pixel’) is implied by its position in the array (Figure 4.1). The values of the
numbers stored in the array elements lie in a specified range, commonly 0–255, which
corresponds to the brightness range of the colour associated with that image array. The
value 0 indicates lack of the associated colour (red, green or blue), and the value 255 is the
brightest level at which that colour is displayed.

Figure 4.1 View of raster data

A colour image is produced by using three raster arrays, which hold pixel values that
represent the levels of the three primary colours of light. Levels 0 to 255 represent the
range of each primary colour from 0 (black) to 255 (maximum intensity of red, green, or
blue, hereafter RGB). Different combinations of RG and B produce the colours of the
spectrum, as demonstrated by Sir Isaac Newton’s famous prism experiment. The primary
colours of light are ‘additive’ – for example, red+green = yellow.
 Digital Image Processing | 35

3 Radiometric Characteristics of Image Data

Not all remotely-sensed images have pixel values that lie in the range 0–255. For example,
AVHRR data use a 0–1023 range. IKONOS pixels lie in the range 0–2047, and the thermal
bands of ASTER images are measured on a 0–4095 scale. Specific use is made of the
lowest and highest counts ASTER data, for example ‘0’ and ‘4095’; these are used to
indicate ‘bad data’ and ‘saturated pixel’, respectively. The values stored in the cells making
up a digital image (the ‘pixel values’ or ‘pixel intensities’) are represented electronically by
a series of binary (base two) digits that can be thought of as ‘on/off’ switches, or dots and
dashes in Morse code. In base two form the decimal numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, are written as 0,
1, 10, 11 . . . with each column to the left representing a successively higher power of two,
rather than ten as in the everyday decimal system. If eight binary digits are used to record
the value stored in each pixel, then 0 and 255 are written as 00000000 and 11111111.
Thus, a total of eight binary digits (bits) are needed to represent the 256 numbers in the
range 0–255. The range of pixel intensities is termed the dynamic range of the image.

4 Geometric Characteristics of Image Data

Remote sensing data are data digitized by a process of sampling and quantization of the
electro-magnetic energy which is detected by a sensor. IFOV (Instantaneous Field Of
View) is defined as the angle which corresponds to the sampling unit as shown in Figure
4.2. Information within an IFOV is represented by a pixel in the image plane. The
maximum angle of view which a sensor can effectively detect the electromagnetic energy,
is called the FOV (Field Of View). The width on the ground corresponding to the FOV
is called the swath width.

Figure 4.2 FOV and IFOV

The minimum detectable area, or distance on the ground is called the ground resolution.
Sometimes the projected area on the ground corresponding to a pixel or IFOV is also
called the ground resolution. In remote sensing, the data from a multiple number of
channels or bands which divide the electromagnetic radiation range from Ultra Violet to
Radio Waves are called multi-channel data, multi-band data or multi- spectral data. In
general, multi-channel data are obtained by different detectors as shown in Figure 4.2.
Because the detectors are located at slightly different positions, and the light path of
different wavelengths is a little different from each other, the images of multi-channel data
are not identical in geometric position. To correct such geometric errors between channels
Geoinformatics for Precision Farming
36 | Digital Image Processing

is called registration. The term registration is also used for registration of multi-temporal
(or multi-date) images.

Figure 4.3 Relationship between a detector and its ground projection

5 Digital Image Processing in Remote Sensing

In this cyber era, most remote sensing data are recorded in digital format only and hence
virtually all image interpretation and analysis involve digital processing. Digital image
processing may involve numerous procedures including formatting and correcting of the
data, digital enhancement to facilitate better visual interpretation, or even automated
classification of features by the computer. In order to process remote sensing imagery
digitally, firstly, the data must be recorded and available in digital form. Secondly,
appropriate image analysis system, encompassing both hardware and software should be
available.

Most of the common image processing functions available in a image analysis system can
be categorized as follows:
1. Preprocessing
2. Image Enhancement
3. Image Transformation
4. Image Classification and analysis

5.1 Preprocessing

Preprocessing involves those operations that are normally required prior to the main data
analysis and extraction of information. They are generally grouped as radiometric and
geometric corrections. Radiometric corrections include correcting the data for sensor
irregularities and unwanted sensor or atmospheric noise, and converting the data so that
they accurately represent the reflected energy measured by the sensor. Geometric
corrections include correcting for geometric distortions due to sensor-Earth geometry
 Digital Image Processing | 37

variations and conversion of the data to real world coordinates (e.g., latitude and
longitude) on the Earth’s surface.

5.2 Image enhancement

Image enhancement is the process by which the appearance of the imagery is improved
so as to assist in a better way for visual interpretation and analysis. Examples of image
enhancement functions include Contrast stretching to increase the tonal distinction
between various features in an image, Spatial filtering to enhance or suppress specific
spatial patterns in an image.

5.3 Image transformation

Image transformations are operations similar to that of image enhancement. But, unlike
image enhancement functions which are applied only to a single band of data at a time,
image transformation operations usually involve multiple spectral bands. Arithmetic
operations (subtraction, addition, multiplication, division) are performed to combine and
transform the original bands into “new” images which better display or highlight certain
features in an image. Examples are spectral ratioing, principal components analysis etc.

5.4 Image classification and analysis

Image classification and analysis operations are used to digitally identify and classify pixels
in the data. Classification is usually performed with multi-band data sets and this process
assigns each pixel in an image to a particular class of theme based on statistical
characteristics of the pixel brightness values. The two methods of digital image
classification are supervised and unsupervised classification

The term classifier refers loosely to a computer program that implements a specific
procedure for image classification. Over the years scientists have devised many
classification strategies. From these alternatives the analyst must select the classifier that
will best accomplish a specific task. At present it is not possible to state that a given
classifier is "best" for all situations because characteristics of each image and the
circumstances for each study vary so greatly. Therefore, it is essential that analyst
understand the alternative strategies for image classification. There are two kinds of image
classification, viz., (a) supervised classification and (b) unsupervised classification.

6 Supervised classification

In supervised classification, we identify examples of the Information classes (i.e., land

cover type) of interest in the image. These are called "training sites". The image
processing software system is then used to develop a statistical characterization of the
reflectance for each information class. This stage is often called "signature analysis" and
may involve developing a characterization as simple as the mean or the range of
reflectance on each bands, or as complex as detailed analyses of the mean, variances and
covariance over all bands. Once a statistical characterization has been achieved for each
information class, the image is then classified by examining the reflectance for each pixel

Geoinformatics for Precision Farming

38 | Digital Image Processing

and making a decision about which of the signatures it resembles most based on suitable
classifier algorithm

7 Unsupervised classification

The goal of unsupervised classification is to automatically segregate pixels of a satellite

image into groups of similar spectral character. Classification is done using one of several
statistical routines generally called "clustering" where classes of pixels are created based
on their shared spectral signatures. Clusters are split and /or merged until further
clustering doesn't improve the explanation of the variation in the scene.

Unsupervised Classification is the identification of natural groups, or structures, within

multi- spectral data by the algorithms programmed into the software. The following
characteristics apply to an unsupervised classification:

 There is no extensive prior knowledge of the region that is required for

unsupervised classification unlike supervised classification that requires detailed
knowledge of the area.

 The opportunity for human error is minimized with unsupervised classification

because the operator may specify only the number of categories desired and
sometimes constraints governing the distinctness and uniformity of groups. Many
of the detailed decisions required for supervised classification are not required for
unsupervised classification creating less opportunity for the operator to make
errors.

 Unsupervised classification allows unique classes to be recognized as distinct -

units.

8 References

C.H. Chen. 2008. Image processing of remotely sensed images. CRC press, Taylor and
Francis group., pp 380

Jay Gao, 2009. Digtial analysis of remotely sensed imagery. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., pp 645.

Paul M. Mather, 2004. Computer Processing of Remotely-Sensed Images - An

Introduction, John Wiley & Sons Inc.,

Thomas M. Lillesand, Ralph W. Kiefer, Jonathan W. Chipman. 2004.Remote Sensing

and Image Interpretation. Fifth edition, John Wiley and Sons., pp 763

Remote Sensing Notes edited by Japan Association of Remote Sensing © JARS. 1999.
Produced by National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) / Remote
Sensing Technology Center of Japan (RESTEC). Prepared by Asian Center for
Research on Remote Sensing (ACRoRS) in Asian Institute of Technology (AIT).
 5 GIS : DEFINITION, COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS

1 What is GIS?

Geographic Information System (GIS) is defined as an information system that is used to

input, store, retrieve, manipulate, analyze and output geographically referenced data or
geospatial data, in order to support decision making for planning and management of land
use, natural resources, environment, transportation, urban facilities, and other
administrative records.

2 GIS application potential

The strength of GIS depends upon how good is the geospatial database. It can be used
for natural resource application (i.e. forestry, agriculture and water resources etc.) in
combination with remote sensing and earth observation. In addition it is used for
infrastructure development (i.e. highways, railways etc.); utility services like water supply
distribution network, telephone network management, gas supply distribution etc.;
business application such as real estate, establishment of new retailer shops; heath services;
investigation services like crime incidences and their distribution etc. In addition GIS can
be used for research and scientific investigations, particularly for water budgeting,
atmospheric modelling, climatic studies and global warming.

3 Component of GIS

3.1 Hardware

Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS software runs o a wide
range of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop computers used
in stand-alone or networked configurations

3.2 Software

GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display
geographic information. Key software components are:
 Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information
 A database management system
 Tools that support geographic query, analysis and visualization
 A graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools

3.3 Data

Possibly the most important component of a GIS is the data. Geographic data and related
tabular data can be collected in-house or purchased from a commercial data provider. A
GIS will integrate spatial data with other data resources and can even use a DBMS, used
by most organizations to organize and maintain their data, to manage spatial data.
40 | GIS: Definition, Components and Functions

3.4 People

GIS technology is of limited value without the people who manage the system and develop
plans for applying it to real-world problems. GIS users range from technical specialists
who design and maintain the system to those who use it to help them perform

3.5 Methods

A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules, which are
the models and operating practices unique to each organization.

4 GIS Software: Commercial versus Open/free

GIS software is one of the bottlenecks in GIS industry as the major junk money (~50 %
or so) is invested towards its procurement and maintenance annually. Because of it many
users have apprehensions to change from conventional methods to GIS. In the recent
past there is a paradigm shift in usage of GIS software. There are many new and open/free
software are launched into the market. The free software where it is freely available and
mostly through WWW but the user do not have access to program coding, so not possible
to modify or update it. In case of open source, it is free as well as available with full access
to program coding so user can modify/update it according to his requirements. Table
18.1 below provides list of some of commercial, open and free GIS software:

Table 5.1 List of GIS software available commercially / as a open source/ freely to the
user community
S.No. Software Functionality /Remarks
Commercial Software / Proprietary software
1 ArcGIS Core modules, Market leader but high cost, many
more to be bought for other applications
2 Geomedia Core modules of GIS, supports education and
research institutions
3 MapInfo Moderate cost
4 Autocad Map Better input and database creation facility
5 JTMaps (India) Quite economical and works in vector model
Open Source
6 GRASS GIS Satellite Data Analysis & GIS (http://grass.itc.it/)

7 Quantum GIS Desktop GIS, supports all OS (http://qgis.org/)

8 ILWIS Satellite Data Analysis & GIS (www.itc.nl)

9 JUMP Read shp and gml format, display facility and support
for wms and wfs, limitations of working with large
data files (http://jump-project.org/)
 GIS: Definition, Components and Functions | 41

10 PostGIS With Spatial extensions for the open source.

PostgreSQL database, allowing geospatial queries.
http://postgis.refractions.net/

11 Mapserver Web server GIS Software

(http://mapserver.gis.umn.edu/)

5 Advantages of GIS
– Exploring both geographical and thematic components of data in a
holistic way
– Stresses geographical aspects of a research question
– Large volumes of data
– Integration of data from widely disparate sources
– Allows a wide variety of forms of visualisation

6 Disadvantages of GIS
– Data are expensive
– Learning curve on GIS software can be long
– Shows spatial relationships but does not provide absolute solutions
– Origins in the Earth sciences and computer science. Solutions may not
be appropriate for humanities research

7 Need for GIS

Any organization, government or private is in some way or another strongly linked to the
geography in which it operates. A GIS that has been designed in a proper manner has the
capability of providing quick and easy access to large volumes of data of
these geographical features. The user can access & select information by area or by theme
to merge one data set with another, to analyze spatial characteristics of data, to search for
particular features, to update quickly and cheaply and asses alternatives.

In simpler terms, GIS allows the user to understand geographic information in an easy
manner without having to go through large volumes of confusing data that is in tabular
form. Visualizing the geography of a particular location is no doubt easier that trying to
analyze raw data. The potential and substantial benefits of using GIS makes it a very
important tool making the work of any organization easier and more productive. Some of
the potential benefits of GIS are:
 Opportunity to reduce sets of manual maps held and associated storage costs.
 Faster and more extensive access to geographic information.
 Improved analysis e.g. areas, distances, patterns, etc.
 Better communication of information to public officers, members.
 Improved quality of services.
 Better targeting and coordination of services.
 Improved productivity in providing public information.
Geoinformatics for Precision Farming
42 | GIS: Definition, Components and Functions

 Improved efficiency in updating maps.

 The ability to track and monitor growth and development over time.
 Improved ability to aggregate data for specific sub areas.

Thus GIS's have become indispensable tools for governance, commerce, and
environmental and social science.

8 Functions of GIS

The Functions of GIS describe the steps that have to be taken to implement a GIS. These
steps have to be followed in order to obtain a systematic and efficient system. The steps
involved are:

I) DATA CAPTURE:

Data used in GIS often come from many sources. Data sources are mainly obtained from
Manual Digitization and Scanning of aerial photographs, paper maps, and existing digital
data sets. Remote-sensing satellite imagery and GPS are promising data input sources for
GIS. In this stage Digitization (A conversion process which converts paper maps into
numerical digits that can be stored in the computer. Digitizing simplifies map data into
sets of points, lines, or cells that can be stored in the GIS computer) is carried out. There
are two basic methods of Digitization : Manual Digitizing & Scanning.

II) DATA COMPILATION:

Following the digitization of map features, the user completes the compilation phase by
relating all spatial features to their respective attributes, and by cleaning up and correcting
errors introduced as a result of the data conversion process. The end results of
compilation is a set of digital files, each accurately representing all of the spatial and
attribute data of interest contained on the original map manuscripts. These digital files
contain geographic coordinates for spatial objects (points, lines, polygons, and cells) that
represent mapped features.

III) DATA STORAGE (GIS DATA MODELS):

Once the data have been digitally compiled, digital map files in the GIS are stored on
magnetic or other digital media. Data storage is based on a Generic Data Model that is
used to convert map data into a digital form. The two most common types of data models
are Raster and Vector. Both types are used to simplify the data shown on a map into a
more basic form that can be easily and efficiently stored in the computer.

9 References

Wright, D. J. October 28, 1993a. Department of Geography, UC-Santa Barbara. Re: Value
of Peer Review [Discussion]. Geographic Information Systems Discussion List [Online].
 GIS: Definition, Components and Functions | 43

Petican, D. J. October 29, 1993. University of Waterloo, Canada. Re: GIS as a Science
[Discussion]. Geographic Information SystemsDiscussion List [Online].

Feldman, M. November 1, 1993a. Community Planning, University of Rhode Island. Re:

GIS as a Science & Value of Peer Review [Discussion]. Geographic Information Systems
Discussion List

Geoinformatics for Precision Farming

 6 DATA MODELS

1 Data Model

In order to represent the spatial information and their attributes, a data model – a set of
logical definitions or rules for characterizing the geographical data is adopted. The data
model represents the linkages between the real world domain of geographical data and the
computer and GIS representation of these features. As a result, the data model, not only
helps in organizing the real-world geographical features into a systematic storage/retrieval
mechanism, but also helps in capturing the user’s perception of these features. The model:

 Structures the data to be amenable to computer storage/retrievaland

manipulation. The data structure is the core of the model and it is based upon
this that features of real world are represented. The ability of the data structure
to totally represent the real world determines the success of the model.

 Abstracts the real world into properties, which is perceived by a specific

application. For example, a Landuse map is perceived to be made up of different
classes with symbols and legends. The district information is perceived to be
made up of district maps and different attribute tables.

 Helps organize a systematic file structure, which is the internal organization of

real world data in a computer.

2 Entity Definition

An entity is the element in reality. It is a phenomenon of interest in reality that is not

further subdivided into phenomena of the same kind. For example, a city can be
considered an entity. A similar phenomena stored in a database are identified as entity
types or objects. All geographical phenomena can be represented in two dimensions by
three main entity types: points, lines, and areas. Figure 6.1 shows how a spatial data model
could be constructed using points, lines, and areas. Figure 6.1 also introduces two
additional spatial entities: networks and surfaces. These are an extension of the area and
line concepts.

A surface entity is used to represent continuous features or phenomena. For these features
there is a measurement or value at every location, as in the case of elevation, temperature
and population density. This makes representation by a surface entity appropriately. The
continuous nature of surface entities distinguishes them from other entity types (points,
lines, areas, and networks) which are discrete, that is , either present or absent at a
particular location.

A network is a series of interconnecting lines along which there is a flow of data, objects
or materials, for example, the road network, along which there is a flow of traffic to and
from the areas. Another example is that of a river, along which there is a flow of water.
Others not visible on the land surfaces, include the sewerage and telephone systems
considered network type of entities.
 Data Models | 45

The dynamic nature of the world poses two problems for the entity-definition phase of a
GIS project. The first is how to select the entity type that provides the most appropriate
representation for the features being modelled. Is it best to represent a forest as a
collection of points (representing the location of individual trees}, or as an area (the
boundary of which defines the territory covered by the forest)? The second problem is
how to represent changes over time. A forest, originally represented as an area, may
decline until it is only a dispersed group of trees that are better represented by using points.

Figure 6.1 Spatial entity data model

The definition of entity types for real-world features is also hampered by the fact that
many real-world features simply do not fit into the categories of entities available. An area
of natural woodland does not have a clear boundary as there is normally a transition where
trees are interspersed with vegetation from a neighbouring habitat type. In this case, if we
wish to represent the woodland by an area entity, where do we place the boundary? The
question is avoided if the data are captured from a paper map where a boundary is clearly
marked, as if someone has already made a decision about the location of the woodland
boundary. But is this the true boundary? Vegetation to an ecologist may be a continuous
feature (which could be represented by a surface), whereas vegetation to a forest is better
represented as series of discrete area entities.

Geoinformatics for Precision Farming

46 | Data Models

Features with 'fuzzy' boundaries, such as the woodland, can create problems for the GIS
designer and the definition of entities, and may have an impact on later analysis. Deciding
which entity type should be used to model a real-world feature is not always
straightforward. The way in which individuals represent a spatial feature in two
dimensions will have a lot to do with how they conceptualise the feature, In turn this will
be related to their own experience and how they wish to use the entity they produce. An
appreciation of this issue is central to the design and development of all GIS applications.

3 Spatial Data Models

Burrough (1986) recognizes that the human eye is highly efficient at recognizing shapes
and forms, but the computer needs to be instructed exactly how spatial patterns should
be handled and displayed. Computers require unambiguous instructions on how to turn
data about spatial entities into graphical representations. This process is the second stage
in designing and implementing a data model. At present there are two main ways in which
computers can handle and display spatial entities. These are the raster and vector
approaches.

3.1 Raster Spatial Data Model

The raster spatial data model is one of a family of spatial data models described as
tessellations. In the raster world individual cells are used as the building blocks for creating
images of point, line, area, network and surface entities. Figure 18.2 shows how a range
of different features from Happy Valley, represented by the five different entity types, can
be modelled using the raster approach. Hotels are modeled by single, discrete cells; the ski
lifts are modeled by linking cells into lines; the forest by grouping cells into blocks; and
the road network by linking cells into networks. The relief of the area has been modeled
by giving every cell in the raster image an altitude value. In Figure 18.2 the altitude values
have been grouped and shaded to give the appearance of a contour map.

In the raster world the basic building block is the individual grid cell, and the shape and
character ofan entity is created by the grouping of cells. The size of the grid cell is very
important as it influences how an entity appears. Figure 18.3 shows how the spatial
character of the Happy Valley road network changes as the cell size of the raster is altered.
 Data Models | 47

Figure 6.2 Raster and vector spatial data

Figure 6.3 Effect of changing resolution in the vector and raster worlds

Geoinformatics for Precision Farming

48 | Data Models

3.2 Vector Spatial Data Model

A vector spatial data model uses two-dimensional Cartesian (x,y) co-ordinates to store the
shape of a spatial entity. In the vector world the point is the basic building block from
which all spatial entities are constructed. The simplest spatial entity, the point, is
represented by a single (x,y) co-ordinate pair. Line and area entities are constructed by
connecting a series of points into chains and polygons. Figure 20.2 shows how the vector
model has been used to represent various features for the Happy Valley ski area. The
more complex the shape of a line or area feature the greater the number of points required
representing it. Selecting the appropriate number of points to construct an entity is one
of the major dilemmas when using the vector approach. If too few points are chosen the
character, shape and spatial properties of the entity (for example, area, length, perimeter)
will be compromised. If too many points are used, unnecessary duplicate information will
be stored and this will be costly in terms of data capture and computer storage. Figure
20.3 shows how part of the Happy Valley road network is affected by altering the number
of points used in its construction. Methods have been developed to automate the
procedure for selecting the optimum number of points to represent a line or area feature

In the vector data model the representation of networks and surfaces is an extension of
the approach used for storing line and area features. However, the method is more
complex, and closely linked to the way the data are structured for computer encoding.

4 Comparison of Raster and Vector Models

The traditional advantages and disadvantages of raster versus vector spatial data structures
have been documented by Kenndey and Meyers (1997). The basic issues include data
volume, retrieval efficiency, data accuracy, data display, correctness to perturbation, and
data manipulation, efficiency, and processing capabilities. Comparisons of data volume
between raster and vector systems are entirely dependent upon the database elements, as
well as considerations of accuracy and precision. Detailed comparisons between raster
model and vector model are discussed below
Raster model Vector model
Advantages
It is a simple data structure. It provides a more compact data structure
Overlay operations are easily and than the raster model.
efficiently implemented. It provides efficient encoding of topology,
High spatial variability is efficiently and, as a result, more efficient
represented in a raster format. implementation of operations that require
The raster format is more or less required topological information, such as, network
for efficient manipulation and analysis.
enhancement of digital images. The vector model is better suited to
supporting graphics that closely
approximate hand-drawn maps.
Disadvantages
The raster data structure is less compact. It is a more complex data structure than a
Topological relationships are more simple raster.
difficult to represent.
 Data Models | 49

The output of graphics is less aesthetically Overlay operations are more difficult to
pleasing because boundaries tend to have implement.
a blocky appearance rather than the The representation of high spatial
smooth lines of hand-drawn maps. This variability is inefficient.
can be overcome by using a very large Manipulation and enhancement of digital
number of cells, but it may result in images cannot be effectively done in the
unacceptably large files. vector domain.

5 Non spatial Data

Non spatial information, also known as attribute data, is the descriptive data that
defines spatial data. Data are raw material from which every land information system is
built. They are gathered and assembled into records and files. A database is a collection of data
that can be shared by different users. It is a group of records and files that are organized, so that
there is little or no redundancy. A data base consists of data in many files, in order to be
able to access data from one or more files easily, it is necessary to have some kind of
structure or organization. The main kinds of data base structure are commonly recognized
and termed as: Hierarchical, Network and Relational.

5.1 Hierarchical database structure

A hierarchical file is a case of a tree structure. The tree is composed of hierarchy of nodes;
the upper-most node is called the root. With the exception of this root, every node is
related to a node at a higher level called its parent. No element though it can have more
than one lower level element called children. A hierarchical file is one with a tree-
structure relationship between the records for example a master detail file with two
record types. Such a representation is often very convenient because much data tend to
be hierarchical in nature or can easily be cast into this structure.

Hierarchical approach is very efficient if all desired access paths follow the
parent child linkages. However, it requires a relatively inflexible structure to be placed on
Geoinformatics for Precision Farming
50 | Data Models

the problem at the outset, when the record type consisting the tree structure is setup.
The combination of inflexible structure is setups and the overheads of maintaining or
changing pointer system makes extensive modification of the structure of hierarchical
systems to meet new requirements, a resource intensive operation. These reasons have
contributed to the lack of adoption of this type of DBMS for flexible GIS requirements.

5.2 Network structure

A network structure exists when a child in a data relationship has more than one parent.
An item in such a structure can be linked to any other item. The physical data to support
complex network structures is far more difficult to develop than for simple structures.

Each entity set with its attributes is considered to be a node in the network. Relationship
sets are represented as linkages in the form of pointers between individual entities in
different entity sets. As a result, all the different forms of mapping one-to-many, many-
to-many, etc. can be handled directly with large number of pointers.

5.3 The Relational Model

The main data storage concept in the relational model is a table of records,
referred to as a relation, or simply a table. The records in a table contain a fixed number
of fields, which must all be different from each other, and all records are of identical
format. There is, therefore, a simple row and column structure. In relational database
terminology the rows, or records, are also referred to as tuples, while the columns of
fields are sometimes referred to as domains. Each record of a table stores an entity or a
relationship and is uniquely identified by means of a primary key which consists of one
field, or a combination of two or more fields in the record. The need for composite keys,
consisting of more than one field, arises if no one field can be guaranteed unique. The
fields of an entity table store attributes of the entity to which the table corresponds.
Table 6.1 illustrates an example for Settlement.
 Data Models | 51

Table 6.1 Example of Relational Database

Settlement Settlement Settlement County

Gittings Village 243 Downshir
Bogton Town 31520 Downshir
Puffings Village 412 Binglia
Pondside City 112510 Mereshire
Craddock Town 21940 Binglia
Bonnet Town 28266 Binglia
Drain Village 940 Mereshire

In this type, data are organized in two-dimensional tables, such tables are easy for a user
to develop and understand. This structure can be described mathematically, a most
difficult task for other types of data structure. These structures are called relational
structures because each table represents a relation.

Geoinformatics for Precision Farming

 7 RASTER DATA ANALYSIS

The raster data model uses a regular grid to cover the space and the value in each grid cell
to represent the characteristic of spatial phenomenon at the cell location. The simple data
structure of a raster with fixed cell location not only is computationally efficient, but also
facilitates a large variety of data analysis operation.

In contrast to vector data analysis, which is based on the geometric objects of point, line
and polygon, raster data analysis is based on cells and values (Digital Numbers). Raster
data analysis can be performed at the level of individual cells, or group of cells, or cells
within an entire raster. Some raster data operations use a single raster; others use two or
more rasters. An important consideration in raster data analysis is the type of cell value.
Statistics such as mean and standard deviation are designed for numeric values, whereas
others such as majority (the most frequent cell value) are designed for both numeric and
categorical values.

Various types of data are stored in raster format. Raster data analysis, however, operates
only on software-specific raster data such as ESRI grids in ArcGIS. Therefore, to use
digital elevation models (DEMs) and other raster data in data analysis we must process
them first and convert them to software-specific raster data. The four basic types of raster
data analysis are

1. Local functions: that work on every single cell,

2. Focal functions: that process the data of each cell based on the information of
a specified neighbourhood,

3. Zonal functions: that provide operations that work on each group of cells of
identical values, and

4. Global functions: that work on a cell based on the data of the entire grid.

The principal functionality of these operations is described here.

1 Local Functions

Local functions process a grid on a cell-by-cell basis, that is, each cell is processed based
solely on its own values, without referring to the values of other cells. In other words, the
output value is a function of the value or values of the cell being processed, regardless of
the values of surrounding cells.

For single layer operations, a typical example is changing the value of each cell by adding
or multiplying a constant. In the following example, the input grid contains values ranging
from 0 to 4. Blank cells represent NODATA cells. A simple local function multiplies every
cell by a constant of 3 (Fig. 7.1). The results are shown in the output grid at the right.
When there is no data for a cell, the corresponding cell of the output grid remains a blank.
 Raster Data Analysis | 53

Input grid Constant Output grid

2 0 1 1 6 0 3 3

2 3 0 4 6 9 0 12
x3=
4 2 3 12 6 9

1 1 2 3 3 6

Figure 7.1 A local function multiplies each cell in the input grid by 3 to produce the output
grid

Local functions can also be applied to multiple layers represented by multiple grids of
the same geographic area (Figure 7.2).

Input grid Multiplier grid Output grid

2 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 0 2 2

2 3 0 4 x 1 2 2 2 2 6 0 8
=
4 2 3 2 2 3 3 4 6 9

1 1 2 2 3 3 4 2 3 8

Figure 7.2 A local function

Local functions are not limited to arithmetic computations. Trigonometric, exponential,

and logarithmic and logical expressions are all acceptable for defining local functions.

2 Focal Functions (Neighbourhood functions)

Focal functions process cell data depending on the values of neighbouring cells. The
surrounding cells are chosen for their distance and/or directional relationship to the focal
cell. Common neighbourhoods include rectangles, circles, annulus or doughnut-shaped
and wedges. For instance, computing the sum of a specified neighbourhood and assigning
the sum to the corresponding cell of the output grid is the “focal sum”
function (Figure 7.3). Neighbourhood is defined by a 3 x 3 kernel. For cells closer to the
edge where the regular kernel is not available, a reduced kernel is used and the sum is
computed accordingly. For instance, the upper left corner cell is adjusted by a 2 x 2 kernel.
Thus, the sum of the four values, 2, 0, 2 and 3 yields 7, which becomes the value of this

Geoinformatics for Precision Farming

54 | Raster Data Analysis

cell in the output grid. The value of the second row, second column, is the sum of nine
elements, 2, 0, 1, 2, 3, 0, 4, 2 and 2, and the sum equals 16.

Input grid Output grid

2 0 1 1 7 8 9 6

2 3 0 4 13 16 16 11
Focal Sum =
4 2 2 3 13 18 20 14

1 1 3 2 8 13 13 10

Figure 7.3 A focal sum function

Another focal function is the mean of the specified neighbourhood, the “focal mean”
function. In the following example (Figure 7.4), this function yields the mean of the eight
adjacent cells and the center cell itself. This is the smoothing function to obtain the
moving average in such a way that the value of each cell is changed into the average of the
specified neighbourhood.

Other commonly employed focal functions include standard deviation (focal standard
deviation), maximum (focal maximum), minimum (focal minimum), and range (focal
range).

Input grid Output grid

2 0 1 1 1.8 1.3 1.5 1.5

2 3 0 4 2.0 2.0 1.8 1.8

Focal Mean =
4 2 2 3 2.2 2.0 2.2 2.3

1 1 3 2 2.0 2.2 2.2 2.5

Figure 7.4 A Focal mean function

3 Zonal Functions

Zonal functions process the data of a grid in such a way that cell of the same zone are
analyzed as a group. A zone consists of a number of cells that may or may not be
contiguous. A typical zonal function requires two grids – a zone grid which defines the
size, shape and location of each zone, and a value grid which is to be processed for
 Raster Data Analysis | 55

analysis. In the zone grid, cells of the same zone are coded with the same value, while
zones are assigned different zone values.

Figure 7.5 illustrates an example of the zonal function. The objective of this function is to
identify the zonal maximum for each zone. In the input zone grid, there are only three
zones with values ranging from 1 to 3. The zone with a value of 1 has five cells, three at
the upper right corner and two at the lower left corner. The procedure involves finding
the maximum value among these cells from the value grid.

Zone grid Value grid Output grid

2 2 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 5 8 8

{ 2 3 3 1 5 6 7 8 5 7 7 8
Zonal
Max }=
3 2 1 2 3 4 7 5

1 1 2 2 5 5 5 5 8 8 5 5
Figure 7.5 A Zonal maximum function

Typical zonal functions include zonal mean, zonal standard deviation, zonal sum,
zonal minimum, zonal maximum, zonal range, and zonal variety. Other statistical
and geometric properties may also be derived from additional zonal functions. For
instance, the zonal perimeter function calculates the perimeter of each zone and assigns
the returned value to each cell of the zone in the output grid.

4 Global Functions

For global functions, the output value of each cell is a function of the entire grid. As an
example, the Euclidean distance function computes the distance from each cell to the
nearest source cell, where source cells are defined in an input grid. In a square grid, the
distance between two orthogonal neighbours is equal to the size of a cell, or the distance
between the centroid locations of adjacent cells. Likewise, the distance between two
diagonal neighbours is equal to the cell size multiplied by the square root of 2. Distance
between non-adjacent cells can be computed according to their row and column
addresses.

In Figure 7.6, the grid at the left is the source grid in which two clusters of source cells
exist. The source cells labelled 1 are the first cluster, and the cell labelled 2 is a single-cell
source. The Euclidean distance from any source cell is always equal to 0. For any other
cell, the output value is the distance from its nearest source cell.

In the example given below, the measurement of the distance from any cell must include
the entire source grid; therefore this analytical procedure is a global function.

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56 | Raster Data Analysis

Source grid Output grid

1 1 2.0 1.0 0.0 0.0

1 1.4 1.0 1.0 0.0

Euclidean distance =
2 1.0 0.0 1.0 1.0

1.4 1.0 1.4 2.0

Figure 7.6 A Euclidean distance function

Another useful global function is the cost path function, which identifies the least cost
path from each selected cell to its nearest source cell in terms of cost distance. These
global functions are particularly useful for evaluating the connectivity of a landscape and
the proximity of a cell to any given entities.
 8 VECTOR DATA ANALYSIS

There is a wide range of functions for data analysis available in most GIS packages,
including measurement techniques, attribute queries, proximity analysis, overlay
operations and the analysis of models of surfaces and networks. The chapter begins by
introducing methods for measurement and queries in GIS. Proximity, neighbourhood and
then methods for integrating data using overlay functions are explained.

1 Measurements in GIS

Calculating lengths, perimeters and areas is a common application of GIS. However, it is

possible that different measurements can be obtained depending on the type of GIS used
(raster or vector) and the method of measurement employed. It is important to remember
that all measurements from a GIS will be an approximation, since vector data are made
up of straight line segments (even lines which appear as curves on the screen are stored
as a collection of short straight line segments).

2 Queries

Performing queries on a GIS database to retrieve data is an essential part of most GIS
projects. Queries offer a method of data retrieval, and can be performed on data that are
part of the GIS database, or on new data produced as a result of data analysis. Queries
are useful at all stages of GIS analysis for checking the quality of data and the results
obtained. For example, a query may be used if a data point representing a hotel is found
to lie erroneously in the sea after data encoding. A query may establish that the address of
the hotel had been wrongly entered into a database, resulting in the allocation of an
incorrect spatial reference.

There are two general types of query that can be performed with GIS: spatial and
aspatial. Aspatial queries are questions about the attributes of features. ‘How many luxury
hotels are there?’ is an aspatial query since neither the question nor the answer involves
analysis of the spatial component of data. This query could be performed by database
software alone. For the question ‘Where are the luxury hotels in Coimbatore?’, then the
spatial component is added. Since this requires information about ‘where’ it is a spatial
query. The location of the hotels will be reported and could be presented in map form.
The method of specifying queries in a GIS can have a highly interactive mode. Users may
interrogate a map on the computer screen or browse through databases with the help of
prompts and query builders.

Queries can be made more complex by combination with questions about distances, areas
and perimeters, particularly in a vector GIS, where these data are stored as attributes in a
database. Individual queries can be combined to identify entities in a database that satisfy
two or more spatial and aspatial criteria.

Boolean operators are often used to combine queries of this nature. These uses AND,
NOT, OR and XOR, operations that are also used for the combination of different data
sets by overlay. These are explained best with the help of Venn diagrams, where each
58 | Vector Data Analysis

circle in the diagram represents the set of data meeting a specific criterion (Figure 8.1). In
the diagrams, A is the set of hotels that are in the ‘luxury’ category, and B is the set of
hotels that have more than 20 bedrooms.

Figure 8.1 Boolean operators: Venn diagrams

3 Buffering Functions

Buffering is used to identify a zone of interest around an entity, or set of entities. If a point
is buffered a circular zone is created. Buffering lines and areas creates new areas (Figure
21.2). Creating buffer zones around point features is the easiest operation; a circle of the
required radius is simply drawn around each point. Figure 8.2 illustrates only the most
basic set of buffer operations as there are many variations on this theme. For example,
buffer zones may be of fixed or varying width according to feature attributes. When
analyzing a road network, wide buffer zones could be attached to motorways and narrower
buffer zones to minor roads to reflect traffic densities.

Figure 8.2 Buffer zones around (a) point, (b) line and (c) area features
 Vector Data Analysis | 59

4 Map Overlay

The ability to integrate data from two sources using map overlay is perhaps the key GIS
analysis function. Using GIS, it is possible to take two different thematic map layers of
the same area and overlay them one on top of the other to form a new layer. Map overlay
has many applications. At one level, it can be used for the visual comparison of data layers.
Overlays where new spatial data sets are created involve the merging of data from two or
more input data layers to create a new output data layer. This type of overlay may be used
in a variety of ways.

Vector map overlay relies heavily on the two associated disciplines of geometry and
topology. The data layers being overlaid need to be topologically correct so that lines meet
at nodes and all polygon boundaries are closed. To create topology for a new data layer
produced as a result of the overlay process, the intersections of lines and polygons from
the input layers need to be calculated using geometry. For complex data this is no small
task and requires considerable computational power. Figure 8.3 shows the three main
types of vector overlay; point-in-polygon, line-in-polygon and polygon-on-polygon. This
figure also illustrates the complexity of the overlay operations. The overlay of two or more
data layers representing simple spatial features results in a more complex output layer.
This will contain more polygons, more intersections and more line segments than either
of the input layers.

Point-in-polygon overlay is used to find out the polygon in which a point falls. In the
this example, meteorological stations are represented as points and land use as polygons.
Using point-in-polygon overlay on these vector data layers it is possible to find out in
which land use polygon each meteorological station is located. Figure 8.3(a) illustrates this
overlay process. On the output map a new set of rain gauge points is created with
additional attributes describing land use.

Line-in-polygon overlay is more complicated. Imagine that we need to know where

roads pass through forest areas to plan a scenic forest drive. To do this we need to overlay
the road data on a data layer containing forest polygons. The output map will contain
roads split into smaller segments representing ‘roads in forest areas’ and ‘roads outside
forest areas’. Topological information must be retained in the output map (Figure 8.3b),
therefore this is more complex than either of the two input maps. The output map will
contain a database record for each new road segment.

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60 | Vector Data Analysis

Figure 8.3 Vector overlays: (a) point-in-polygon; (b) line-in-polygon; (c) polygon-on-
polygon

Polygon-on-polygon overlay could be used to examine the areas of forestry in the resort
area. Two input data layers – a forest data layer containing forest polygons, and the resort
boundary layer – are required. Three different outputs could be obtained (Figure 8.3c):

1. The output data layer could contain all the polygons from both of the input maps.
In this case the question posed is ‘Where are areas of forestry OR areas which are
 Vector Data Analysis | 61

within the resort area?’ This corresponds to the Boolean OR operation, or in

mathematical set terms, UNION. This may be useful if the resort management
committee was interested in buying new forest areas to extend the scenic forest
drive.

2. The output data layer could contain the whole of the resort area, and forest within
this. The boundary of the resort would be used as the edge of the output map,
and forest areas would be cut away if they fall outside it. This operation is referred
to as ‘cookie cutting’. It is equivalent to the mathematical IDENTITY operation
and the identity of the resort boundary is retained in the output. The questions
being answered are ‘Where the resort boundary is, and where areas of forest
within this are?’ This overlay might be used in preparation for calculation of the
percentage of the area of the resort covered by forest.

3. The output data layer could contain areas that meet both criteria: that is, areas
that are both forest and within the resort. An output map would be produced
showing the whole of any forest polygons that are entirely within the resort
boundary, and ‘cut’ away forest polygons that cross the resort boundary. This is
the mathematical INTERSECT operation, and the output map shows where the
two input layers intersect. ‘Where are forest areas within resort’ is the question
being answered. As a thematic data layer showing forestry in the resort this may
be useful for further analysis of the condition of the resort’s forestry resources.

Overlay operations are seldom used in isolation. In practice, it is common to query a data
layer first, and then perform an overlay. To obtain areas of forestry used in the examples
above, it would be necessary to extract these areas from the land use data layer first using
a query

5 Network analysis

A completely different set of analytic functions in GIS consists of computations on

networks. A network is a connected set of lines, representing some geographic
phenomenon, typically of the transportation type. The ‘goods’ transported can be almost
anything: people, cars and other vehicles along a road network, commercial goods along
a logistic network, phone calls along a telephone network, or water pollution along a
stream/river network. Network analysis can be done using either raster or vector data
layers, but they are more commonly done in the latter, as line features can be associated
with a network naturally, and can be given typical transportation characteristics like
capacity and cost per unit. One crucial characteristic of any network is whether the
network lines are considered directed or not. Directed networks associate with each line
a direction of transportation; undirected networks do not. In the latter, the ‘goods’ can be
transported along a line in both directions. We discuss here vector network analysis, and
assume that the network is a set of connected line features that intersect only at the lines’
nodes, not at internal vertices. (But we do mention under- and overpasses.)

For many applications of network analysis, a planar network, i.e., one that is embeddable
in a two-dimensional plane, will do the job. Many networks are naturally planar, like

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62 | Vector Data Analysis

stream/river networks. A large-scale traffic network, on the other end, is not planar:
motorways have multi-level crossings and are constructed with underpasses and
overpasses. Planar networks are easier to deal with computationally, as they have simpler
topological rules. Not all GISs accommodate non-planar networks, or can do so only
using trickery. Such trickery may involve to split overpassing lines at the intersection
vertex and create four out of the two original lines. Without further attention, the network
will then allow to make a turn onto another line at this new intersection node, which in
reality would be impossible. Some GIS allow to associate a cost with turning at a node—
see our discussion on turning costs below—and that cost, in the case of the overpass trick,
can be made infinite to ensure it is prohibited. But, as we said, this is trickery to fit a non-
planar situation into a data layer that presumes planarity.

The above is a good example of geometry not fully determining the network’s behaviour.
Additional application-specific rules are usually required to define what can and cannot
happen in the network. Most GIS provide rule-based tools that allow the definition of
these extra application rules.

Various classical spatial analysis functions on networks are supported by GIS software
packages. The most important ones are:
 Optimal path finding which generates a least cost-path on a network between
a pair of predefined locations using both geometric and attribute data.
 Network partitioning which assigns network elements (nodes or line segments)
to different locations using predefined critera.

6 References

Raulph, A. De. 2001. Principles of Geographical Information System – An Introductory

Textbook. ITC Educational Text book Series.

Ian Heywood, Sarah Cormelius and Steve Carber. 2006. An Introduction to Geographical
Information System. Third Edition. Pearson Education Limited.
 9 GEODESY

1 Geodesy

What is geodesy? Who needs it and why? These are some of the questions asked by many
people. Actually, geodesy is nothing new having been around for centuries. It is a
specialized application of several familiar facets of basic mathematical and physical
concepts towards the understanding the shape and size of earth gravity and positioning.
In practice, geodesy uses the principles of mathematics, astronomy and physics, and
applies them within the capabilities of modern engineering and technology. A thorough
study of the science of geodesy is not a simple undertaking. However, it is possible to gain
an understanding of the historical development, a general knowledge of the methods and
techniques of the science, and the way geodesy is being used today.

1.1 The shape and size of the earth

If an ellipse is rotated about its minor axis, it forms an ellipsoid of revolution. The
customary ellipsoidal earth model has its minor axis parallel to the rotational axis of the
earth. The size of such an ellipsoid is usually given by the length of the two semi-axes or
by the semi-major axis and the flattening (Figures 9.1 and 9.2).

Figure 9.1 Ellipsoid Figure 9.2 Example Ellipsoids

When the satellite data were analyzed further, it turned out that the nearest point in a
satellite's orbit, the perigee, was always nearer to the earth when the satellite was over the
northern hemisphere than when it was over the southern hemisphere. This indicates an
asymmetry in the earth's shape. It is a little narrower in the north than in the south. Once,
one had thought that the earth was a sphere, and then it seemed to be rather like a
grapefruit. Now we found that it was slightly different from a grapefruit, rather like a pear.

Actually, things are quite complicated. When we talk about a pear-shape or an ellipsoid,
we obviously do not mean the shape produced by the mountains and valleys, the
topography. Since we can measure the elevations of places above sea level (this is what is
recorded on topographic maps), we can discount them and inquire into the shape of what
is left: that is, the sea-level surface itself, as if it were extended from the sea shore into the
64 | Geodesy

land areas without those elevations above it. This sea-level surface is also called the
GEOID (Figure 9.3).

Figure 9.3 Geoidal Shape

The shape of the geoid is what we mean by the Figure of the Earth. We have found from
many measurements that the shape of this geoid is very irregular as compared with an
ellipsoid, and we describe these irregularities by the distances from the much smoother
ellipsoid. These distances are called GEOIDAL HEIGHTS.

Thus we distinguish three surfaces: the topography, the geoid, and the ellipsoid (Figure
9.5). Topographic maps give. the elevations above sea level (the geoid). Geoidal maps give
the geoidal heights in relation to the ellipsoid. Both together give the total height of the
topography above the ellipsoid at any point.

You have now learned the story of our developing knowledge of the size and shape of the
earth. The shape of the earth is partly attributed to the force of gravity. The way we study
the gravity field is the subject of the next topic.

1.2 The gravity field of the earth

The earth's attraction called gravity, causes things to fall. Remember the story about
Newton sitting under an apple tree? When an apple fell and hit him, it started him thinking
of a new theory of gravity. A heavy plumb bob, suspended by a string, is attracted by the
earth and therefore pulls that string into a straight downward (vertical) direction.

Gravity holds the water to the earth and our feet to the ground so we don't fall off into
space. About five-sevenths of the earth's surface is covered by oceans. The level surface
which coincides with mean sea level is called the GEOID. Other similar level surfaces can
be imagined at any elevation, for example, the water surface of mountain lakes. The higher
 Geodesy | 65

a level surface is above the geoid, the further removed it is from the irregularities 1n the
earth's structure; thus the warping will be less pronounced.

1.3 Point Positioning

When driving along or hiking in unknown territory, your location can be of vital
importance to you. An answer such as "You are right next to a huge anthill" will not be
very helpful to find your way home, even if it is correct and useful from another aspect.
You need an answer in relation to some known reference such as the nearest town or
highway. You will want to know how far you are from that town; and in what direction
you should turn off from your present path - or from the north direction.

Figure 9.4 Latitude and Longitude

For geodetic systems large enough to be affected by the curvature of the earth, we use an
ellipsoidal earth model and designate on it the position of any point, in terms of latitude,
longitude, and height, with zero starting references for each. LATITUDE refers to a set
of circles parallel to the equator, called parallels, the way you slice a tomato. The
numbering starts at the equator and goes to 90o north and 90o south. LONGITUDE
refers to a set of ellipses (or circles if the earth model is taken as a sphere) called meridians,
the way you divide an orange. Their numbering starts customarily with the meridian
through Greenwich in England and goes either to 360o eastward or to 180o east and 180o
west. The HORIZONTAL POSITION of a point is at the intersection of a parallel and
a meridian and is therefore expressed in terms of latitude and longitude. The complete
position must include a third value, the vertical position. This is the height of the point
above or below the ellipsoid. It must also include the specifications of the ellipsoid itself.
The latter, together with the complete posit10n of a particular point, the datum point, is
called a GEODETIC DATUM.

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66 | Geodesy

Figure 9.5 Ellipsoidal and Geoidal Height

The figure above (Figure 9.5) is a meridional section through the earth. The height H of
the point P above the ellipsoid is measured along the normal to the ellipsoid. The point
P' on the ellipsoid itself has a zero height. P and P' have the same horizontal position (
same latitude and longitude ), but different vertical positions. The total height H of a point
P above the ellipsoid is not directly observed. Leveling determines one part, the elevation
h above mean sea level, which is also called the GEOID. The other part, the GEOIDAL
HEIGHT N, that is the separation between the geoid and the ellipsoid, must be computed
separately. Failure to compute the geoidal height will make the height coordinate of the
point P incorrect. Theoretically, geoidal heights may vary between +100 meters and -100
meters, but in practice some geodetic systems may have several hundred meters of geoidal
heights in some areas. For example, the old South American Datum had geoida1 heights
of about 300 meters in Chile. Therefore, South America accepted a new continental datum
in 1969, including a new reference ellipsoid, where geoidal heights are less than 50 meters.
In Southeast Asia, the Indian Datum is still used with more than 300 m of geoidal heights,
although better fitting datums have been computed. Geodesy can correct these problems.

Instead of describing the position of a point P in terms of latitude, longitude, and height
as we do in surveying and practical applications in the field, we can also use a Cartesian
coordinate system in x, y, z. The latter is often used within the process of computations,
especially in satellite computations. One coordinate system can be converted into another
by mathematical conversion formulas. But if one is incorrect, for instance, through the
neglect of a large geoidal height, then the other will be incorrect also. Even if the positional
inaccuracy of a specific point may seem tolerable in itself, it may snowball into significant
errors in certain applications.

2 Map Projection

A map projection is a mathematically described technique of how to represent the Earth’s

curved surface on a flat map. To represent parts of the surface of the Earth on a flat paper
map or on a computer screen, the curved horizontal reference surface must be mapped
onto the 2D mapping plane. Mapping onto a 2D mapping plane means transforming each
 Geodesy | 67

point on the reference surface with geographic coordinates (,) to a set of Cartesian
coordinates (x,y) representing positions on the map plane (Figure 9.6)

Figure 9.6 Map Projection

Most projections can be envisaged as analogous to shining a light through a scaled-down

model of the Earth, known as the reference globe (or generating globe), onto a surface,
referred to as a developable surface, which can be 'rolled out' into a flat plane. Different
types of projection can be defined depending upon the source of the light (e.g. the centre
of the Earth, or a point infinitely far away) and the location and shape of the projection
surface (e.g. cone, cylinder or plane). The projected lines of latitude and longitude form a
graticule. These lines are not necessarily equally spaced, may converge and may be curved,
depending upon the projection (Figure 9.7). A rectangular co-ordinate system, known as
a grid, is often superimposed for the purpose of providing grid references, etc.

Figure 9.7 Lines of Projection

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68 | Geodesy

3 Classification of map projections

Map projections can be described in terms of their:

(i). class (cylindrical, conical or azimuthal),
(ii). point of secancy (tangent or secant),
(iii). aspect (normal, transverse or oblique), and
(iv). distortion property (equivalent, equidistant or conformal).

Class

The three classes of map projections are cylindrical, conical and azimuthal. The Earth's
reference surface projected on a map wrapped around the globe as a cylinder produces a
cylindrical map projection. Projected on a map formed into a cone gives a conical map
projection. When projected directly onto the mapping plane it produces an azimuthal (or
zenithal or planar) map projection. The figure below shows the surfaces involved in these
three classes of projections.

Figure 9.8 Class of Projections

Point of secancy

The planar, conical, and cylindrical surfaces in the figure above are all tangent surfaces;
they touch the horizontal reference surface in one point (plane) or along a closed line
(cone and cylinder) only. Another class of projections is obtained if the surfaces are
chosen to be secant to (to intersect with) the horizontal reference surface; illustrations
are in the figure below. Then, the reference surface is intersected along one closed line
(plane) or two closed lines (cone and cylinder). Secant map surfaces are used to reduce
or average scale errors because the line(s) of intersection are not distorted on the map
(section 4.3 scale distortions on a map).
 Geodesy | 69

Figure 9.9 Secant projection classes

Aspect

Projections can also be described in terms of the direction of the projection plane's
orientation (whether cylinder, plane or cone) with respect to the globe. This is called the
aspect of a map projection. The three possible aspects are normal, transverse and oblique.
In a normal projection, the main orientation of the projection surface is parallel to the
Earth's axis (as in the figures above for the cylinder and the cone). A transverse projection
has its main orientation perpendicular to the Earth's axis. Oblique projections are all other,
non-parallel and non-perpendicular, cases. The figure below provides two examples.

Figure 9.10 Transverse and oblique map

Distortion

So far, we have not specified how the Earth's reference surface is projected onto the plane,
cone or cylinder. How this is done determines which kind of distortion properties the
map will have compared to the original curved reference surface. The distortion properties
of map are typically classified according to what is not distorted on the map:

In a conformal (orthomorphic) map projection the angles between lines in the map are
identical to the angles between the original lines on the curved reference surface. This
means that angles (with short sides) and shapes (of small areas) are shown correctly on
the map.

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70 | Geodesy

In an equal-area (equivalent) map projection the areas in the map are identical to the areas
on the curved reference surface (taking into account the map scale), which means that
areas are represented correctly on the map.

In an equidistant map projection the length of particular lines in the map are the same as
the length of the original lines on the curved reference surface (taking into account the
map scale).

4 Choosing a map projection

Every map must begin, either consciously or unconsciously, with the choice of a map
projection and its parameters. The cartographer's task is to ensure that the right type of
projection is used for any particular map. A well chosen map projection takes care that
scale distortions remain within certain limits and that map properties match to the purpose
of the map.

Generally, normal cylindrical projections are typically used to map the world in its entirety
(in particular areas near the equator are shown well). Conical projections are often used
to map the different continents (the mid-latitudes regions are shown well), while the polar
azimuthal projections may be used to map the polar areas. Transverse and oblique aspects
of many projections can be used for most parts of the world, though they are usually more
difficult to construct.

In theory, the selection of a map projection for a particular area can be made on the basis
of:
 the shape of the area,
 the location (and orientation) of the area, and
 the purpose of the map.
 10 GPS - COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS

1 Introduction

Space-based geodetic observations can be categorized into four basic techniques:

positioning, altimetry, interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR), and gravity
studies.

Precise positioning is the fundamental geodetic observation required for surveying and
mapping. Instead of the traditional triangulation and levelling networks that require line
of sight (LOS) between measurement points, space geodetic methods use LOS between
the measurement points and celestial objects or satellites.

Building on this idea, scientists have developed advanced positioning techniques through
Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). GNSS encompasses the various satellite
navigation systems, such as the United States’ GPS, Russia’s Globalnaya Navigatsionnaya
Sputnikovaya Sistema (GLONASS), Japan’s Quazi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS),
India’s Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), China’s Beidou and
Europe’s Galileo. Although these satellite systems were designed mainly for navigation,
they were found to be very useful for precise positioning, with accuracy levels of less than
a centimeter. GNSS also provides very high temporal resolution measurements (second
by second, or even faster), yielding key observations of time-dependent processes in the
lithosphere, atmosphere, and ionosphere.

2 GNSS Architecture

A GNSS basically consists of three main segments: the space segment, which comprises
the satellites; the control segment (also referred to as the ground segment), which is
responsible for the proper operation of the system; and the user segment, which includes
the GNSS receivers providing positioning, velocity and precise timing to users.

2.1 Space Segment

The main functions of the space segment are to generate and transmit code and carrier
phase signals, and to store and broadcast the navigation message uploaded by the control
segment. These transmissions are controlled by highly stable atomic clocks onboard the
satellites. The GNSS space segments are formed by satellite constellations with enough
satellites to ensure that users will have at least four satellites in view simultaneously from
any point on Earth's surface at any time.

The GPS (US NAVSTAR) satellites are arranged in six equally spaced orbital planes
surrounding Earth, each with four `slots' occupied by baseline satellites. This 24-slot
arrangement ensures there are at least four satellites in view from virtually any point on
the planet. The satellites are placed in a Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) orbit, at an altitude
of 20 200km and an inclination of 55° relative to the equator. Orbits are nearly circular,
with an eccentricity of less than 0.02, a semi-major axis of 26,560km and a nominal period
72 | GPS: Components and Functions

of 11 hours, 58 minutes and 2 seconds (12 sidereal hours), repeating the geometry each
sidereal day.

The nominal GLONASS constellation consists of 24 MEO satellites deployed in three

orbital planes with eight satellites equally spaced in each plane. The orbits are roughly
circular, with an inclination of about 64.8°, and at an altitude of 19,100km with a nominal
period of 11 hours, 15 minutes and 44 seconds, repeating the geometry every eight sidereal
days. Due to funding problems, the number of satellites decreased from the 24 available
in 1996 to only 6 in 2001. In August 2001, the Russian government committed to recover
the constellation and to modernise the system, approving new funding. A total of 24
operational satellites plus 2 in maintenance were again available in December 2011,
restoring the full constellation.

The Galileo constellation in Full Operational Capability (FOC) phase consists of 27

operational and 3 spare MEO satellites at an altitude of 23,222 km and with an orbit
eccentricity of 0.002. Ten satellites will occupy each of three orbital planes inclined at an
angle of 56° with respect to the equator. The satellites will be spread around each plane
and will take about 14 hours, 4 minutes and 45 seconds to orbit Earth, repeating the
geometry each 17 revolutions, which involves 10 sidereal days. This constellation
guarantees, under nominal operation, a minimum of six satellites in view from any point
on Earth's surface at any time, with an elevation above the horizon of more than 10°.

The Beidou (Compass) constellation (Phase III) will consist of 35 satellites, including 5
Geostationary Orbit (GEO) satellites and 30 non-GEO satellites in a nearly circular orbit.
The non-GEO satellites include 3 Inclined Geosynchronous Satellite Orbit (IGSO) ones,
with an inclination of about 55°, and 27 MEO satellites orbiting at an altitude of 21,528km
in three orbital planes with an inclination of about 55° and with an orbital period of about
12 hours and 53 minutes, repeating the ground track every seven sidereal days. The GEO
satellites, orbiting at an altitude of about 35 786 km, are positioned at 58.75°E, 80°E,
110.5°E, 140°E and 160°E, respectively, and are expected to provide global navigation
service by 2020. The previous Phase II involves a reduced constellation of four MEO,
five GEO and five IGSO satellites to provide regional coverage of China and surrounding
areas. The initial Phase II operating service with 10 satellites started on 27 December 2011.

The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) consists of a constellation of

seven satellites (IRNSS-1A, IRNSS 1-B, IRNSS 1-C, IRNSS 1-D, IRNSS 1-E, IRNSS 1-
F and IRNSS 1-G). IRNSS 1-A was launched in 2013 and the last one of the series IRNSS
1-G was launched on April 28, 2016. This is an independent Indian Satellite based
positioning system for critical National applications. The main objective is to provide
Reliable Position, Navigation and Timing services over India and its neighbourhood, to
provide fairly good accuracy to the user. The IRNSS will provide basically two types of
services, viz., Standard Positioning Service (SPS) and Restricted Service (RS). Space
Segment consists of seven satellites, three satellites in GEO stationary orbit (GEO) and
four satellites in Geo Synchronous Orbit (GSO) orbit with inclination of 29° to the
equatorial plane. This constellation of seven satellites was named as "NavIC" (Navigation
with Indian Constellation)
 GPS: Components and Functions | 73

2.2 Control Segment

The control segment (also referred to as the ground segment) is responsible for the proper
operation of the GNSS. Its basic functions are to:
1. control and maintain the status and configuration of the satellite constellation;
2. predict ephemeris and satellite clock evolution;
3. keep the corresponding GNSS time scale (through atomic clocks); and
4. update the navigation messages for all the satellites.

2.3 User Segment

The user segment is composed of GNSS receivers. Their main function is to receive
GNSS signals, determine pseudoranges (and other observables) and solve the navigation
equations in order to obtain the coordinates and provide a very accurate time. The basic
elements of a generic GNSS receiver are: an antenna with preamplification, a radio
frequency section, a microprocessor, an intermediate-precision oscillator, a feeding
source, some memory for data storage and an interface with the user. The calculated
position is referred to the antenna phase centre.

Various GNSS receivers are available in the market, from chips on watches and mobile
phones, to tracking devices, amateur receivers with small antenna, mapping receiver with
single or dual frequency capable antenna, survey grade dual or triple frequency receivers,
geodetic survey receivers with special antenna and high data rate, mentioned in increasing
order of price and accuracy. They may cost from about Rs. 3,000 to about Rs. 30,00,000.

3 GNSS SIGNALS

GNSS satellites continuously transmit navigation signals at two or more frequencies in L

band. These signals contain ranging codes and navigation data to allow users to compute
both the travel time from the satellite to the receiver and the satellite coordinates at any
epoch. The main signal components are described as follows:

Carrier: Radio frequency sinusoidal signal at a given frequency.

Ranging code: Sequences of zeros and ones which allow the receiver to determine the
travel time of the radio signal from the satellite to the receiver. They are called PRN
(Pseudo Random Noise) sequences or PRN codes.

Navigation data: A binary-coded message providing information on the satellite

ephemeris (pseudo-Keplerian elements or satellite position and velocity), clock bias
parameters, almanac (with a reduced-accuracy ephemeris data set), satellite health status
and other complementary information.

The current `legacy' Navigation Message (NAV) is modulated on both carriers at 50 bps.
The whole message contains 25 pages (or `frames') of 30 s each, forming the master frame
that takes 12:5 min to be transmitted. Every frame is subdivided into five subframes of 6
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74 | GPS: Components and Functions

s each; in turn, every subframe consists of 10 words, with 30 bits per word (figure above
of NAVSTAR GPS). Every subframe always starts with the telemetry word TLM, which
is necessary for synchronisation. Next, the transference word (HOW) appears. This word
provides time information (seconds of the GPS week), allowing the receiver to acquire
the week-long P(Y) code segment.

4 The Position Fix By Trilateration

As soon as a receiver is powered on it starts searching for satellites. However ignorance

of satellites’ approximate position delays the time taken for the first position fix. Therefore
an almanac is needed to speed up this process. The almanac is a small file that provides
the positions of the GNSS satellites to a certain degree of accuracy for a 48 hours period.
The tracking stations monitor the satellites and pass the information to the master control
station where the information is used among other things to generate the almanac file and
upload them to each satellite. The user receivers while powered on can download this file
from the satellite in a matter fo12.5 minutes of through the internet.

Then receivers then lock on to each satellite and receive the ephemerides from each
satellite. The ephemerides provide the current information about the satellites. The
receiver must then align signals sent from the satellite to an internally generated version
of a pseudorandom binary sequence, also contained in the signal. Since the satellite signal
takes time to reach the receiver, the two sequences do not initially coincide; the satellite's
copy is delayed in relation to the local copy. The receiver generates the pseudorandom
sequence, but they do not match. By increasingly delaying the local copy, the two copies
can eventually be aligned. The correct delay represents the time needed for the signal to
reach the receiver, and from this the distance from the satellite can be calculated (Figure
10.1).

Propagation Time = Time Signal Reached Receiver - Time Signal Left Satellite.

Multiplying this propagation time by the speed of light gives the distance to the satellite.

Distance or Pseudo Range ‘D’ = Speed of light in vacuum × Propagation Time

Figure 10.1 Distance calculation

 GPS: Components and Functions | 75

Knowing the position of the satellites from their ephemerides, the receiver calculates its
position. The receiver knows that the reason the pseudoranges to the three satellites are
not intersecting is because its clock is not very good and apply an ingenious techniques to
correct its clock error. The receiver is programmed to advance or delay its clock until the
pseudoranges to the three satellites converge at a single point as seen in the following
figure.

Figure 10.2 Concept of Trilateration

The accuracy of the resulting range measurement is essentially a function of the ability of
the receiver's electronics to accurately process signals from the satellite, and additional
error sources such as non mitigated ionospheric and tropospheric delays, multipath,
satellite clock and ephemeris errors, etc.

5 Errors in Position

5.1 Clock Errors

Fundamental to GNSS is the one-way ranging that ultimately depends on satellite clock
predictability. These satellite clock errors affect both the C/A- and P-code users in the
same way. This effect is also independent of satellite direction, which is important when
the technique of differential corrections is used. All differential stations and users measure
an identical satellite clock error. The ability to predict clock behaviour is a measure of
clock quality. The GPS uses atomic clocks (cesium and rubidium oscillators) which have
stability of about 1 part in 10E13 over a day. If a clock can be predicted to this accuracy,
its error in a day (~10E5 s) will be about 10E- 8 s or about 3.5 m.

5.2 Ephemeris Errors

Ephemeris errors result when the GNSS message does not transmit the correct
satellite location. Because satellite errors reflect a position prediction, they tend to
grow with time from the last control station upload. These errors were closely
correlated with the satellite clock, as one would expect. Note that these errors are
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76 | GPS: Components and Functions

the same for both the P- and C/A- codes. Each satellite has a unique Precision (P)
and Coarse Acquisition (CA) codes that distinguish between the different satellites
comprising the GNSS.

Table 10.1 The Various sources of Error

5.3 Multipath errors

Multipath is the error caused by reflected signals entering the front end of the receiver
and masking the real correlation peak. These effects tend to be more pronounced in a
static receiver near large reflecting surfaces. Monitor or reference stations require special
care in siting to avoid unacceptable errors. The first line of defense is to use the
combination of antenna cut-off angle and antenna location that minimizes this problem.
A second approach is to use so-called "narrow correlator” receivers, which tend to
minimize the impact of multipath on range tracking accuracy.

5.4 Ionospheric errors

Because of free electrons in the ionosphere, GPS signals do not travel at the
vacuum speed of light as they transit this region. The modulation on the signal is
delayed in proportion to the number of free electrons encountered and is also
(to first order) proportional to the inverse of the carrier frequency squared (1/f2).
The phase of the radio frequency carrier is advanced by the same amount because
of these effects. Carrier-smoothed receivers should take this into account in the
design of their filters. The ionosphere is usually reasonably well-behaved and stable
in the temperate zones; near the equator or magnetic poles it can fluctuate
considerably. Due to the above the delays range from a few meters at night to a maximum
of 10 or 20 m at about 1400 hrs.
 GPS: Components and Functions | 77

5.5 Troposphere errors

Another deviation from the vacuum speed of light is caused by the troposphere.
Variations in temperature, pressure, and humidity all contribute to variations in the speed
of light and radio waves. Both the code and carrier will have the same delays.

5.6 Dilution of Precision

The geometry formed by the observed positions of satellites by a receiver at a point in

time can present an estimate of the achievable accuracy. Any receiver will try to use signals
from satellites in a manner that reduces the DOP value. A value of 6 or less is regarded
acceptable. DOPs can change with time and space. The DOP can be further defined as
separate elements as Horizontal DOP (HDOP), Vertical DOP (VDOP) and Position
DOP (PDOP).

6 Differential Correction

Standalone GNSS receivers are prone for the errors discussed above. Hence a DGNNS
receiver is positioned at a known location (reference/base station) and coordinates
computed and errors determined. This error can then be applied as a correction to nearby
rover stations surveyed in the project area within a vicinity of about 50 km. It should be
noted however that the farther the rover from the base, more the error. It is assumed that
environmental factors are similar at base and rover locations.

Rover
Base

Figure 10.3 Differential Correction

Data collected at Rover stations should overlap in both TIME and GNSS Satellite Vehicle
so that corrections for the exact same satellites at the exact same time can be applied.
Data from rovers can be brought to the office at the end of the survey day and processed
in a software along with the base station data. This is referred as the classical DGNSS
operation the Static Post Processed, and gives the best accuracies. However, it requires
longer observation times than Real Time Kinematic discussed below.

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78 | GPS: Components and Functions

Where a project dictates the availability of corrected position value is real time, the
corrections can be broadcast from the base over a radio link and rovers receiving them in
real time for applying the corrections. This is referred as Real Time Kinematic as the
corrections are applied on the go. The method takes advantage of the slow variation with
time and user position of the errors due to ephemeris prediction, residual satellite clocks,
ionospheric and tropospheric delays. Starting from the reference station, the system
computes and broadcasts either correction to the GNSS position or to the pseudorange
measurements to the DGNSS users. Other uncorrelated errors (e.g. multipath) cannot be
corrected by this method and specific techniques have to be applied to mitigate them.

The difficulty in making an RTK system is properly aligning the signals. The navigation
signals are deliberately encoded in order to allow them to be aligned easily, whereas every
cycle of the carrier is similar to every other. This makes it extremely difficult to know if
you have properly aligned the signals or if they are "off by one" and are thus introducing
an error of 20 cm (approximate wave length of the carrier), or a larger multiple of 20 cm.
This integer ambiguity problem can be addressed to some degree with sophisticated
statistical methods that compare the measurements from the C/A signals and by
comparing the resulting ranges between multiple satellites. However, none of these
methods can reduce this error to zero.
 11 PRECISION AGRICULTURE

Precision agriculture or Precision farming also known as site-specific management refers

to the practice of applying agronomic inputs across a farm, mainly fertilizers and other
chemicals, at variable rates based on soil nutrients or chemical tests, soil textural changes,
weed pressures and yield maps for each field in the farm.

Precision farming also has the potential for improving water use efficiency on large fields
provided there is a quantitative understanding of what factors and where in the field they
affect crop-water use. In most fields (eg: > 40 ha) crop yields are noticeably variable. The
sources of this variation are related to the physical and chemical properties of the soil,
pests, microclimate, genetic and phonological responses of the crop and their interactions.
The technology for crop yield mapping and understanding the soil process that explain
the crop yield variability must be done at the landscape level and by using appropriate
statistical and remote sensing tools for large scale mapping (Lascano, 2002).

1 Why Precision Agriculture?

There are several reasons that precision farming has come about as a management method
in the recent past:
• High cost of crop inputs including seed, fertilizer, pesticides and fuel
• Environmental concerns about fertilizers and pesticides near sensitive areas,
runoff and de‐nitrification
• The technology has become available and economically feasible

2 Many names of Precision Agriculture

Precision agriculture goes by many names but they all refer to managing variability:
• Precision farming
• GPS farming
• Prescription farming
• Farming by satellite
• Spatially variable agriculture
• Farming by the foot
• Site specific management
• Variable rate application

3 The Basic Components of Precision Farming

Precision farming basically depends on measurement and understanding of variability, the

main components of precision farming system must address the variability. Precision farming
technology enabled, information based and decision focused, the components include,
(the enabling technologies) Remote Sensing (RS), Geographical Information System (GIS),
Global Positioning System (GPS), Soil Testing, Yield Monitors and Variable Rate Technology.
80 | Precision Agriculture

4 Application of Remote Sensing, GIS and GPS in Precision Farming

Remote sensing is a potential tool in providing spatial and temporal information on soil
and crop variables which could be related with crop growth and yield models. The kind
of information on soil and crop variables largely depends on the remote sensing platforms
(ground based, aircraft and satellite) and the remote sensors (camera radiometers and
scanners with different resolutions).

GIS is a computer – based technology capable of gathering, storing, analyzing and

retrieving geographically referenced data. GIS combines different kinds of data (map,
tables, digital data and point data). It integrates layers of information about to give better
understanding of that place. For example, it can combine soil maps, rainfall maps,
topographic maps and land use maps to show areas where there is high danger of soil
erosion. GIS requires suitable software for the data analysis and integration.

GIS is an invaluable tool in planning and monitoring of natural resources like soils, lad
use etc., at a regional or national level. It can be used as decision making tool in agriculture.
It can take in to account of soil fertility, gradient of lands, annual rainfall, availability of
rural labour and access to markets.

Without having a reliable method of locating equipment and items in a field, it is difficult
to manage in‐field variability. A crude method might be to stake out the field to show
areas that require different treatment, but this is not practical on large fields. A reliable
positioning method is needed to accurately locate field features to make precision
agriculture work. Some local positioning systems were developed but not successfully
commercialized. The advent of GPS allowed for low‐cost, reliable positioning of
equipment in the field. Data from other sensors could be tied to a specific point in the
field with precision.

Role of GPS in precision agriculture:

• Yield mapping
• Variable rate control
• Field mapping
• Asset tracking
• Irrigation
• Tracking livestock
• Aerial spraying
• Autosteering
• Drainage
• Guidance
 Precision Agriculture | 81

5 Steps in Precision Farming

The basic steps in precision farming are,

(i). Assessing variability
(ii). Managing variability and
(iii). Evaluation

i). Assessing variability

Assessing variability is the critical first step in precision farming. It is clear that one
cannot manage what one does not know. Factors and the processes that regulate or
control the crop performance in terms of yield vary in space and time. Quantifying
the variability of these factors and processes and determining when and where different
combinations are responsible for the spatial and temporal variation in crop yield is
the challenge for precision agriculture.

ii). Managing variability

Once variation is adequately assessed, farmers must match agronomic inputs to known
conditions employing management recommendations. Those are site specific and use
accurate applications control equipment. For successful implementation, the concept of
precision soil fertility management requires that within-field variability exists and is
accurately identified and reliably interpreted, that variability influences crop yield, crop quality
and for the environment. Therefore inputs can be applied accurately.

The higher the spatial dependence of a manageable soil property, the higher the
potential for precision management and the greater its potential value. The degree of
difficulty, however, increases as the temporal component of spatial variability increases.
Applying this hypothesis to soil fertility would support that Phosphorus and Potassium
fertility are very conducive to precision management because temporal variability is low. For
N, the temporal component of variability can be larger than its spatial component, making
precision N management much more difficult in some cases.

iii). Evaluation

There are three important issues regarding precision agriculture evaluation. 1.Economics, 2.
Environment and 3. Technology transfer

The most important fact regarding the analysis of profitability of precision agriculture is
that the value comes from the application of the data and not from the use of the technology.
Potential improvements in environmental quality are often cited as a reason for
using precision agriculture. Reduced agrochemical use, higher nutrient use efficiencies,
increased efficiency o f managed inputs and increased production of soils from
degradation are frequently cited as potential benefits to the environment. Enabling
technologies can make precision agriculture feasible, agronomic principles and decision

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82 | Precision Agriculture

rules can make it applicable and enhanced production efficiency or other forms of value can
make it profitable.

6 Soil Test Crop Response (STCR) Studies – Concept and Methodology

The first phase of soil testing laboratories Advisory Service in India was initiated in 1955-
56 under the TCM-USAID Programme. The soil test calibrations (low, medium and high)
and fertilizer recommendations advocated to the then tall varieties of food crops were
qualitative in nature.

With the introduction of high yielding varieties and hybrids of crops triggering green
revolution, a new phase of quantitative soil test - crop response correlation (STCR) studies
were conceived and implemented through an All India Co-ordinated STCR Project by Dr.
B.Ramamoorthy in 1967 under the aegis of the Indian Council of Agriculture Research
(ICAR). A novel field experimentation methodology was devised and soil test - based
fertilizer dose calibrations were derived by creating a macrocosm of soil fertility variability
within a microcosm of the experimental field.

The various aspects of soil test calibration and soil fertility management themes covered
under the project include:
1. Efficient fertilizer recommendation according to the investment capacity of the
farmer Fertilizer allocations under conditions of fertilizer/credit shortage
2. Fertilizer recommendation for targeted yields and maintenance of soil fertility
3. Prediction of post- harvest soil test values from initial soil test values in multiple
cropping system
4. Apportioning the fertiliser application between crops in a multiple cropping
system for increased fertiliser use efficiency
5. Area wise fertiliser recommendation based on yield targeting and nutrient index
of soil fertility
6. Limitations to extensive use of fertilisers and the possible methods of overcoming
them
7. The need for maintenance of optimum C/N ratio for increased nutrient
efficiency when both organic manures and fertilisers are used.

The soil test based fertiliser recommendation for targeted yield of crops under fertilizer
resource constraints. The "Law of optimum" as propounded by Ramamoorthy and
Velayutham (2011) is an experimentally proven concept of soil test based major plant
nutrients (N, P and K) applications to crops for desired targeted yields, based on the
derivation of three parameters from standard soil test - crop response factorial field
experiments, namely 1) per cent contribution (efficiency) from the soil available nutrients
(Cs) as estimated by chemical soil tests in soil testing laboratory, 2) per cent contribution
of nutrients from added fertilisers (Cf) and manures (Cm) and 3) nutrient requirement of
the crop (Kg/ton) as estimated from yield and plant nutrient uptake data from STCR field
experiments.
 12 VARIABLE RATE TECHNOLOGY

There are a number of questions that must be answered before establishing a site-specific,
or precision, management program for crop production. Many of those questions are
economic, some are agronomic, and others are technology-related. One important
technology-related question is: “What methods of variable-rate application of fertilizer,
crop chemicals, and seed are available?”

There are two basic methods of implementing site-specific management (SSM) for the
Variable-Rate Application (VRA) of crop production inputs: map-based and sensor-
based. While each method has unique benefits and limitations, some SSM systems have
been developed to take advantage of the benefits of both methods.

The first site-specific management method is based on the use of maps to represent crop
yields, soil properties, pest infestations, and variable-rate application plans. The map-
based method can be implemented using a number of different strategies. Crop producers
and consultants have crafted strategies for varying inputs based on: soil type, color and
texture, topography (high ground, low ground), crop yield, field scouting data, remotely
sensed images, and a host of other sources. Some strategies are based on a single
information source while others involve a combination of sources. Regardless of the actual
strategy, the user is in control of the development process.

To develop a plan for variable-rate fertilizer application in a particular field, the map-based
method could include the following steps:
• perform systematic soil sampling (and lab analysis) for the field;
• generate site-specific maps of the soil nutrient properties of interest;
• use some algorithm to develop a site-specific fertilizer application map; and
• use the application map to control a variable-rate fertilizer applicator.

A positioning system is used during the sampling and application steps to continuously
know or record vehicle location in the field. Differentially-corrected Global Positioning
System (DGPS) receivers are the most commonly used positioning devices. The process
of map-based, variable-rate application is illustrated in Figure 12.1.

The second SSM method provides the capability to vary the application rate of crop
production inputs with no mapping involved. The sensor-based method utilizes sensors
to measure the desired properties, usually soil properties or crop characteristics, on the
go. Measurements made by such a system are then processed and used immediately to
control a variable-rate applicator (Figure 12.2). This second method doesn’t necessarily
require the use of a DGPS system. Nor does it require extensive data analysis prior to
making variable-rate applications.
84 | Variable Rate Technology

Figure 12.1 An illustration of a map based system for varying crop inputs

Figure 12.2 An illustration of a sensor based system for varying crop inputs

1 Map-based Technologies

Currently, the majority of available technologies and applications in site-specific farming

utilize the map-based method of sampling, map generation, and variable-rate application.
This method is more popular due to the scarcity of sensors for rapidly monitoring soil
and crop conditions. Also, laboratory analysis is still the most trusted and reliable method
 Variable Rate Technology | 85

for determining most soil and plant properties. Once field data have been collected and
assigned position coordinates (e.g. latitude and longitude), mapping is easily performed
using a computer program (usually a geographic information system (GIS) program). Such
programs can use mathematical techniques for “smoothing” or interpolating the data
between sampling points. However, some site-specific practitioners choose to use a
constant value for the measured property over each sampling area or grid cell (Figure
12.3). As illustrated in Figure 3, the level indicated by each grid cell is determined by
analyzing samples collected from the center of each cell. This represents the common
practice of using software to divide a field into a set of imaginary, equal-sized rectangles
or grid cells, identifying the center of each cell, and directing that samples be collected
from the vicinity of each grid cell center.

Figure 12.3 Two alternatives for representing systematic soil sampling data

Regardless of how data are represented, the mapping facilitates long-term planning and
analysis. It provides an opportunity to make decisions regarding the selection and
purchase of crop production inputs well in advance of their use. Maps are especially good
for collecting and interpreting data for soil properties that do not fluctuate greatly from
year to year. Properties such as organic matter content and soil texture tend to change
quite slowly, if at all. Soil fertility, on the other hand, may change more quickly.

Particular nutrients such as phosphorous and potassium may change from year to year,
but one can probably obtain benefits from sampling only every two to three years. Levels
of other nutrients may vary considerably even during a single season. For instance, the
forms and concentrations of nitrogen in the soil are greatly affected by temperature and
moisture conditions and can fluctuate rapidly. Nitrogen is an example of an important soil
fertility factor that doesn’t lend itself to a typical site-specific management program based
on soil sampling data due to delays between sampling and fertilizer application. Nitrogen
management approaches that rely on other, more stable information such as crop yield
potential have been developed. In order to use computer-generated maps, they must be
converted to a form that can be used by a variable-rate applicator. The conversion process
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86 | Variable Rate Technology

is performed using specialized software that applies user-selected algorithms

(mathematical recipes). Algorithms are usually based on standard fertilizer
recommendation formulas. The application map contains application rate information for
all locations within a field. A rate map such as the one illustrated in Figure 12.4 is typically
generated by software running on a desktop computer. The application map is then
transferred to a data card that is read by a drive in the in-cab application system processor,
then used by application software acting through a controller onboard an applicator to
deliver the proper rate at each location in the field. Again, a DGPS system must be used
to continuously correlate the vehicle’s location in the field with a coordinate on the map
and the desired application rate for that coordinate.

Figure 12.4 Example of an application rate map

Most variable-rate controllers are designed to synchronize the application rate with the
position in the field by “looking ahead” on the map for the next change in rate. This takes
into account the ground speed of the vehicle and the time required to change the rate of
product coming out of the applicator. A fertilizer spreader truck may operate at field
speeds exceeding 25 km per hour. Without the “look ahead” feature, if the applicator took
only one second to respond to a rate change command from the controller, an area at
least 10 m long and as wide as the spread pattern would be treated at the wrong rate. With
the “look ahead” feature available in map-based application systems, it is not necessary to
reduce travel speeds to accomplish accurate variable-rate applications.

One benefit of the map-based method is the knowledge of the needed amounts of
chemicals, or inputs, for the operations prior to entering a field. This knowledge can aid
in managing field operations. The multiple sources of data that are necessary to facilitate
map-based applications can also be used in other decision-making processes for a farming
operation. A farm manager using GIS software can examine all yield, soil property, pest,
and as-applied data.

With typical map-based variable-rate application systems, the high cost of the soil analysis
limits the number of samples that a farmer can afford to test. There is currently much
 Variable Rate Technology | 87

discussion on the optimum number of acres represented by each sample and the location
of those samples.

2 Sensor-Based Technologies

While knowing how much product will be needed is a benefit of map-based systems,
sensor-based systems hold a significant advantage in sampling density. A typical map-
based application program is based on a single sample or small set of samples from 2.5-
acre areas within a field. A sensor-based system can collect dozens of “samples” from
each acre. This increase in sampling density should produce a more accurate depiction of
within-field variability.

At this point, the major challenge is to develop sensors that will work accurately in field
conditions at realistic working speeds. Sensor-based application systems must be capable
of accomplishing the sensing, data processing, and application rate adjustment steps in
one machine pass. Speed, both in regard to sensing and processing, is a major requirement
of true sensor-based systems. There is lag time between sensing a soil or crop property
and converting the sensor signal to information that can be used by the system to change
the rate of application. Developers of sensor-based systems must synchronize the sensor
measurement site with the desired application rate for that same site. In some instances,
the sensor may have to be mounted on the front of the tractor, or applicator truck, to give
the variable rate controller enough time to adjust the rate accordingly before it passes the
sensed location.

In order to effectively accomplish this on-the-go control, the sensors must respond almost
instantaneously to changes in the soil or crop characteristics. One component of an on-
the-go control system that has been developed is a soil organic matter sensor. This sensor
is designed to facilitate the variable-rate application of dry soil-applied herbicides and/or
blended fertilizer on the go, without a map. The organic matter sensor consists of a light
sensor (photodiode) surrounded by six light sources (light emitting diodes or LEDs). The
light sensor measures the amount of light reflected by the soil. This reflection signal is
related to the amount of organic matter in the soil. High organic matter content results in
dark soil color and a reduction in light reflectance. Moisture can also affect the sensor but
as long as the soil is uniformly moist, the effects are small.

Some technologies for on-the-go sensing and variable-rate control are already on the
market. One such system is the Soil Doctor® (Crop Technology, Inc., Houston, TX). The
system uses pairs of ground-engaging rolling electrodes to examine soil type, organic
matter, cation exchange capacity, soil moisture, and nitrate nitrogen levels in the soil
volume between electrode pairs. By sensing these properties on the go, the need for a
positioning system is eliminated and the data processing is greatly reduced because no
maps are required. And, if the operator desires to record the sensor outputs and use this
information for other operations, the system is capable of interfacing with a GPS receiver
and generating site-specific maps.

Researchers around the world are actively developing additional sensors for on-the-go soil
property measurements including: nitrate nitrogen, pH, potassium, phosphorous, and soil

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88 | Variable Rate Technology

texture. Application systems that use variations in plant canopy color as the basis for
varying nitrogen fertilizer application rates are being developed. So are post-emergence
sprayers that can distinguish between weeds and crops. When these research and
development efforts succeed, site-specific farming will become more economical –
possibly even automatic. In the meantime, there are approaches available to take
advantage of sensors within a more traditional map-based variable rate application
program. There are sensor-based tools that takes advantage of a high-rate sampling to
create data-dense soil property maps. Many private companies manufacture devices that
measure soil electrical conductivity (EC). They offer vehicle-drawn units that use rolling
electrodes (coulters) as sensing elements and combine EC data with GPS-supplied
position data. Data collected by the units can be used to produce highly-detailed maps of
soil electrical conductivity. EC information can then be related to soil physical
characteristics such as texture and topsoil depth. This information can then be used to
produce variable-rate application plans.

Both map- and sensor-based variable-rate application systems are available to the site
specific farmer. There are also VRA strategies that incorporate aspects of both sensing
and mapping. Each variable-rate application method holds advantages and disadvantages.
Strong points of each system are summarized below:

3 Advantages of Map-Based Variable-Rate Application

• systems are already available for most crop production inputs
• the user has a database that can be useful for a number of management-related
activities
• the user can employ multiple sources of information in the process of formulating
a variable-rate application plan
• the user has significant control regarding the function of such systems because of
the involvement in application rate planning
• field travel speeds need not be reduced

4 Advantages of Sensor-Based Variable Rate Application

• pre-application data analysis time requirements can be eliminated
• sensors produce far higher data resolution than traditional sampling methods
• no time delay between measurement and application with real-time systems
• systems are self-contained

It is important to match the application system with the objectives of the overall site-
specific management program in which it will be used. Producers should expect an
increasing number of options for both map-based and sensor-based site-specific
operations as research and development efforts continue.
 13 CROP DISCRIMINATION AND YIELD MONITORING USING REMOTE
SENSING

Identifying, discriminating and mapping crops is important for a number of reasons.

Maps of different crop types are necessary to prepare an inventory of what was grown in
which area and when. This serves the purpose of forecasting grain supplies (yield
prediction), collecting crop production statistics, assessment of crop damage due to
storms and drought and monitoring farming activity

The two most important data requirement activities related to agriculture are crops grown
with their extent and yield monitoring. Traditional methods of obtaining these
information is to take ground survey, which consumes more time and labour. Also, the
accuracy of these data is also under close scrutiny.

Why remote sensing?

Remote sensing offers an efficient and reliable means of collecting information required
for crop mapping and area estimation. Remote sensing enables collection of data in
inaccessible areas and over large areas in short time. Besides providing a synoptic view,
remote sensing can provide additional information on the status, stage and health of the
crop under consideration.

1 Crop mapping / discrimination

Crop mapping or Crop discrimination is the preparation of maps with crops grown in the
area of interest using spectral differences of multi data remote sensing data.

The data (historical or in-season data) used for crop mapping depends on the scale of the
project. Generally, for crop mapping projects, multi temporal (multi date) data will be
used to identify the different stages of crops and thereby identifying the crop itself.
Ancillary data (rainfall data, collection in addition to remote sensing data is also of
paramount importance

Crop mapping and acreage estimation through remote sensing (Figure 13.1) broadly
consists of identifying representative sites (sampling plan) of various crops / land cover
classes on the image based on the ground truth collected. Ground truth planning and
collection is another important step. While collecting ground truth points, care should be
taken so that no classes / crops are left out. Also, number of samples to be collected are
to be estimated in prior before going for ground truth collection. Ground truth collection
should be done during different stages of crop growth. Once ground truth collection is
completed, generation of signatures for different training sites and classifying the image
using training statistics has to be done. Finally, accuracy of classification is to be estimated
and the user’s, producer’s and overall accuracy is to be estimated. Based on the crop
concentration statistics, agrophysical and / or agroclimatic conditions, the study area is
divided into homogenous strata and sample segments from each stratum are analysed.
90 | Crop Discrimination and Yield Monitoring using Remote Sensing

Historical / In-season remote

sensing and Ancillary data

Sampling Plan Ground truth

Planning

In-season remote
Ground truth
sensing data
collection

Sample segment Training signature

extraction generation

Image classification

Classification accuracy

Mapping / Acreage
aggregation

Figure 13.1 Methodology for Crop Mapping and Acreage estimation

 Crop Discrimination and Yield Monitoring using Remote Sensing| 91

During the Kharif season, the availability of cloud free data of optical sensors are difficult
and thereby the potential of microwave sensor operated in C-band is utilized for acreage
estimation and crop monitoring.

2 Yield monitoring

Yield is influenced by a large number of factors such as crop genotype, soil characteristics,
cultural practices adopted (e.g. irrigation, fertilizer), weather conditions, and biotic
influences, such as weeds, diseases, pests, etc.

The procedure for yield mapping is explained in the Figure 13.2. The classified data with
different crops is the input required. A crop mask highlighting specific crop can be
prepared using any GIS software. Remote Sensing data is used to estimate some of the
biometric parameters, which in turn are input parameters to a yield model. Spectral index
of the crop canopy (NIR / Red, Greenness, NDVI) at any given point of time reveals the
crop growth and its decay as affected by various factors in the time domain. These inputs
are provided to any crop model and the output is overlaid on the crop map to arrive at
the yield map.

The crop health/condition is affected by factors such as supply of water and nutrients,
insect/pest attack, disease out-break and weather conditions. These stresses cause
physiological changes which may alter the optical properties of leaves and bring about
changes in crop geometry. The regular monitoring of crop health helps in differentiation
of stressed crops from the normal crop at a given time, quantification of extent and
severity of stress and ultimately assessment of production loss, if any.

Geoinformatics for Precision Farming

92 | Crop Discrimination and Yield Monitoring using Remote Sensing

Classified Image of Crops

Crop Mask generation

Computation of vegetation index

for masked image

Biometric parameters for crop

growth / yield models

Yield Map

Figure 13.2 Methodology for Yield mapping

 14 SOIL MAPPING AND FERTILIZER RECOMMENDATION USING REMOTE SENSING
& GIS

The database required for Farm-Level Planning can be obtained by carrying out detailed
characterization and mapping of all the existing land resources like soils, climate, water,
minerals and rocks, vegetation, crops, land use pattern, socio-economic conditions,
infrastructure, marketing facilities and various schemes and developmental works of the
government. From the data collected at farm level, the problems and potentials of the area
can be highlighted, conservation measures required for the area can be indicated,
suitability of the area for various uses can be worked out and finally viable and sustainable
land use options suitable for each and every land holding can be prescribed to the farmer
and other land users of the area. The soil survey are of different types based on the level
of mapping and the required details,

1 Detailed Soil Survey (Conventional method)

Detailed Soil Survey (usually at 1:4000; 1:5000; 1:8000 or 1:10,000 scales) provides the
information necessary to identify homogeneous management units in the field at village
level. The methodology followed in the field and laboratory is briefly indicated below.

1.1 Base Maps Used

The detailed survey of the villages can be carried out by using cadastral maps as a base.
The cadastral map shows all the field boundaries with their survey numbers, location of
tanks, streams and other permanent features of the area.

Remote sensing data products (1:12,500 scale) were used in conjunction with the cadastral
maps to identify the landforms and surface features of the area. The Imageries helped in
the delineation of the boundary between the uplands and lowlands, water bodies, forest
and vegetated areas, salt affected lands, roads, habitations and other cultural features of
the area.

Survey of India toposheets at 1:50,000 scale can be also used as a base for initial traversing,
identification of geology and landform, drainage features, present land use and for the
selection of transects at block level.

1.2 Field Investigation

Preliminary traverse can be carried out by using 1:50,000 scale toposheets. During the
traverse, geological formations, drainage patterns, surface features, slope characteristics,
types of land use and landforms were identified.

In the selected transect, profiles can be located at closely spaced intervals to take care of
any change in the land features like break in slope, erosion, gravel, stones etc. In the
selected sites, profiles (vertical cut showing the soil layers from the surface to the rock)
were opened up to 200 cm or to the depth limited by rock or hard substratum and studied
94 | Soil Mapping and Fertilizer Recommendation using RS&GIS

in detail for all their morphological and physical characteristics. The soil and site
characteristics can be recorded for all profile sites on a standard proforma.

Based on the soil-site characteristics, the soils were grouped into different soil series (soil
series is the most homogeneous unit having similar horizons and properties and behaves
similarly for a given level of management). Soil depth, texture, colour, amount and nature
of gravel present, calcareousness, presence of limestone, nature of substratum and horizon
sequence were the major identifying characteristics of soil series in the area. Phases of
soil series (phase is a subdivision of a soil series based mostly on surface features that
affect its use and management. For example, slope, texture, erosion and stoniness) were
separated and their boundaries delineated on the cadastral maps based on the variations
observed in the surface texture, slope, erosion, presence of gravels, salinity, sodicity etc.

The delineated mapping units occurring in each village are shown on the soil map in the
form of symbols. In arriving the phases, a combination of letters, both in upper and lower
case, and numerals were used. For example, the map unit SvcB3 occurring in Illuppakudi
village is a phase of Sivagangai series. In this, the first two letters indicate the name of the
soil series, the third lower case letter indicates the texture of the surface soil, the fourth
upper case indicates the slope of the land and the fifth numeral indicates the severity of
the soil erosion.

Similarly other features like gravelliness, salinity, sodicity, etc which affects the use of the
land can be indicated in phases. Wherever gravelly phase occurs, the upper case letter G
follows the name of soil series in the third position

1.3 Laboratory analysis

For the soil series identified, soil samples has to be collected from representative pedons
for laboratory analysis. The soil samples are to be analysed for various physio, chemical
characteristics by following standard procedures.

1.4 Finalisation of Soil Maps

The soil map for each village can be finalized in the field itself after thorough checking of
soil and site characteristics. The village soil maps can be generated using GIS without any
generalization and loss of information and presented for each village separately.
From the village maps, the soil map of the Block can be prepared by combining all the
soil maps of the villages through the use of GIS software. Since the village maps were at
larger scale with phases as mapping units, they were subjected to both cartographic and
categorical generalization to prepare the soil map of the block.

1.5 Generation of Thematic Maps

The soil map and other resources database can be interpreted for identifying the
constraints and potentials, and evaluated for land capability, land irrigability, fertility
capability and land suitability for various crops and other uses for each village separately
by using GIS software.
 Soil Mapping and Fertilizer Recommendation using RS&GIS| 95

By using thematic information table for all the mapping units occurring in a village,
required thematic maps can be generated by using GIS software at any time based on the
needs of the farmers or any other users.
The major problem faced in conventional soil survey and cartography is the
accurate delineation of boundary. Field observations based on conventional soil survey
are tedious and time consuming. The remote sensing data in conjunction with ancillary
data provide the best alternative, with a better delineation of soil mapping units (Karale
1992; Kudrat et al.,1990; 1992; Mulders & Epema 1986; Sehgal 1995).

Soil surveyors consider the topographic variation as the basis for depicting the soil
variability. Even with the aerial photographs only physiographic variation in terms of
slope, aspects and land forms are identified for delineating the soil boundary. Multispectral
satellite data are being used for mapping soil up to family association level (1:50,000). The
methodology in most of the cases involves visual interpretation (Karale et al., 1981).
However, computer aided digital image processing technique has also been used for
mapping soil (Epema 1986; Korolyuk & Sheherbenko 1994; Kudrat et al., 1990) and
advocated to be a potential tool (Kudrat et al., 1992; Lee et al., 1988).

2 Visual image interpretation

Visual interpretation is based on shape, size, tone, shadow, texture, pattern, site and
association. This has the advantage of being relatively simple and inexpensive. Soil
mapping needs identification of a number of elements. The elements which are of major
importance for soil survey are land type, vegetation, landuse, slope and relief. Soils are
surveyed and mapped, following a 3 tier approach, comprising interpretation of remote
sensing imagery and/or aerial photograph (Mulder 1987), field survey (including
laboratory analysis of soil samples) and cartography (the art and science of map
making)(Sehgal et al., 1989). Several workers (Karale 1992; Kudrat & Saha 1993; Kudrat et
al. 1990; Sehgal 1995) have concluded that the technology of remote sensing provides
better efficiency than the conventional soil survey methods (USDA 1951) at the
reconnaissance (1:50,000) and detailed (1:10,000) scale of mapping (Figure 14.1).

3 Computer-aided approach
Numerical analysis of remote sensing data utilizing the computers has been developed
because of requirement to analyze faster and extract information from the large quantities
of data. The computer aided techniques utilize the spectral variations for classification.
The pattern recognition in remote sensing assists in identification of homogeneous areas,
which can be used as a base for carrying out detailed field investigations, and generating
models between remote sensing and field parameters. However, there is a need to have
an automated method for accurate soil boundary delineation with a transdisciplinary and
integrated approach (Figure 14.2).

Geoinformatics for Precision Farming

96 | Soil Mapping and Fertilizer Recommendation using RS&GIS

Satellite data (summer /

rabi season)
Ancillary data (SOI toposheets,
published maps on geology / soil /
reports / meterological data)

Georeferencing and base map

preparation

Physiographic analysis, selection of sample

strips and development of tentative legend

Ground truth collection (Profile / auger bore

studies & collection of soil samples)

Soil Chemical Analysis

Soil Classification

Finalization of soil map

Generation of soil quality maps &

Validation
derivative maps ( LCC, LIC, etc)

Figure 14.1 Methodology for soil mapping through visual interpretation approach
 Soil Mapping and Fertilizer Recommendation using RS&GIS| 97

Remote Sensing Data Toposheets

Physiographic Units
(based on diversity
of cover, erosion
and drainage)
Selection of Profile
sites
Ground truth
Supervised Data
Classification

Soil Profile Chemical

Study Analysis

Merging of
Classified
training sets

Classification Existing
and Correlation Literatures
Mapping
Units

Soil Map
(Associations)

Figure 14.2 Methodology for soil mapping through computer aided approach

Geoinformatics for Precision Farming

98 | Soil Mapping and Fertilizer Recommendation using RS&GIS

4 Fertilizer Recommendation Tool

The database generated from the above soil mapping process can be linked and integrated
with a software tool called ‘Fertilizer recommendation tool’ to generate soil and crop
specific fertilizer recommendation based on well-established mathematical functions
(Mitscherlich-Bray approach). The major factors to be considered are soil fertility levels
(macro nutrients like N, P & K and micro nutrients like zinc, copper, manganese and Iron)
and soil problems like sodicity and calcarousness. The parameters viz., doses of
nitrogenous, phosphatic and potassium fertilizers based on the type of crop and area of
crops to be cultivated.

This information are useful for the farmers, extension workers, crop advisors, and also
the researchers. The data base includes soil survey details, soil analytical data and crop
suitability and are available for each survey number on the village map.
 15 CROP SIMULATION MODELS

Before going on to Crop simulation models, one should understand the concepts of System
and Model.

1 Terminologies related to Model

System

A system is a part of reality that contains interrelated elements

Model

A model is a simplified representation of a system

Simulation

The building of mathematical models and the study performance of their behaviour in
reference to those of the systems

Crop Simulation Model

A crop simulation model is a simple representation of crop that aims to study crop growth
and development and to compute their responses to the environment.

In essence, they are computer programs that mathematically simulate the growth of a crop in
relation to its environment. They often operate at time steps one or two orders of magnitude
below the duration of the growing season and provide output data to describe attributes of
the crop at different points in time on the web. A dynamical systems model is a mathematical
description of a system, and mathematical modeling similarly focuses on understanding the
system and identifying opportunities for better management.

The main advantages of using crop models are linked with the possibility to overcome the
limitations of classic experimental approach (i.e. extrapolating the results in different
conditions) and to provide information to the end-users.
Crop model can be used:
– at field and regional scales,
– under different weather regimes,
– in different conditions, cultivars, cropping systems, etc.

2 Why Model?
 Used for manipulations and experiments that are impractical, too expensive, too lengthy
or impossible (in real-world social and economic systems)
 Address dynamic complexity (“emergent properties”) of systems in a way that reductionist
science may not be able to do
 Identify “best management” strategies (through optimization)
 Study the long-term effects of options (predictions, projections)
100 | Crop Simulation Models

 Allow the researcher to control environmental and experimental conditions

 Allow hypothetical and exploratory situations to be investigated
 Allow insight to be gained into the relative importance of different system elements
 Assemble and synthesise what is known about particular processes

3 What models can produce?

Models produce Predictions and Understanding

“Predictions”
 Point prediction: temperature in Coimbatore tomorrow
 Behaviour: trends, patterns in space and time
 Differences: system response with/without an intervention

“Understanding”
 Best bet: optimised performance of the system (N application rate)
 Trade-offs: household income and range condition
 Syntheses: what do we know about these processes, and which are still black boxes?

4 Some important crop models

The following Table displays some important crop models:

Table 15.1 Important Crop Models

Name Crop and goal

APSIM Modelling framework for a range of crops

GWM General weed model in row crops

CROPSYST Wheat & other crops

SIMCOM Crop (CERES crop modules) & economics

SIMPOTATO Potato

INFOCROP Effects of weather, soils, agronomic management and pests on

crop growth and yield.
WOFOST Wheat & maize, Water and nutrient

ORYZA1 Rice, water

SIMCOY Corn

GRAZPLAN Pasture, water, lamb

EPIC Erosion Productivity Impact Calculator

 Crop Simulation Models| 101

CERES Series of crop simulation models

DSSAT Framework of crop simulation models including modules of

CERES, CROPGRO and CROPSIM
CANEGRO Sugarcane, potential & water stress conditions

SWAT Soil and Water Assessment Tool

5 DSSAT

DSSAT is a software application program that comprises crop simulation models for 28 crops.
The program integrates the effects of soil, crop phenotype, weather and management options
and allows users to ask “what if” questions and simulate results by conducting experiments
on a computer in minutes that would otherwise consume a significant part of an agronomist’s
career.

DSSAT has been in use for more than 20 years by researchers in over 100 countries

DSSAT is one of the principal products developed by the International Benchmark Sites
Network for Agrotechnology Transfer (IBSNAT) project supported by the U.S. Agency for
International Development (USAID) from 1983 to 1993. It has subsequently continued to be
developed through collaboration among scientists from IFDC, the International Food Policy
Research Institute, University of Florida, University of Georgia, University of Guelph,
University of Hawaii, USDA’s Agricultural Research Service, Universidad Politecnica de
Madrid, Washington State University and other scientists associated with the International
Consortium for Agricultural Systems Applications (ICASA).

6 ORYZA: A crop growth simulation model for rice

ORYZA2000 is a growth model for lowland rice (Oryza sativa L.) developed by the
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) and Wageningen University.

ORYZA is an ecophysiological model which simulates growth and development of rice

including water, C, and N balance (Bouman et al., 2001; IRRI, 2013) in lowland, upland, and
aerobic rice ecosystems.

It works in potential, water-limited, nitrogen-limited, and NxW-limited conditions, weather,

irrigation, nitrogen fertilizer, general management, variety characteristics, soil properties.

This model has been evaluated extensively in a wide range of environments. The model
ORYZA2000 simulates the growth and development of rice under conditions of potential
production and nitrogen limitations.

Model ORYZA2000 was sufficiently accurate in the simulation of leaf area index (LAI) and
biomass of leaves, panicles, and total above ground biomass yield under nitrogen limit
conditions (Tayefe et al., 2013).

Why ORYZA?
Geoinformatics for Precision Farming
102 | Crop Simulation Models

 It has strong ability on estimating weather constrained rice growth and yield – the
potential growth and yield;
 It has good ability on estimation of actual growth and yield under water- and/or nitrogen-
limited conditions;
 It can be used to study rice cropping management on water (irrigation), nitrogen fertilizer,
sowing/transplanting date, etc.
 It can be used in application-oriented research such as the design of crop ideotypes, the
analysis of yield gaps, the optimization of crop management, the ex-ante analysis of the
effects of climate change on crop growth, and agroecological zonation;
 It was calibrated and validated for 18 popular rice varieties in 15 locations throughout
Asia.

7 Benefits of Crop Simulation Models

1. Reduction in time required for experimentation and observation
2. Increased control over environmental variability
3. Provision of safe learning environment
4. Provision of opportunity to undertake undesirable experiments
5. Transferal of expert knowledge and research experience
6. Elucidation of complex plant environment mathematical descriptions
7. Synthesis of fragmented knowledge
8. Integration of different but associated topic areas
9. Focus for peer experience
10. Promotion of heuristic learning
11. Facilitates distance education and education at a distance
12. Gives greater control of learning to the student

8 Limitations of Crop Simulation Models

1. Loss of field and laboratory skills
2. Separation from the subject of study
3. Development of belief that CSMs are reality
4. Frustrating and boring
5. Experimentation and observation outside model range

9 Integration of remote sensing data with crop growth model

The integration of remotely sensed data with a crop growth model can be achieved by using
two distinct methods. In the first method, model initialization is done by estimating crop
parameters from remote sensing data and using these parameters as a direct input to the
growth model (Maas, 1988). Crop parameters successfully used in this method are measures
of light interception by the canopy, namely, leaf area index (LAI) and crop canopy cover.

In a second method, a time series of remotely sensed measurements is used to calibrate the
crop growth model.
 16 DRONES FOR PRECISION AGRICULTURE

1 Introduction

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) or Drones have seen unprecedented levels of growth
in military and civilian application domains. When initially introduced during World War
I, UAVs were criticized heavily as being unreliable and inaccurate, and only a handful of
people recognized at that early stage their potential and (future) impact on changing the
battlefield

2 What is an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (Drone)?

The term unmanned aerial vehicle (also known as a drone) refers to a pilotless aircraft, a
flying machine without an on-board human pilot. As such, ‘unmanned’ refers to total
absence of a human who directs and actively pilots the aircraft. Control functions for
unmanned aircraft may be either onboard or off-board (remote control).

3 Fixed Wing vs Copter

A fixed-wing UAV (Figure 161) refers to an unmanned airplane that requires a runway to
take-off and land, or catapult launching. A helicopter (Figure 16.2) refers to an aircraft
that takes off and lands vertically; it is also known as a rotary aircraft with the ability to
hover, to fly in very low altitudes, to rotate in the air and move backwards and sideways.
It is capable of performing non-aggressive or aggressive flight

Figure 16.1 Fixed wing UAV Figure 16.2 Quodcopter

4 Terms related to Drones

4.1 Quadcopter

A four bladed drone, the most common basic type, because that number of blades gives
more stability
104 | Drones for Precision Agriculture

4.2 Payload

Anything the UAV / drone carry other that required for its flight like a camera

4.3 Attitude

This is the orientation of UAV, whether its tilting forward or flying upside down. Includes
Pitch, roll and Yaw

4.4 Pitch

It represents the orientation of UAVs in association with Roll and Yaw.. Pitch says
wheher the UAV is tilted up or down

4.5 Roll

It represents the orientation of UAVs in association with Pitch and Yaw. Roll is when
you twist the drone as if you intend to twist it all the way around its control axis.

4.6 Yaw

It represents the orientation of UAVs in association with Pitch and Roll. Yaw is when
the drone is turning slightly left or right.

4.7 Gyroscope

It detects the whether the flying is at level

4.8 Gimbal

The type of mount that lets a camera stay steady on a UAV while turning and when in
high wind

5 Advantages of Drones
 Images of any area can be obtained at any time / season / date.
 By virtue of their small size and easy operation, drones are cheaper and more
efficient than manned aircrafts or satellite imaging.
 They provide cheaper imaging, greater precision and Drone cameras can take
centimetre-level images
 Earlier detection of problems is possible.

6 What does Drones do?

Drones in agriculture are simply a low-cost aerial camera platform, equipped with an
autopilot using GPS and sensors for collecting relevant data, like a regular point-and-shoot
camera for visible images. While a regular camera can provide some information about
plant growth, coverage and other things, a multi-spectral sensor expands the utility of the
 Drones for Precision Agriculture| 105

technique and unleashes its full potential. It allows you to see things which you cannot see
in the visible spectrum, such as moisture content in the soil, plant health, stress levels and
fruits.

The basic principle of NDVI relies on leaves reflecting a lot of light in the near-infrared,
in stark contrast to most non-plant objects. Leaves are green in colour due to the presence
of a pigment called chlorophyll, which strongly absorbs almost all non-green light from
the visible spectrum of sunlight and reflects mostly green light back to our eyes. Live green
plants absorb solar radiation in the photosynthetically active region (PAR) and leaf cells
re-emit the solar radiation in the near-infrared spectral region. Thus, a healthy plant
appears dark in PAR and bright in near infrared.

On the other hand, in an unhealthy or stressed plant, the leaves reflect less near-
infrared light even if its emissions in the visible spectrum remain unchanged. Tucker
found that combining these two signals can help differentiate plants from non-plants and
a healthy plant from a sickly plant. This work gave rise to indices like the NDVI, which is
now used to assess plant health.

With the advancement of technology, it is now relatively inexpensive to modify a

consumer camera to collect infrared bands and to fly it aboard a small drone. The ground
resolution of UAV imagery is more than one thousand times higher as the reflected
radiation does not have to travel through the entire atmosphere to be collected, and the
incident light is dramatically more varied.

Using near-infrared, you can identify stress in a plant, ten days before it becomes visible
to the eye. When a plant goes into stress, it’s either due to a water or fertilizer shortage,
or because it’s being attacked by a pest. Photosynthetic activity decreases and that affects
the chlorophyll. That’s what the near-infrared sensor can detect, but our human eye can’t
see it until it’s more advanced.

7 How does Drones work?

To survey crop fields with a drone, you start by planning the flight path of the drone that
will best cover the plot. Many of the latest agricultural drones come with flight-planning
software that let you outline a box around the field you want to survey on Google Maps.
The flight plan is then automatically computed. The drone then flies over the field in a
pattern while taking pictures with one or more cameras with special light sensors. These
pictures are geo-tagged and overlap each other.

After landing, special software is used to stitch together the geotagged photos into a large
mosaic and processed to interpret the amount of light that is reflected in different
wavelengths. Processing this data makes areas of poor growth or stressed plants easy to
identify. Generating this data immediately and quickly opens to doors to better
interventions and decision-making. The last step in this process is reviewing and taking
remedial action. Prescriptive software packages also come up with comprehensive
recommendations based on the field survey but these are not completely reliable yet.

Geoinformatics for Precision Farming

106 | Drones for Precision Agriculture

Processing images is the most challenging part of any drone-based agricultural operation.
Here, downstream software packages use the high-resolution images and data from the
different sensors on a drone to generate a meaningful and insightful image. Most
agricultural drone operators use a tool like Pix4D or Correlator3D to turn these aerial
images into useful data. Some others use proprietary software packages custom-built for
their devices. The challenge however is that, being computation intensive, they rely on
cloud services that are not always available in agricultural areas, especially in the context
of emerging economies like India.

While some other general-purpose programs (like Pix4D) are available, they involve a
steep learning curve. In developed economies of the west, companies also provide only a
back-end processing service that will analyse the data once uploaded and generate reports
for you. Other smaller start-ups have developed their own sensors, software packages and
extensive back-end analytics support that can be used with any UAV.

Some of this software is also built to avoid reliance on cloud-computing; all analytics can
be performed on a local computer once downloaded and set up. Some companies, like
Slantrange, have also developed core intellectual property enabling the identification of
weeds from crop plants using multi-parametric image analysis. This further extends the
capabilities of drone-based agriculture systems.

8 Challenges of Drone usage

 Outdoor use is highly weather dependent
 Imaging can vary depending on sunlight and cloud cover although one can
account for ambient lighting conditions
 Limited internet access and cellular infrastructure can make it harder to rely on
cloud-based computing services
 Higher costs especially for small landholders in emerging economies
 Limited flight times
 Maintenance costs and resources
 The need for skilled operators
 Uncertain government regulation that need to be overcome before this
technology can be widely applied.

9 Application of Drones in Agriculture

The following are some of the applications of Drones in agriculture and in its allied fields:
 Water stress detection.
 Estimation of nitrogen level.
 Pathogen detection.
 Aerobiological sampling.
 Plant health monitoring.
 Mapping invasive weeds.
 Drones for Precision Agriculture| 107

 Monitoring herbicide applications

 Forest fire monitoring
 Monitoring biodiversity in forests
 Assessing erosion in agricultural fields

Geoinformatics for Precision Farming

 AUTHORS

Pazhanivelan,S. Professor and Head, Department of Remote Sensing and GIS, TNAU,
[email protected]
Sivasamy, R, Professor (SS&AC), Dept of Remote Sensing and GIS, TNAU, Coimbatore
641003, [email protected]
Balaji Kannan, Associate Professor (SWC&E), Dept. of Remote Sensing and GIS, TNAU,
Coimbatore 641003, [email protected]
Jagadeeswaran, R, Assistant Professor (SS&AC), Dept. of Remote Sensing and GIS, TNAU,
Coimbatore 641003, [email protected] / [email protected]
Kumaraperumal, R, Assistant Professor (SS&AC), Department of Remote Sensing and GIS,
TNAU, [email protected]
Ragunath, K.P, Assistant Professor (SS&AC), Department of Remote Sensing and GIS,
TNAU, [email protected]
 APPENDIX

Appendix 1 Selected list of sensors and their missions

Name Description No of Mission

Bands
ASTER Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and 14 Terra
Reflection Radiometer

AVHRR/2 Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer 5 NOAA-10, NOAA-11, NOAA-12, NOAA-14

AVHRR/3 Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer 6 Metop-A, Metop-B, Metop-C, NOAA-15,
NOAA-16, NOAA-17, NOAA-18, NOAA-19
AWiFS Advanced Wide Field Sensor 4 RESOURCESAT-1 (IRS-P6),
RESOURCESAT-2, RESOURCESAT-2A
Kompsat-MSC B&W panchromatic, MSS and merged 1m 4 KOMPSAT-2
resolution images
LISS 1 Linear Imagine Self Scanning System 4 IRS-1A, IRS-1B
LISS 2 Linear Imagine Self Scanning System 4 IRS-1A, IRS-1B, IRS-P2
LISS 3 (IRS1C/1D) Linear Imagine Self Scanning System 4 IRS-1C, IRS-1D
LISS-3 (RESOURCESAT) Linear Imagine Self Scanning System 4 RESOURCESAT-1 (IRS-P6),
RESOURCESAT-2, RESOURCESAT-2A
LISS-4 Linear Imagine Self Scanning System 3 RESOURCESAT-1 (IRS-P6),
RESOURCESAT-2, RESOURCESAT-2A
MSS (LS 1-3) Multispectral Scanner - Landsat 1,2,3 5 Landsat 1, Landsat 2, Landsat 3
110 |

Name Description No of Mission

Bands
MSS (LS 4-5) Multispectral Scanner - Landsat 4,5 4 Landsat 4, Landsat 5

OCM Ocean Color Monitor 8 OCEANSAT-1, OCEANSAT-2

OCO-2 Spectrometers 3 OCO-2
OLI Operational Land Imager 9 Landsat 8
OLI-2 Operational Land Imager 2 9 Landsat 9
OSA Optical Sensor Assembly 5 IKONOS, IKONOS-1
PALSAR L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar 1 ALOS
PALSAR-2 L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar-2 1 ALOS-2
PALSAR-3 L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar-3 1 ALOS-4
PAN (Cartosat-2 Series) PAN 1 CartoSat-2 Series (2C), CartoSat-2 Series (2D),
Cartosat-2 Series (2E), Cartosat-2 Series (2F
PAN (IRS) Panchromatic camera 1 IRS-1C, IRS-1D
PAN C (Cartosat) Panchromatic camera 1 CartoSat-2A
PAN Cartosat-2B Panchromatic camera 1 CartoSat-2B
PAN-Aft Panchromatic-Aft pointing 1 CartoSat-1 (IRS-P5)
PAN-Fore Panchromatic-Forward pointing 1 CartoSat-1 (IRS-P5)
PR Precipitation Radar 2 TRMM
Quickbird High resolution: Pan: 61 cm (nadir) to 72 cm 4 Quickbird
(25º off-nadir), MS: 2.44 m to 2.88 m

RADARSAT 2 Radar RADARSAT-2

RBI Radiation Budget Instrument (cancelled Jan 3 JPSS-2
2018)
SAR 2000 RADAR 1 COSMO-SkyMed
SAR-C Radarsat1 Synthetic Aperture Radar on RADARSAT-1 1 RADARSAT-1
 | 111

Name Description No of Mission

Bands
SAR-C Sentinel1 C-band SAR on Sentinel-1A/Sentinel-1B 1 Sentinel-1A, Sentinel-1B
SIR-C Spaceborne Imaging Radar-C 1 SRTM
SpaceView 110 Imaging formerly GIS-2, GeoEye Imaging System-2 5 WorldView-4
System
TIRS Thermal Infrared Sensor 2 Landsat 8
TM Thematic Mapper 7 Landsat 4, Landsat 5
WiFS Wide Field Sensor 3 IRS-1C, IRS-1D, IRS-P3

Source: For more details on characteristics of each sensor check the following link - https://www.itc.nl/Pub/sensordb/AllSensors.aspx

Geoinformatics for Precision Farming

112 |

Appendix 2 List of Indian Earth Observation Satellites

Satellite Launch Date Launch Launch Vehicle Orbit Application

Mass Type
Cartosat-2 Series Satellite Jan 12, 2018 710 Kg PSLV-C40/Cartosat-2 Series SSPO Earth Observation
Satellite Mission
Cartosat-2 Series Satellite Jun 23, 2017 712 kg PSLV-C38 / Cartosat-2 Series SSPO Earth Observation
Satellite
Cartosat -2 Series Satellite Feb 15, 2017 714 kg PSLV-C37 / Cartosat -2 Series SSPO Earth Observation
Satellite
RESOURCESAT-2A Dec 07, 2016 1235 kg PSLV-C36 / SSPO Earth Observation
RESOURCESAT-2A
SCATSAT-1 Sep 26, 2016 371 kg PSLV-C35 / SCATSAT-1 SSPO Climate & Environment
INSAT-3DR Sep 08, 2016 2211 kg GSLV-F05 / INSAT-3DR GSO Climate & Environment,
Disaster Management System
CARTOSAT-2 Series Satellite Jun 22, 2016 737.5 kg PSLV-C34 / CARTOSAT-2 SSPO Earth Observation
Series Satellite
INSAT-3D Jul 26, 2013 2060 Kg Ariane-5 VA-214 GSO Climate & Environment,
Disaster Management System
SARAL Feb 25, 2013 407 kg PSLV-C20/SARAL SSPO Climate & Environment, Earth
Observation
RISAT-1 Apr 26, 2012 1858 kg PSLV-C19/RISAT-1 SSPO Earth Observation
Megha-Tropiques Oct 12, 2011 1000 kg PSLV-C18/Megha-Tropiques SSPO Climate & Environment, Earth
Observation
RESOURCESAT-2 Apr 20, 2011 1206 kg PSLV-C16/RESOURCESAT- SSPO Earth Observation
2
CARTOSAT-2B Jul 12, 2010 694 kg PSLV-C15/CARTOSAT-2B SSPO Earth Observation
Oceansat-2 Sep 23, 2009 960 kg PSLV-C14 / OCEANSAT-2 SSPO Climate & Environment, Earth
Observation
RISAT-2 Apr 20, 2009 300 kg PSLV-C12 / RISAT-2 SSPO Earth Observation
CARTOSAT – 2A Apr 28, 2008 690 Kg PSLV-C9 / CARTOSAT – 2A SSPO Earth Observation
 | 113

Satellite Launch Date Launch Launch Vehicle Orbit Application

Mass Type
IMS-1 Apr 28, 2008 83 kg PSLV-C9 / CARTOSAT – 2A SSPO Earth Observation
CARTOSAT-2 Jan 10, 2007 650 kg PSLV-C7 / CARTOSAT-2 / SSPO Earth Observation
SRE-1
CARTOSAT-1 May 05, 2005 1560 kg PSLV-C6/CARTOSAT- SSPO Earth Observation
1/HAMSAT
IRS-P6 / RESOURCESAT-1 Oct 17, 2003 1360 kg PSLV-C5 /RESOURCESAT-1 SSPO Earth Observation
The Technology Experiment Oct 22, 2001 PSLV-C3 / TES SSPO Earth Observation
Satellite (TES)
Oceansat(IRS-P4) May 26, 1999 1050 kg PSLV-C2/IRS-P4 SSPO Earth Observation
IRS-1D Sep 29, 1997 1250kg PSLV-C1 / IRS-1D SSPO Earth Observation
IRS-P3 Mar 21, 1996 920 kg PSLV-D3 / IRS-P3 SSPO Earth Observation
IRS-1C Dec 28, 1995 1250 kg Molniya SSPO Earth Observation
IRS-P2 Oct 15, 1994 804 kg PSLV-D2 SSPO Earth Observation
IRS-1E Sep 20, 1993 846 kg PSLV-D1 LEO Earth Observation
IRS-1B Aug 29, 1991 975 kg Vostok SSPO Earth Observation
SROSS-2 Jul 13, 1988 150 kg ASLV-D2 Earth Observation,
Experimental
IRS-1A Mar 17, 1988 975 kg Vostok SSPO Earth Observation
Rohini Satellite RS-D2 Apr 17, 1983 41.5 kg SLV-3 LEO Earth Observation
Bhaskara-II Nov 20, 1981 444 kg C-1 Intercosmos LEO Earth Observation,
Experimental
Rohini Satellite RS-D1 May 31, 1981 38 kg SLV-3D1 LEO Earth Observation
Bhaskara-I Jun 07, 1979 442 kg C-1 Intercosmos LEO Earth Observation,
Experimental

LEO stands for Low Earth Orbit; SSPO Stands for Sun Synchronous Polar Orbit; GSO – Geo Synchronous Orbit

Source: For more details on characteristics of each sensor check the following link - https://www.isro.gov.in/spacecraft/list-of-earth-observation-satellites
Geoinformatics for Precision Farming
 INDEX

Across Track Scanning 25 Point-in-polygon overlay 59

Along track scanner 26 Polygon-on-polygon overlay 60
Altitude 28 Model 99
Atmospheric Windows 16 NavIC 72
Attitude 105 Neighbourhood functions See Raster data
Beidou 72 analysis:Focal Functions
Data Model 44 ORYZA 101
Raster Spatial Data Model 46 particle theory 12
Vector Spatial Data Model 48 Payload 105
Differential Correction 77 Period 29
Diffuse reflectors 18 Pitch 105
Dilution Of Precision 77 Planck's constant 13
Drones 104 Platforms 28
DSSAT 101 Air-borne platforms 28
Electromagnetic Spectrum 12 Ground-based platforms 28
Field Of View 35 Space-borne platforms 28
FOV See Field of View Quadcopter 104
Geodesy 63 Raster data analysis 52
Geographic Information System 39 Focal Functions 53
Geoid 64 Global Functions 55
Geostationary satellites 29 Local Functions 52
Gimbal 105 Zonal Functions 54
GIS See Geographic Information System Repeat Cycle 29
Global Navigation Satellite System 71 Resolution 26
Control Segment 73 Radiometric resolution 27
Space Segment 71 Spatial resolution 27
User Segment 73 Spectral resolution 27
GLONASS 72 Temporal resolution 27
GPS Errors 75 Roll 105
Clock Errors 75 Scattering 15
Ephemeris Erros 75 Mie scatter 16
Ionospheric Errors 76 Nonselective scatter 16
Multipath Errors 76 Rayleigh scatter 15
Troposphere Errors 77 Sensors 25
Gyroscope 105 Active sensors 25
IFOV 35 Passive Sensors 25
Inclination Angle 28 Simulation 99
Instantaneous Field Of View See IFOV Specular reflectors 18
IRNSS 72 Stefan Boltzmann Law 13
Lambertian reflectors See Diffuse Sun-synchronous satellites 29
reflectors Swath 29
Map Overlay Swath Width 35
Line-in-polygon overlay 59 System 99
 Index | 115

Training sites 37 Sensor-Based Technologies 87

Trilateration 74 Vector data analysis 57
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) See Buffering 58
Drones Map Overlay 59
Variable Rate Application 83 Wien's displacement law 14
Map-based Technologies 84 Yaw 105

Geoinformatics for Precision Farming