ME612OE: RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (OPEN ELECTIVE – I)

R22 B.Tech. III Year, II Sem.

Solar Radiation and Collecting Devices:

Solar Incident Flux

Definition:
Solar Incident Flux refers to the amount of solar radiation energy received per unit area on a
surface, typically measured in W/m² (Watts per square meter). It represents the intensity of
sunlight that reaches a given location and is a key factor in solar energy collection and
conversion efficiency.

Factors Affecting Solar Incident Flux:

1. Geographical Location – Solar radiation varies based on latitude.

2. Time of Day – Flux is highest at solar noon when the Sun is directly overhead.
3. Season – Due to Earth's tilt, winter receives lower flux compared to summer.
4. Atmospheric Conditions – Clouds, dust, and pollution can reduce the incident flux.
5. Tilt Angle and Orientation – The angle of the surface relative to the Sun affects how
much radiation it receives.

Applications:

• Solar panels (photovoltaic systems)

• Solar thermal collectors for heating water and air
• Agriculture (greenhouse heating and crop growth analysis)
• Weather and climate studies

Extra-terrestrial Radiation

Definition:
Extra-terrestrial radiation is the solar radiation received at the top of Earth's atmosphere,
before any atmospheric interference such as scattering or absorption. It represents the
maximum available solar energy.

Key Points:

• Measured at about 1367 W/m² (Solar Constant).

• Varies slightly due to Earth's elliptical orbit around the Sun.
• Used as a reference for estimating the amount of solar energy reaching Earth's
surface.

Formula:

Gext=Gs(1+0.033cos(360n/365))
Where:Gs = Solar constant (1367 W/m²), n = Day of the year (1 to 365)
Clear Sky Irradiation

Definition:
Clear sky irradiation refers to the amount of solar radiation that reaches Earth's surface
under cloud-free conditions. It is a theoretical value used to compare with actual solar
radiation data.

Key Factors Influencing Clear Sky Irradiation:

1. Atmospheric Absorption & Scattering: Some radiation is lost due to gases like
water vapour, carbon dioxide, and ozone.
2. Sun's Position: Higher solar altitude increases irradiation.
3. Air Mass (AM) Effect: More atmosphere to pass through reduces irradiation.
4. Aerosols & Pollution: Reduce the radiation reaching the ground.

Solar Radiation Measurement

Definition:
Solar radiation measurement involves quantifying the amount of sunlight received at a
specific location. It is crucial for designing solar energy systems, weather forecasting, and
climate research.

Measurement Methods:

Method Instrument Measured Parameter

Global Radiation Pyranometer Total solar radiation (direct + diffuse)
Direct Radiation Pyrheliometer Radiation coming directly from the Sun
Diffuse Radiation Shaded Pyranometer Scattered solar radiation from the sky

Units:

• Measured in W/m² (Watts per square meter).

• Daily radiation can be expressed in MJ/m² (Megajoules per square meter).

Applications:

• Solar panel design – Helps in optimizing solar power systems.

• Climate modeling – Understanding Earth's energy balance.
• Agriculture – Studying plant growth and greenhouse heating.
Pyranometer

Definition:

A pyranometer is an instrument used to measure global solar radiation (both direct and
diffuse) on a horizontal or tilted surface. It is widely used in meteorology, solar energy
studies, and climate research.

Diagram of a Pyranometer:

Working Principle:

1. Solar radiation falls on the black-coated thermopile sensor beneath the glass dome.
2. The black surface absorbs all wavelengths and heats up.
3. The temperature difference generates a small voltage (thermoelectric effect).
4. The output voltage is proportional to the solar radiation intensity (measured in W/m²).

Types of Pyranometers:

1. Thermopile Pyranometer (Most Common) – Measures shortwave radiation using a

thermopile sensor.
2. Silicon Photodiode Pyranometer – Uses a photodiode to measure light in the 400-1100 nm
range.
3. Spectrally Flat Pyranometer – Provides precise data for research applications.

Applications:

• Solar Energy Systems – Used for evaluating solar panel efficiency.

• Meteorology – Helps in measuring and predicting weather patterns.
• Agriculture – Monitors solar radiation for greenhouse farming.
• Climate Research – Studies global radiation balance and climate change.
Pyrheliometer

Definition:

A pyrheliometer is an instrument used to measure direct solar radiation coming from the
Sun in a narrow field of view (typically 5°). It is essential for solar energy studies,
meteorology, and climate research.

Diagram of a Pyrheliometer:

Working Principle:
1. The pyrheliometer is aligned directly with the Sun using a solar tracker.
2. Solar radiation enters through the glass window and reaches the thermopile sensor inside the
tube.
3. The black-coated sensor absorbs radiation, causing a temperature rise.
4. The temperature difference generates a small voltage (thermoelectric effect).
5. This output voltage is converted into solar irradiance (measured in W/m²).

Types of Pyrheliometers:

1. Standard Pyrheliometer – Measures direct normal irradiance (DNI) from the Sun.
2. Absolute Cavity Pyrheliometer – Highly accurate, used for calibrating other
pyrheliometers.
Applications:
• Solar Power Plants – Evaluates direct sunlight for concentrated solar power (CSP) systems.
• Meteorology – Measures solar intensity for weather forecasting.
• Climate Research – Helps in understanding Earth’s energy balance.

MONTHLY AVERAGE RADIATION ON TILTED SURFACES

Here's a breakdown:

1. Radiation Components:
o Global Radiation: Total solar radiation (direct + diffuse) received on a tilted
surface.
o Direct (Beam) Radiation: Solar radiation that comes in a straight line from
the sun.
o Diffuse Radiation: Solar radiation scattered by molecules and particles in the
atmosphere.
o Reflected Radiation: Solar radiation reflected from the ground or surrounding
surfaces.
2. Tilted Surfaces:
o Surfaces can be tilted at different angles depending on latitude, time of year,
or specific application (e.g., optimizing solar panel orientation).
o The tilt angle significantly affects how much radiation the surface captures.
3. Monthly Averaging:
o Solar radiation varies daily and seasonally.
o Monthly averages smooth out daily fluctuations and are useful for system
design and performance analysis (e.g., in photovoltaic or solar thermal
systems).
4. Influencing Factors:
o Geographical location (latitude, longitude)
o Surface tilt and azimuth (orientation)
o Atmospheric conditions (cloud cover, aerosols)
o Time of year (seasonal sun path variations)

Applications:

• Sizing and placement of solar panels.

• Energy yield prediction for renewable energy systems.
• Passive solar building design.
• Climate and environmental research.
COVER PLATES

• Purpose: Transparent layers (usually glass or special plastics) placed above the
collector plate to reduce heat loss.
• Functions:
o Reduce convective heat loss to the ambient air.
o Allow solar radiation to pass through and trap the heat (greenhouse effect).
o Protect the collector plate from dust, rain, and physical damage.
• Materials:
o Low-iron tempered glass (common for high transmissivity).
o Polycarbonate or acrylic sheets (lighter but may degrade under UV).
• Design: Some collectors have double or triple glazing for better thermal insulation
but at the cost of slightly lower solar transmittance.

COLLECTOR PLATE SURFACES

• The collector plate (also called the absorber plate) is where solar radiation is
converted into thermal energy.
• Material:
o Usually made from metals like copper, aluminum, or steel for their high
thermal conductivity.
• Surface Treatment:
o Black coatings to maximize absorption (black paint, selective coatings).
o Selective surfaces: High absorptivity for solar radiation and low emissivity
for thermal radiation (e.g., black chrome, tin oxide on nickel).

COLLECTOR PERFORMANCE

• Efficiency (η): Ratio of useful thermal energy collected to the solar energy incident
on the collector.
• Factors influencing performance:
o Absorptivity of the plate.
o Heat loss through the cover plate, back, and sides.
o Fluid properties (flow rate, specific heat).
o Ambient temperature and solar intensity.
o Incidence angle of sunlight.
• Performance equation (simplified steady-state):

Qu = Ac ⋅ S – Ac ⋅ UL ⋅ (Tin−Ta)

• Where:
• Qu = useful energy collected
• Ac = collector area
• S = absorbed solar radiation
• UL = overall heat loss coefficient
• Tin = inlet fluid temperature
• Ta = ambient temperature
COLLECTOR IMPROVEMENT

• Advanced selective coatings: Improve absorption and reduce radiation losses.

• Better insulation: Thicker or higher-quality insulation at the back and sides to reduce
conduction losses.
• Evacuated tubes: Create a vacuum around the absorber to nearly eliminate
convective and conductive heat losses.
• Anti-reflective coatings: Applied to cover plates to increase solar transmittance.
• Tracking systems: Adjust the collector's tilt to follow the sun, increasing radiation
capture.
• Improved fluid circulation: Use of Nano fluids or optimized flow channels to
enhance heat transfer.

EFFECT OF INCIDENT ANGLE

• The incident angle (θ) is the angle between the incoming solar radiation and the
normal (perpendicular) to the collector surface.
• Cosine Effect: The intensity of solar radiation on the surface reduces with increasing
incident angle (follows the cosine law).

I effective=I beam ⋅ cos(θ)

• Low angles (early morning or late afternoon) = lower radiation capture.
• High angles (midday, sun overhead) = maximum capture.
• Collector Design: Fixed collectors are optimized for average incident angles, while
tracking systems adjust the tilt to minimize the incident angle throughout the day.

Heat Transfer to Fluids

• Absorber plate heats up and transfers this heat to the working fluid (water, air, glycol
mixture, etc.).
• Modes of heat transfer:
o Conduction from plate to the fluid-contact surface.
o Convection between the plate and the fluid flowing through tubes or channels.
• Heat transfer enhancement:
o Finned tubes to increase surface area.
o Turbulators inside tubes to disturb laminar flow.
o Using nanofluids (fluids with nanoparticles) for better thermal conductivity.

Heat Transfer Factors

• Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR):

o Represents how effectively the fluid removes heat from the absorber compared to an
ideal scenario.
o Affected by mass flow rate, heat transfer coefficient, and collector design.

FR=Actual useful heat gainMaximum possible useful heat gainF_R = \frac{\text{Actual

useful heat gain}}{\text{Maximum possible useful heat gain}}
 • Efficiency Factor (F'):
o Ratio of actual heat transfer from the absorber to the fluid compared to a perfectly
absorbing and transferring collector plate.
o Depends on absorber-fin geometry and material properties.

Concentrating Collectors
• Focus sunlight onto a smaller area to achieve higher temperatures.
• Types:
o Parabolic Trough Collectors (PTC)
o Parabolic Dish Collectors
o Linear Fresnel Reflectors
o Central Receiver (Tower) Systems
• Advantages:
o Higher operating temperatures (can generate steam).
o Greater thermal efficiency in direct beam radiation conditions.
• Limitation:
o Require tracking systems (usually one-axis or two-axis).
o Best suited for areas with high Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI).

Reflectors
• Used in concentrating collectors to direct and focus sunlight onto the absorber or receiver.
• Materials:
o Highly reflective surfaces (silvered glass, polished aluminum, or mirrored
composites).
o Reflectivity >90% for high efficiency.
• Design Considerations:
o Shape: Parabolic shapes focus rays at a focal point.
o Durability: Reflectors are exposed to weather; coatings help maintain high
reflectivity over time.
o Alignment: Precision in reflector geometry and alignment is crucial for achieving
concentration and minimizing optical losses.
 UNIT WISE IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

1 Mark Questions (10)

1. Define solar incident flux.

2. What is the value of the solar constant?
3. Name one factor that affects solar incident flux.
4. What instrument is used to measure global solar radiation?
5. What is the typical unit of solar radiation measurement?
6. What is the purpose of cover plates in solar collectors?
7. Name one type of concentrating collector.
8. What is the formula for extraterrestrial radiation GextG_{ext}?
9. What is the effect of the incident angle on solar radiation intensity?
10. What is a pyrheliometer used for?

5 Marks Questions (5)

1. Explain the working principle and applications of a pyranometer with a neat diagram.
2. Describe the components of radiation on a tilted surface and factors affecting it.
3. What is collector efficiency? Explain the factors affecting collector performance with the
relevant formula.
4. Discuss concentrating collectors, their types, advantages, and limitations.
5. Explain the modes of heat transfer to fluids in a solar thermal collector and methods to
enhance heat transfer.