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Lecture 06 Graph Coloring

Graph coloring is a key concept in graph theory involving the assignment of colors to vertices or edges under specific constraints, leading to the definitions of chromatic number and chromatic index. Applications include scheduling, register allocation, map coloring, and artificial intelligence, with important theorems such as Brooks' and Vizing's providing bounds on these invariants. The document also outlines practice problems and references for further study.

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12 views4 pages

Lecture 06 Graph Coloring

Graph coloring is a key concept in graph theory involving the assignment of colors to vertices or edges under specific constraints, leading to the definitions of chromatic number and chromatic index. Applications include scheduling, register allocation, map coloring, and artificial intelligence, with important theorems such as Brooks' and Vizing's providing bounds on these invariants. The document also outlines practice problems and references for further study.

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mathematicsacademyservices
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Graph Coloring 1

Lecture Notes: Chromatic Number and


Chromatic Index
Graph Theory and Applications

Zamir Hussain, Lecturer Mathematics, UW

Date: May 17, 2025

Introduction
Graph coloring is a fundamental concept in graph theory with numerous applications
in various fields. At its core, graph coloring deals with assigning “colors” to elements
of a graph (vertices or edges) subject to certain constraints. The two primary types are:

• Vertex coloring: Assign colors to vertices such that no adjacent vertices share the
same color

• Edge coloring: Assign colors to edges such that no adjacent edges share the same
color

These lead to two key invariants:

• Chromatic number 𝜒(𝐺): Minimum colors for vertex coloring

• Chromatic index 𝜒 ′(𝐺): Minimum colors for edge coloring

Vertex Coloring and Chromatic Number

Basic Definitions
A proper vertex coloring of 𝐺 = (𝑉 , 𝐸) is a function 𝑐 : 𝑉 → {1, 2, . . . , 𝑘} where
𝑐(𝑢) ≠ 𝑐(𝑣) for every edge (𝑢, 𝑣) ∈ 𝐸.

The chromatic number 𝜒(𝐺) is the minimum 𝑘 for which 𝐺 has a proper 𝑘-coloring. If
𝜒(𝐺) = 𝑘, 𝐺 is 𝑘-colorable.
Graph Coloring 2

Bounds for Chromatic Number

Clique Number 𝜔(𝐺)

A clique is a subset of mutually adjacent vertices. The clique number 𝜔(𝐺) is the size
of the largest clique in 𝐺.

For any graph 𝐺, 𝜒(𝐺) ≥ 𝜔(𝐺).

In a clique of size 𝜔(𝐺), all vertices are mutually adjacent, requiring 𝜔(𝐺) distinct
colors.

Maximum Degree Δ(𝐺)

The maximum degree Δ(𝐺) is the maximum number of edges incident to any vertex.

[Brooks’ Theorem] If 𝐺 is connected and neither complete nor an odd cycle, then
𝜒(𝐺) ≤ Δ(𝐺). For 𝐾 𝑛 : 𝜒(𝐾 𝑛 ) = 𝑛, for 𝐶2𝑘+1 : 𝜒 = 3.

Examples
[Complete Graphs 𝐾 𝑛 ] 𝜒(𝐾 𝑛 ) = 𝑛 since all vertices are pairwise adjacent.

𝐾3 , 𝜒 = 3 𝐾4 , 𝜒 = 4

[Cube Graph] The 3D cube graph is bipartite with 𝜒 = 2:

3D Cube, 𝜒 = 2

Applications

Scheduling Problems
• Vertices: Tasks or events

• Edges: Conflicts between tasks

• Colors: Time slots or resources


Graph Coloring 3

• 𝜒(𝐺): Minimum time slots/resources needed

𝜒(𝐺) = min |{𝑐(𝑣) : 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉}|


colorings

Register Allocation
• Vertices: Variables in a program

• Edges: Variables live simultaneously

• Colors: CPU registers

• 𝜒(𝐺): Minimum registers required

Map Coloring
• Vertices: Geographical regions

• Edges: Adjacent regions

• Colors: Distinct region colors

D
C
B
A

Four Color Theorem: 𝜒(𝐺) ≤ 4 for planar graphs

Artificial Intelligence
• Constraint Satisfaction Problems (CSPs): Framework for solving AI problems

• Graph coloring as a prototype CSP

• Chromatic polynomial 𝑃(𝐺, 𝑘) counts proper 𝑘-colorings

𝑃(𝐾 𝑛 , 𝑘) = 𝑘(𝑘 − 1)(𝑘 − 2) · · · (𝑘 − 𝑛 + 1)

Chromatic Index (Edge Coloring)


The chromatic index 𝜒 ′(𝐺) is the minimum colors needed for a proper edge coloring
where adjacent edges have different colors.
Graph Coloring 4

[Vizing’s Theorem] For any simple graph 𝐺, Δ(𝐺) ≤ 𝜒 ′(𝐺) ≤ Δ(𝐺) + 1

𝐾 3 has 𝜒 ′ = 3:

𝜒′(𝐾 3 ) = 3

Conclusion
Key takeaways:

• Chromatic number 𝜒(𝐺): Vertex coloring invariant

• Chromatic index 𝜒 ′(𝐺): Edge coloring invariant

• Bounds: 𝜔(𝐺) ≤ 𝜒(𝐺) ≤ Δ(𝐺) + 1, Δ(𝐺) ≤ 𝜒′(𝐺) ≤ Δ(𝐺) + 1

• Applications in scheduling, compilers, cartography, and AI

Practice Problems
1. Find 𝜒 and 𝜒 ′ for 𝐾 3,3

2. Prove that 𝜒(𝐺) ≤ Δ(𝐺) for bipartite graphs

3. Design a class schedule using graph coloring (vertices = classes, edges = time
conflicts)

4. Implement the greedy coloring algorithm in Python

References
[1] Bondy, J. A., & Murty, U. S. R. (2008). Graph theory with applications. Elsevier.

[2] Diestel, R. (2017). Graph theory (5th ed.). Springer.

[3] West, D. B. (2001). Introduction to graph theory (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall.

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