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Chapter 10
Define waste: unwanted, useless, damaged, discarded, harmful substances
from human activities
It may consist of the unwanted materials left over from a manufacturing
process (industrial, commercial, mining or agricultural operations,) or from
community and household activities.

It is also used to describe something we use inefficiently or inappropriately.

Can have various physical forms (solid – solid waste, liquid – effluent, gaseous –
emission)

Define hazardous waste, organic waste, recyclable waste

Hazardous or harmful waste are those that potentially threaten public health
or the environment. Such waste could be inflammable, reactive, corrosive or
toxic
In many countries, it is required by law to involve the appropriate authority to
supervise the disposal of such hazardous waste.

Organic waste comes from plants or animals sources. Commonly, they include
food waste. They are biodegradable
Many people turn their organic waste into compost and use them in their
gardens.

Recycling is the process of using waste materials to turn them into new, useful
products. This is done to reduce the use of raw materials that would have been
used.
Waste that can be potentially recycled is termed "Recyclable waste".
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Briefly describe the principal sources of solid waste

1. The principal sources of solid waste are agriculture and mining. More than
half of all solid waste is generated by agricultural sector, which includes farms,
orchards, ranches and animal feedlots
2. The second largest solid waste generator is mining. Waste occurs as
discarded piles of waste rock; most of this material is disposed of at the mine
site.
Another major component of solid mine waste is tailings- slags and sludge left
over after processing
3. Other industries also generate solid waste in the form of paper, cardboard,
scrap metal, wood, plastics, glass, tires, and rags. Many industrial waste
materials are potentially reusable or recyclable
4. Some waste from stores, offices, and small industries is set by the side of the
road and collected along with residential waste. Together they comprise
municipal solid waste, the smallest but fastest-growing source of solid waste

What is integrated waste management?

The major concept of IWM is 3Rs:
1. Reuse
2. Reduce
3. Recycling
At least a 50% reduction of solid waste can be achieved through.
1. Better design of packaging to reduce waste (10% source reduction).
2. Establishment of recycling programs (30% reduction), and
3. Large-scale composting programs (10% reduction).
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What are the solid waste disposal process under the waste management plan?
Explain composting and incineration process under the waste management
plan.
Solid disposal processes include:
1. Composting: Process in which organic materials such as lawn clippings and
kitchen scraps decompose to a rich, soil-like material
Disadvantage: necessity to separate organic material from other waste
Probably economically advantageous only when organic material is collected
separately from other waste

2. Incineration: Burning of refuse in a specially designed facility. All

incinerators, even modern ones, generate residual ash, which may contain
toxins
Some incinerators use the heat they generate to produce electricity
Modern incineration facilities have special devices in smokestacks to trap
pollutants, but it’s expensive. Plants themselves are also expensive

3. Open Dump: In the past, solid waste was usually accumulated in open
dumps, where the refuse was piled up without being covered or otherwise
protected
Although open dumps have been closed in recent years and new open dumps
are discouraged, many are still being used worldwide
Dumps have been located wherever land is available, without regard to safety,
health hazards and aesthetic degradation
Common sites are natural low areas, such as swamps or floodplains; and
hillside areas above or below towns

4. Landfill: Waste disposal sites that are engineered and monitored to contain
wastes within the site
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Why is open dumping harmful for health and environment?

Generally open dumps:

 create a nuisance by being unsightly
 provide breeding grounds for pests
 create a health hazard
 pollute the air, groundwater and surface water
Fortunately, open dumps are giving way to the better planned and managed
landfills
What is a landfill? Explain landfill management as solid waste disposal process.
Waste disposal sites that are engineered and monitored to contain wastes
within the site. Typical procedure is to compact waste as much as possible and
regularly cover it with a compacted layer of soil and/or clay
Soil layer isolates the waste from birds and rodents and prevents some
infiltration by precipitation
Hazard of landfill: Leachate
Noxious, mineralized liquid forms and mixes with groundwater
Modern landfills are engineered to include multiple barriers (double-lined) i.e.
• clay and plastic liners to limit movement of leachate
• surface and subsurface drainage to collect leachate
• system to collect methane gas produced as waste decomposes
• groundwater-monitoring to detect leaks or leachate below and
adjacent to the landfill
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Chapter 12
What is sustainable agriculture? What are the key components of sustainable
agriculture?
Farming that makes best use of nature’s goods and services while not
damaging the environment. Key components are:

How does environment affect agriculture?

Agricultural production involves biological processes which are determined by
the quality of seeds as well as environmental factors. The environmental
factors affecting growth and yield of crops include
1. Abiotic factors such as solar radiation, temperature, rainfall, relative
humidity, soil condition, etc. ;
2. Biotic factors such as beneficial and harmful micro-organisms (in soil and
air), insects and other plants and animals

Agriculture is dependent on environment through:

 Solar radiation
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 Temperature
 Rainfall
 Relative Humidity (RH)
 Soil pH
 Climate
 Extreme weather events

How agriculture changes the environment

Agriculture is the world’s oldest and largest industry. Because the production,
processing and distribution of food all alter the environment, and because of
the size of the industry, large effects on the environment are unavoidable.
Agriculture has both primary and secondary environmental effects.
 A primary effect, also called an on-site effect, is an effect on the area
where the agriculture takes place.
 A secondary effect, or off-site effect, is an effect on an environment
away from the agriculture site, typically downstream and downwind.
The scale of effects of agriculture on the environment may be local, regional or
global:
1. Local: Occurs at or near the site of farming, e.g. soil erosion, increase of
sedimentation in downstream
2. Regional: Generally results from the combined effects of farming practices in
the same large region, e.g. desertification, large scale pollution, sedimentation
in rivers, change in the chemical fertility of soils over large areas.
3. Global: Through GHG emission, the effects include climate change, change
of the chemical cycle.
Why soil fertility is important?
 Provides air, water and nutrients to plants
 Soil provides mechanical support to plants
 Soil fertility is the capacity of a soil to supply nutrients necessary for
plant growth.
Soils are keys to sustainable farming
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Mention four environmentally sustainable agricultural practices?

 Organic agriculture
 Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
 Conservation tillage
 Crop rotation
 Agro-forestry
 Pollution control from agricultural landscape
 Water deficiency control in agricultural landscape
 Management of flood control & irrigation infrastructure

What is organic farming? What are the principles of organic farming? Mention
four principal methods of organic farming.
Organic farming refers to cultivation of plants and rearing of animals in natural
ways.
It includes use of organic manures, and bio-pesticides with complete avoidance
of inorganic chemicals and pesticides. Also includes Integrated Pest
Management
The principals of organic farming include-
 Biodiversity
 Sustainability
 Natural Plant Nutrition
 Pest Management
The principal methods of organic farming include- (any 4)
 Crop rotation
 Cover crops
 Mulching
 Green manures and compost
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 Mechanical cultivation
 Biological pest control
 Integrated pest Management

Define IPM. What are the advantages of IPM?

Integrated pest management (IPM) combines the use of biological, cultural and
chemical practices to control insect pests in agricultural production.
It seeks to use natural predators or parasites to control pests, using selective
pesticides for backup only when pests are unable to be controlled by natural
means.
Advantages of IPM
 More regular crop quality and quantity
 Healthier plants
 Reduced contamination of the environment
 Reduced use of pesticides
 Reduced input costs
 Better use of natural resources
 Reduced contamination of the crop with chemical residues
 Reduced risk of farmers from contamination with chemicals
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Chapter 13
Mention the key highlights of any two national (Slide 3-12) and two
international environmental policies
National:
1. Environmental Conservation Rules (ECR) 1997 (subsequent amendments in
2002, 2003 and 2010): This rule ensures environmental safety by maintaining
National Environmental Quality Standards for ambient air, various types of
water, industrial effluent, emission, noise, vehicular exhaust etc.
It also ensures proper environmental impact assessments for various types of
industry.
2. National Agricultural Policy 2013: Biodiversity conservation, sustainable use
of land and water resources, integrated crop cultivation and collection,
conservation and use of genetic resources has been emphasized.
3. National Energy Policy 1995: The policy emphasizes to ensure
environmentally sound sustainable energy development programs causing
minimum damage to environment.

International:
1. Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals
(Bonn 1979): This convention sets the framework for agreements between
countries that are important to the migration of threatened species
2. UNESCO World Heritage Convention 1972: This Convention concerning the
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage whose outstanding
values should be preserved for all humanity.
3. Rio Declaration 1992: One of the major principles of ‘Rio Declaration’ is to
achieve sustainable development; environmental protection should constitute
an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in
isolation from it.