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Table of Content
200 Beginner-Level Python Interview Questions and Answers............................................ 16
1. What is Python?.................................................................................................................16
2. What are the key features of Python?............................................................................... 16
3. Is Python interpreted or compiled?.................................................................................... 16
4. What are the main data types in Python?..........................................................................16
5. What is the difference between a list and a tuple in Python?............................................ 16
6. What is self in Python?...................................................................................................... 17
7. What is __init__ in Python?............................................................................................... 17
8. What is Python's Global Interpreter Lock (GIL)?............................................................... 17
9. What is list comprehension in Python?..............................................................................17
10. Explain the difference between deepcopy and copy in Python....................................... 17
11. What is the difference between args and kwargs in Python functions?........................... 17
12. How does Python memory management work?.............................................................. 18
13. What is the purpose of __name__ == "__main__" in Python?........................................ 18
14. Explain the use of lambda functions in Python................................................................ 18
15. How do you perform list slicing in Python?...................................................................... 18
16. What is PEP 8?................................................................................................................18
17. What is the difference between Python 2 and Python 3?................................................ 19
18. What are mutable and immutable data types in Python?................................................ 19
19. How do you create a virtual environment in Python?...................................................... 19
20. What is a decorator in Python?........................................................................................19
21. What is the difference between == and is operators?..................................................... 19
22. How do you handle exceptions in Python?......................................................................19
23. What are modules in Python?..........................................................................................20
24. What is a package in Python?......................................................................................... 20
25. How do you read and write files in Python?.....................................................................20
26. What is a list comprehension?.........................................................................................20
27. What is the difference between append() and extend() methods for lists?......................20
28. What are dictionary comprehensions?............................................................................ 20
29. What is the zip() function used for?................................................................................. 21
30. How does string formatting work in Python?................................................................... 21
31. What is a tuple unpacking?..............................................................................................21
32. What is the purpose of an __init__.py file?......................................................................21
33. How do you handle dates and times in Python?..............................................................21
34. What is the difference between range() and xrange()?................................................... 21
35. What is the purpose of pass statement in Python?......................................................... 22
36. What is a dictionary in Python?....................................................................................... 22
37. What is a set in Python?.................................................................................................. 22

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38. What is the difference between remove() and pop() methods for sets?.......................... 22
39. What are generator functions in Python?........................................................................ 22
40. What are the differences between Python's sort() and sorted()?.....................................22
41. What is a class method in Python?..................................................................................23
42. What is a static method in Python?................................................................................. 23
43. What is multiple inheritance in Python?...........................................................................23
44. What is method overriding in Python?............................................................................. 23
45. What is the super() function in Python?...........................................................................23
46. What are magic methods or dunder methods in Python?................................................23
47. How do you create a custom exception class in Python?................................................24
48. What is the difference between a shallow copy and a deep copy?................................. 24
49. What are context managers and the with statement?..................................................... 24
50. What are lambda functions in Python?............................................................................ 24
51. What is recursion in Python?........................................................................................... 24
52. What is the pass statement in Python?........................................................................... 24
53. What are the different ways to import modules in Python?............................................. 25
54. What is the use of underscore (_) in Python?..................................................................25
55. What is a namespace in Python?.................................................................................... 25
56. How do you create a multidimensional list in Python?.....................................................25
57. What is list slicing in Python?.......................................................................................... 25
58. What is the difference between str() and repr() functions in Python?.............................. 25
59. What is a generator expression in Python?..................................................................... 26
60. What is the purpose of docstrings in Python?................................................................. 26
61. What are the formatting options in Python's f-strings?.................................................... 26
62. What is the difference between a function and a method in Python?..............................26
63. How does Python manage memory?...............................................................................26
64. What is duck typing in Python?........................................................................................26
65. What is the purpose of __str__ and __repr__ methods?.................................................27
66. What is the difference between is and == operators?..................................................... 27
67. How do you create and use sets in Python?................................................................... 27
68. What are dictionary comprehensions?............................................................................ 27
69. What is a Python module and how do you create one?.................................................. 27
70. What is the purpose of __name__ variable in Python?................................................... 27
71. What is a decorator in Python and how does it work?.....................................................28
72. What are Python's ternary operators?............................................................................. 28
73. What is a list comprehension and how does it work?...................................................... 28
74. What is the difference between range(), xrange(), and enumerate() functions?............. 28
75. What is the purpose of *args and **kwargs parameters?................................................ 28
76. What are Python's built-in data structures?..................................................................... 29
77. What is the purpose of the with statement in Python?.....................................................29
78. What is the difference between append() and extend() methods for lists?......................29

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79. What are Python's string formatting methods?................................................................ 29
80. What is pickling and unpickling in Python?......................................................................29
81. What is the difference between locals() and globals() functions?....................................30
82. What are the basic file operations in Python?................................................................. 30
83. What is the use of the enumerate() function?..................................................................30
84. How do you handle exceptions in Python?......................................................................30
85. What is a dictionary and what are its features?............................................................... 30
86. What is a list in Python and what are its features?.......................................................... 30
87. What is the purpose of continue and break statements in loops?................................... 31
88. What is the purpose of return statement in functions?.................................................... 31
89. How do you define a class in Python?.............................................................................31
90. What is inheritance in Python and how is it implemented?..............................................31
91. What are Python modules and packages?...................................................................... 31
92. What is a tuple and why would you use one over a list?................................................. 32
93. What is a set and how is it different from a list?.............................................................. 32
94. What is the purpose of yield keyword in Python?............................................................ 32
95. What is the difference between append() and insert() for lists?...................................... 32
96. What are Python dictionaries used for?...........................................................................32
97. How do you convert between different data types in Python?......................................... 33
98. What is the purpose of the __init__.py file in a package?............................................... 33
99. What is the use of if __name__ == "__main__" idiom?................................................... 33
100. What is list unpacking in Python?.................................................................................. 33
101. What is a dictionary comprehension?............................................................................33
102. How do you access the elements of a list?....................................................................34
103. What is exception handling in Python?..........................................................................34
104. What is the purpose of the pass statement?................................................................. 34
105. What is the difference between sort() and sorted()?......................................................34
106. How do you create a class in Python and what is the purpose of self?.........................34
107. What are f-strings in Python?........................................................................................ 34
108. What is the use of the dir() function?............................................................................. 35
109. What is the purpose of the help() function?................................................................... 35
110. How do you read user input in Python?......................................................................... 35
111. How do you handle file paths in Python?....................................................................... 35
112. What is a Python method and how does it differ from a function?................................. 35
113. What is a list slice and how does it work?......................................................................36
114. What is the else clause in loops?...................................................................................36
115. What is a function in Python and how do you define one?............................................ 36
116. What is the difference between is and == operators?....................................................36
117. What is the purpose of the assert statement?............................................................... 36
118. What are Python decorators and how are they used?................................................... 37
119. How do you handle file I/O in Python?........................................................................... 37

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120. What is the difference between tuples and lists?...........................................................37
121. What are sets in Python and when would you use them?............................................. 37
122. What is the purpose of the zip() function?..................................................................... 37
123. What is a lambda function and when would you use it?................................................ 38
124. How do you read lines from a file in Python?................................................................ 38
125. What is the purpose of the map() function?...................................................................38
126. What is the difference between a module and a package?........................................... 38
127. What is the purpose of virtual environments in Python?................................................38
128. What is the purpose of the filter() function?................................................................... 38
129. How do you write to a file in Python?.............................................................................39
130. What is the purpose of list comprehensions?................................................................ 39
131. What is a generator in Python?..................................................................................... 39
132. What is a generator expression?................................................................................... 39
133. How do you handle missing keys in dictionaries?......................................................... 39
134. What is the purpose of the __init__ method?................................................................ 40
135. What is the difference between __str__ and __repr__ methods?................................. 40
136. What is the purpose of the * and ** operators in function definitions?...........................40
137. What are named arguments and default parameters?.................................................. 40
138. How do you import specific functions from a module?.................................................. 40
139. What is a dictionary in Python and how is it created?................................................... 41
140. How do you delete an element from a list?....................................................................41
141. What are format specifiers in string formatting?............................................................ 41
142. What is the purpose of the enumerate() function?.........................................................41
143. What is the purpose of the join() method in strings?..................................................... 41
144. How do you copy a list in Python?.................................................................................41
145. What is a deep copy and when would you use it?.........................................................42
146. What is the purpose of the with statement?...................................................................42
147. How do you convert a string to uppercase or lowercase?............................................. 42
148. What is string interpolation in Python?.......................................................................... 42
149. What is the purpose of the all() and any() functions?.................................................... 42
150. What are the common string methods in Python?.........................................................43
151. What is the purpose of the ord() and chr() functions?................................................... 43
152. How do you define a function with optional parameters?.............................................. 43
153. What is method overriding in Python?........................................................................... 43
154. What is the difference between __str__ and __repr__ methods?................................. 43
155. How do you check if a key exists in a dictionary?..........................................................44
156. What is duck typing in Python?......................................................................................44
157. What is the purpose of the reversed() function?............................................................44
158. How do you sort a list of dictionaries by a specific key?................................................44
159. What is the purpose of the globals() and locals() functions?......................................... 44
160. How do you merge two dictionaries in Python?.............................................................45

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161. What is the use of the itertools module?........................................................................45
162. What is the purpose of the collections module?............................................................ 45
163. How do you remove duplicates from a list?................................................................... 45
164. What is the purpose of the datetime module?............................................................... 45
165. What is a slice object in Python?................................................................................... 45
166. How does exception inheritance work in Python?......................................................... 46
167. What is the purpose of the __del__ method?................................................................ 46
168. What is the difference between str.find() and str.index()?..............................................46
169. What is a static method in Python?............................................................................... 46
170. What is a class method in Python?................................................................................46
171. How do you raise an exception in Python?....................................................................47
172. What is the purpose of the assert statement?............................................................... 47
173. What is the use of the dir() function?............................................................................. 47
174. What is a docstring in Python?...................................................................................... 47
175. How do you count occurrences in a list?....................................................................... 47
176. What is the purpose of the id() function?....................................................................... 48
177. How do you check the data type of a variable?............................................................. 48
178. What is list comprehension and how does it work?....................................................... 48
179. What is the difference between a shallow copy and a deep copy?............................... 48
180. What is a closure in Python?......................................................................................... 48
181. What is a decorator in Python and how do you create one?......................................... 48
182. What is recursion and when would you use it?..............................................................49
183. What is the purpose of the super() function?.................................................................49
184. How do you define a variable in Python?...................................................................... 49
185. What is the difference between is and == operators?................................................... 49
186. How do you implement inheritance in Python?..............................................................49
187. What is the purpose of the in operator?.........................................................................50
188. How do you swap values between two variables?........................................................ 50
189. What are Python's mutable and immutable data types?................................................50
190. What is a ternary operator in Python?........................................................................... 50
191. What is the purpose of the pass statement?................................................................. 50
192. What is a function annotation in Python?...................................................................... 50
193. How do you create and use a custom exception?......................................................... 51
194. What is the purpose of the nonlocal keyword?.............................................................. 51
195. What is the purpose of __name__ variable in Python?................................................. 51
196. What is the use of the collections.Counter class?......................................................... 51
197. What is the purpose of the operator module?................................................................51
198. How do you split a string in Python?..............................................................................52
199. What is the purpose of __init__.py file in packages?.....................................................52
200. What is the Global Interpreter Lock (GIL) in Python?.................................................... 52
Conclusion............................................................................................................................. 52

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160 Intermediate-Level Python Interview Questions and Answers...................................... 54
1. What is a metaclass in Python?.........................................................................................54
2. How does Python's method resolution order (MRO) work?...............................................54
3. What is the difference between @staticmethod and @classmethod?...............................54
4. How do you create an abstract base class in Python?...................................................... 54
5. What is monkey patching in Python?.................................................................................54
6. How do you implement a singleton pattern in Python?......................................................54
7. What is the difference between deepcopy and copy in the copy module?........................ 55
8. How can you make a class iterable?................................................................................. 55
9. What is a property in Python and how is it used?..............................................................55
10. How do you enforce encapsulation in Python?................................................................55
11. What are descriptors in Python?...................................................................................... 55
12. What is the purpose of the __slots__ declaration?..........................................................55
13. How can you implement method chaining in Python?..................................................... 55
14. How do you use the @dataclass decorator?................................................................... 56
15. What is the difference between a generator and an iterator?.......................................... 56
16. How do you implement custom context managers?........................................................ 56
17. What is the GIL and how does it affect multithreading?.................................................. 56
18. How can you achieve parallelism in Python despite the GIL?......................................... 56
19. What is a weak reference and when would you use it?...................................................56
20. How do you create a custom iterator?............................................................................. 56
21. What is duck typing? Give an example............................................................................57
22. What is the difference between isinstance() and type() for type checking?.....................57
23. How do you create a thread-safe singleton?................................................................... 57
24. What is the purpose of the nonlocal keyword?................................................................ 57
25. How do you implement memoization in Python?.............................................................57
26. What is the difference between @property and a regular method?................................ 57
27. How do you create a read-only property?........................................................................57
28. What is the difference between __call__ and regular methods?..................................... 58
29. How do you implement operator overloading?................................................................ 58
30. What is the difference between __eq__ and __hash__?.................................................58
31. How do you use the super() function in multiple inheritance?......................................... 58
32. What is a namedtuple and how is it different from a regular tuple?................................. 58
33. How do you serialize and deserialize objects in Python?................................................ 58
34. What is the difference between __getattr__ and __getattribute__?................................ 58
35. How do you prevent a class from being subclassed?......................................................59
36. What is the difference between a shallow and deep copy for nested objects?............... 59
37. How do you implement a decorator that accepts arguments?.........................................59
38. What is the purpose of the __new__ method?................................................................ 59
39. How do you implement a custom iterable that supports slicing?..................................... 59
40. What is the difference between @classmethod and @staticmethod?.............................59

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41. How do you use the contextlib module?.......................................................................... 59
42. What are type annotations and how are they used?....................................................... 60
43. How do you enforce type checking at runtime?...............................................................60
44. What is the purpose of the __del__ method?.................................................................. 60
45. How do you create a custom exception?.........................................................................60
46. What is the difference between raise and assert?........................................................... 60
47. How do you chain exceptions?........................................................................................ 60
48. What is a coroutine in Python?........................................................................................ 60
49. How do you run asynchronous code in Python?............................................................. 60
50. What is the difference between yield and yield from?..................................................... 61
51. How do you implement a plugin architecture?.................................................................61
52. What is the difference between os.path and pathlib?...................................................... 61
53. How do you monitor file changes in Python?...................................................................61
54. What is the difference between threading and multiprocessing?.................................... 61
55. How do you share data between processes?..................................................................61
56. What are futures and how are they used?.......................................................................61
57. How do you implement a producer-consumer pattern?...................................................62
58. What is the difference between map, filter, and reduce?................................................. 62
59. How do you use partial functions?...................................................................................62
60. What is function currying?............................................................................................... 62
61. How do you implement a decorator that preserves function metadata?..........................62
62. What are context variables?............................................................................................ 62
63. How do you create a thread-safe data structure?............................................................62
64. What is the difference between a lock and a semaphore?.............................................. 63
65. How do you implement a barrier for thread synchronization?......................................... 63
66. What is the difference between Event, Condition, and Barrier in threading?.................. 63
67. How do you avoid deadlocks?......................................................................................... 63
68. What is the difference between os.fork() and subprocess?............................................. 63
69. How do you handle signals in Python?............................................................................63
70. What is the difference between try...except...finally and with?.........................................63
71. How do you handle timeouts in Python?......................................................................... 64
72. How do you profile Python code?.................................................................................... 64
73. What is the purpose of the gc module?........................................................................... 64
74. How do you avoid memory leaks in Python?...................................................................64
75. How do you implement a cache with a maximum size?.................................................. 64
76. What is the difference between deepcopy and serialization?.......................................... 64
77. How do you parse command-line arguments?................................................................ 64
78. How do you create a CLI tool in Python?........................................................................ 64
79. How do you read and write CSV files?............................................................................ 64
80. How do you read and write Excel files?...........................................................................65
81. How do you interact with a database in Python?.............................................................65

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82. What is an ORM and why use one?................................................................................ 65
83. How do you prevent SQL injection in Python?................................................................ 65
84. How do you send HTTP requests?..................................................................................65
85. How do you parse XML in Python?................................................................................. 65
86. How do you parse JSON in Python?............................................................................... 65
87. What is the difference between json and pickle?.............................................................65
88. How do you implement logging?......................................................................................66
89. How do you log exceptions?............................................................................................66
90. How do you test Python code?........................................................................................ 66
91. How do you mock dependencies in tests?...................................................................... 66
92. How do you test asynchronous code?.............................................................................66
93. How do you measure code coverage?............................................................................ 66
94. How do you handle deprecation warnings?.....................................................................66
95. How do you internationalize Python applications?.......................................................... 66
96. How do you manage configuration files?.........................................................................66
97. How do you create a virtual environment?...................................................................... 67
98. How do you package and distribute Python code?..........................................................67
99. How do you document Python code?.............................................................................. 67
100. How do you maintain backward compatibility?.............................................................. 67
101. How do you handle circular imports?.............................................................................67
102. How do you monkey patch for testing?..........................................................................67
103. How do you create a custom iterable that supports both forward and reverse iteration?..
67
104. How do you implement a custom sorting order?........................................................... 67
105. How do you implement a priority queue?...................................................................... 67
106. How do you implement a circular buffer?...................................................................... 68
107. How do you flatten a nested list?...................................................................................68
108. How do you remove duplicates while preserving order?............................................... 68
109. How do you merge two sorted lists?..............................................................................68
110. How do you find the most common elements in a list?.................................................. 68
111. How do you implement a trie (prefix tree)?.................................................................... 68
112. How do you implement a linked list?..............................................................................68
113. How do you implement a graph?................................................................................... 68
114. How do you traverse a graph (BFS/DFS)?.................................................................... 69
115. How do you detect cycles in a graph?........................................................................... 69
116. How do you implement Dijkstra’s algorithm?................................................................. 69
117. How do you implement a binary search tree?................................................................69
118. How do you balance a binary tree?............................................................................... 69
119. How do you serialize a tree?..........................................................................................69
120. How do you deserialize a tree?..................................................................................... 69
121. How do you implement an LRU cache?........................................................................ 69

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 122. How do you implement a bloom filter?...........................................................................69
123. How do you implement a set with custom equality?...................................................... 69
124. How do you implement a custom hash function?.......................................................... 70
125. How do you implement a custom equality check?.........................................................70
126. How do you implement a custom string representation?...............................................70
127. How do you implement a custom context manager for database transactions?........... 70
128. How do you implement a retry mechanism for function calls?.......................................70
129. How do you implement exponential backoff?................................................................ 70
130. How do you implement rate limiting?.............................................................................70
131. How do you implement a simple web server?............................................................... 70
132. How do you implement REST APIs in Python?............................................................. 71
133. How do you validate user input?....................................................................................71
134. How do you handle file uploads in web applications?................................................... 71
135. How do you implement authentication in web apps?.....................................................71
136. How do you implement authorization?...........................................................................71
137. How do you prevent CSRF attacks?..............................................................................71
138. How do you prevent XSS attacks?................................................................................ 71
139. How do you implement pagination?...............................................................................71
140. How do you implement background tasks?................................................................... 71
141. How do you schedule periodic tasks?........................................................................... 71
142. How do you handle signals and graceful shutdown?.....................................................72
143. How do you measure memory usage?.......................................................................... 72
144. How do you detect and fix memory leaks?.................................................................... 72
145. How do you optimize Python code for performance?.................................................... 72
146. How do you use C extensions in Python?..................................................................... 72
147. How do you interface with external C libraries?.............................................................72
148. How do you use environment variables in Python?.......................................................72
149. How do you implement dependency injection?............................................................. 72
150. How do you use the typing module for generics?..........................................................72
151. How do you create a plugin system with entry points?..................................................73
152. How do you create a custom build step in packaging?..................................................73
153. How do you use pyproject.toml?....................................................................................73
154. How do you use the __main__ module?....................................................................... 73
155. How do you use the atexit module?...............................................................................73
156. How do you use the tempfile module?...........................................................................73
157. How do you create a cross-platform Python application?..............................................73
158. How do you internationalize error messages?...............................................................73
159. How do you handle Unicode in Python?........................................................................73
160. How do you debug Python code?..................................................................................74
160 Advanced Python Interview Questions and Answers.....................................................75
1. Explain the CPython interpreter's execution model........................................................... 75

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2. How does Python's garbage collection handle reference cycles?..................................... 75
3. What is the difference between __dict__ and __slots__?................................................. 75
4. Describe the descriptor protocol with an example............................................................. 75
5. How does asyncio's event loop manage coroutines?........................................................ 75
6. Implement thread-safe singleton with a metaclass............................................................76
7. What are Python's weakrefs and use cases?.................................................................... 76
8. Explain __prepare__ in metaclasses.................................................................................76
9. Implement factory pattern with metaclasses......................................................................77
10. Optimize NumPy operations with vectorization............................................................... 77
11. Profile memory usage with tracemalloc........................................................................... 77
12. Dynamic class creation with type().................................................................................. 77
13. Modify classes at runtime using decorators.....................................................................78
Advanced Libraries................................................................................................................ 78
14. Implement Dask for out-of-core computations.................................................................78
15. Use Cython for performance-critical code....................................................................... 78
Networking and Async........................................................................................................... 78
16. WebSocket client with websockets.................................................................................. 78
17. Handle backpressure in asyncio......................................................................................79
18. Secure pickle deserialization........................................................................................... 79
Testing and Debugging.......................................................................................................... 79
19. Property-based testing with Hypothesis.......................................................................... 79
20. Debug hanging asyncio tasks..........................................................................................80
21. Create platform-specific wheels.......................................................................................80
22. Secure PyPI uploads with Twine..................................................................................... 80
Advanced Type Hints.............................................................................................................80
23. Structural subtyping with Protocols..................................................................................80
24. Exception groups handling.............................................................................................. 81
25. How do you implement a thread pool using concurrent.futures?.....................................81
26. Explain the use of __getattr__ vs. __getattribute__........................................................ 81
27. Implement an LRU cache with a decorator......................................................................82
28. How to handle signals in async programs?..................................................................... 82
29. Create a custom exception with chaining........................................................................ 82
30. Implement a descriptor for type checking........................................................................ 82
31. Use asyncio to timeout a coroutine..................................................................................82
32. What are Python's coroutine objects?............................................................................. 83
33. Implement a context manager for transactions................................................................83
34. How to profile memory usage in a Python script?........................................................... 83
35. Optimize Python with Cython...........................................................................................83
36. Handle circular imports in large projects..........................................................................83
37. Use weakref for caching without memory leaks.............................................................. 83
38. Implement a plugin system with entry points................................................................... 83

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39. Secure Python code against injection attacks................................................................. 84
40. What is __init_subclass__ used for?............................................................................... 84
41. Use __subclasses__ to find all subclasses..................................................................... 84
42. Implement a state machine with coroutines.....................................................................84
43. How does Python's MRO affect multiple inheritance?..................................................... 84
44. Use enum for type-safe constants................................................................................... 84
45. Implement a custom JSON encoder................................................................................ 84
46. Handle large files with memory mapping.........................................................................84
47. Implement a decorator with parameters.......................................................................... 84
48. Use __call__ to make objects callable.............................................................................85
49. Implement a binary protocol with struct........................................................................... 85
50. Optimize loops with vectorization in NumPy.................................................................... 85
51. Use multiprocessing.Manager for shared state............................................................... 85
52. Handle subprocesses with asyncio..................................................................................85
53. What are Python's coroutine decorators?........................................................................85
54. Implement a WebSocket server with websockets........................................................... 85
55. Use inspect module for introspection...............................................................................86
56. Implement a custom iterator with yield............................................................................ 86
57. Handle memory fragmentation in long-running processes.............................................. 86
58. Use __dict__ for dynamic attribute management............................................................ 86
59. Implement a custom collection with collections.abc........................................................ 86
60. Optimize string concatenation with io.StringIO................................................................ 86
61. Use __getitem__ for slicing support................................................................................ 86
62. Implement a thread-safe queue with queue.Queue.........................................................86
63. Handle SIGINT in asyncio applications........................................................................... 87
64. Use __prepare__ to customize class namespace........................................................... 87
65. Implement a custom metaclass for validation..................................................................87
66. Use functools.singledispatch for function overloading.....................................................87
67. Handle recursion limits with sys.setrecursionlimit()......................................................... 87
68. Implement a custom exception with extra attributes........................................................87
69. Use __delete__ in descriptors for cleanup...................................................................... 87
70. Optimize pandas DataFrame memory usage.................................................................. 87
71. Implement a custom logger with logging......................................................................... 87
72. Use __annotations__ for runtime type checking..............................................................88
73. Handle zip files with zipfile module.................................................................................. 88
74. Implement a reverse proxy with aiohttp........................................................................... 88
75. Use __post_init__ in dataclasses.................................................................................... 88
76. Handle POSIX signals in multi-threaded apps.................................................................88
77. Implement a custom pickling strategy.............................................................................. 88
78. Use __reduce__ to customize object pickling..................................................................88
79. Optimize with __slots__ in inheritance hierarchies..........................................................88

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80. Handle database connections with context managers.................................................... 88
81. Implement a retry decorator with exponential backoff..................................................... 89
82. Use __getattr__ for dynamic attribute lookup.................................................................. 89
83. Implement a custom format specifier............................................................................... 89
84. Use __dir__ to customize dir() output..............................................................................89
85. Handle memory leaks in long-lived objects..................................................................... 89
86. Implement a custom iterator with __next__..................................................................... 89
87. Use sys.settrace for debugging....................................................................................... 89
88. Optimize regex patterns with re.compile..........................................................................89
89. Handle CSV files with csv.DictReader............................................................................. 89
90. Implement a custom HTTP server with http.server..........................................................90
91. Use __get__ and __set__ for data binding......................................................................90
92. Handle time zones with pytz or zoneinfo......................................................................... 90
93. Implement a custom metaclass for method registration.................................................. 90
94. Use __init__ vs. __new__ for immutable types............................................................... 90
95. Handle binary data with bytes and bytearray................................................................... 90
96. Implement a custom comparator for sorting.................................................................... 90
97. Use asyncio.Queue for producer-consumer coroutines.................................................. 90
98. Handle partial function application with functools.partial................................................. 91
99. Implement a custom exception hook with sys.excepthook.............................................. 91
100. Use __getitem__ for multidimensional arrays................................................................91
101. Optimize Python with JIT compilation using PyPy......................................................... 91
102. Implement a custom AST transformer........................................................................... 91
103. Use __getnewargs__ for pickle compatibility................................................................. 91
104. Handle Unicode normalization with unicodedata...........................................................91
105. Implement a custom file-like object................................................................................91
106. Use __all__ to control from module import *..................................................................91
107. Handle HTTP/2 with httpx or hyper................................................................................92
108. Implement a custom codec for text encoding................................................................ 92
109. Use __getstate__ to exclude transient attributes...........................................................92
110. Handle system-level file operations with os module...................................................... 92
111. Implement a custom memory allocator...........................................................................92
112. Use __debug__ for development-only code.................................................................. 92
113. Handle Python interpreter embedding in C.................................................................... 92
114. Implement a custom REPL with code module............................................................... 92
115. Use __builtins__ to modify built-in functions.................................................................. 92
116. Handle Python wheel vs. egg packaging....................................................................... 93
117. Implement a custom thread-local storage...................................................................... 93
118. Use __import__ for dynamic module loading.................................................................93
119. Handle Python package versioning with setuptools.......................................................93
120. Implement a custom file system watcher....................................................................... 93

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121. Use __set_name__ for descriptor initialization.............................................................. 93
122. Handle Python in scientific computing with scipy...........................................................93
123. Implement a custom gradient descent in NumPy.......................................................... 93
124. Use __getattr__ for lazy module imports....................................................................... 93
125. Handle Python in machine learning with scikit-learn..................................................... 94
126. Implement a custom PyPI mirror....................................................................................94
127. Use __future__ imports for forward compatibility...........................................................94
128. Handle Python in web scraping with BeautifulSoup...................................................... 94
129. Implement a custom JWT authentication.......................................................................94
130. Use __del__ for resource cleanup (with caution).......................................................... 94
131. Handle Python in GUI development with tkinter............................................................ 94
132. Implement a custom plugin architecture........................................................................ 94
133. Use __getattr__ for API proxy objects........................................................................... 95
134. Handle Python in game development with pygame.......................................................95
135. Implement a custom ORM with metaclasses.................................................................95
136. Use __setattr__ to prevent attribute modification.......................................................... 95
137. Handle Python in data visualization with matplotlib....................................................... 95
138. Implement a custom DSL (Domain-Specific Language)................................................95
139. Use __dict__ for dynamic proxy objects........................................................................ 95
140. Handle Python in automation with fabric....................................................................... 95
141. Implement a custom code generator............................................................................. 95
142. Use __call__ for function composition........................................................................... 96
143. Handle Python in blockchain with hashlib......................................................................96
144. Implement a custom web framework............................................................................. 96
145. Use __prepare__ to inject helper functions................................................................... 96
146. Handle Python in IoT with micropython......................................................................... 96
147. Implement a custom debugger with pdb........................................................................96
148. Use __getattr__ for deprecated attribute warnings........................................................96
149. Handle Python in finance with pandas_datareader....................................................... 96
150. Implement a custom regex engine.................................................................................96
151. Use __slots__ for memory-critical applications............................................................. 97
152. Handle Python in NLP with nltk or spaCy...................................................................... 97
153. Implement a custom garbage collection strategy...........................................................97
154. Use __getattr__ for dynamic API clients........................................................................97
155. Handle Python in DevOps with ansible..........................................................................97
156. Implement a custom pattern matching engine...............................................................97
157. Use __set_name__ for descriptor self-awareness........................................................ 97
158. Handle Python in cybersecurity with cryptography........................................................ 97
159. Implement a custom bytecode optimizer....................................................................... 97
160. Use __getattr__ for dynamic mixin composition............................................................ 98

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200 Beginner-Level Python Interview Questions and
Answers
This comprehensive guide covers the most important Python interview questions for beginners,
with detailed answers to help you prepare effectively for your next Python interview.

1. What is Python?
Python is a high-level, interpreted, general-purpose programming language created by Guido
van Rossum in 1991. It emphasizes code readability with its notable use of significant
whitespace and simple syntax, making it beginner-friendly while still powerful enough for
professional use2.

2. What are the key features of Python?

Python's key features include: readability (simple syntax close to English), interpreted language
(code executed line-by-line), dynamically typed (no explicit variable type declarations needed),
object-oriented programming support, extensive standard and third-party libraries, platform
independence, and free and open-source availability2.

3. Is Python interpreted or compiled?

Python is primarily an interpreted language, which means code is executed line-by-line at
runtime by the Python interpreter rather than being compiled to machine code before execution.
However, Python code is first compiled to bytecode (.pyc files) which is then interpreted by the
Python Virtual Machine2.

4. What are the main data types in Python?

Python's main built-in data types include: Numeric (int, float, complex), Sequence (str, list,
tuple), Mapping (dict), Set (set, frozenset), and Boolean (bool)2.

5. What is the difference between a list and a tuple in

Python?
A list is a mutable (modifiable) ordered collection that can hold items of different data types,
defined with square brackets []. A tuple is immutable (cannot be modified after creation) and
ordered, defined with parentheses (). For example: my_list = [1][2][3] and my_tuple =
(1, 2, 3)2.

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6. What is self in Python?
self is a reference to the current instance of a class, used to access variables and methods
associated with that instance. It is the first parameter in instance methods and must be explicitly
included in method definitions. It allows methods to distinguish between instance attributes and
local variables2.

7. What is __init__ in Python?

__init__ is a special method in Python known as the constructor. It initializes new objects
when they are created and allows for setting initial values of an object's properties. For example:
class Car: def __init__(self, brand, model): self.brand = brand;
self.model = model2.

8. What is Python's Global Interpreter Lock (GIL)?

The Global Interpreter Lock (GIL) is a mutex that protects access to Python objects, limiting
Python to execute only one thread at a time. This can impact performance in CPU-bound tasks
that might otherwise benefit from parallel execution across multiple CPU cores2.

9. What is list comprehension in Python?

List comprehension is a concise way to create lists based on existing sequences. It consists of
an expression followed by a for clause, then zero or more for or if clauses. The result is a new
list resulting from evaluating the expression in the context of the for and if clauses.

10. Explain the difference between deepcopy and copy in

Python.
copy() creates a shallow copy of an object, meaning only the outer object is copied but not
nested objects. deepcopy() creates a deep copy where all levels of nested objects are copied
recursively. For example: import copy; list1 = [[1][2], [3][4]]; shallow =
copy.copy(list1); deep = copy.deepcopy(list1)2.

11. What is the difference between args and kwargs in

Python functions?

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*args allows a function to accept any number of positional arguments, which are collected as a
tuple. **kwargs allows a function to accept any number of keyword arguments, which are
collected as a dictionary. They provide flexibility when defining functions with variable numbers
of arguments.

12. How does Python memory management work?

Python has an automatic memory management system that uses a combination of reference
counting and a garbage collector. When an object's reference count drops to zero, Python's
garbage collector reclaims the memory. The system handles memory allocation and
deallocation transparently to the programmer2.

13. What is the purpose of __name__ == "__main__" in

Python?
This conditional statement checks whether the current file is being run directly or imported as a
module. Code within this block only executes if the file is run as the main program, not when it's
imported elsewhere. Example: if __name__ == "__main__": print("Running
directly") else: print("Imported as module")2.

14. Explain the use of lambda functions in Python.

A lambda function is an anonymous, one-line function defined with the lambda keyword. It's
often used for short operations or as arguments in higher-order functions. Example: add =
lambda x, y: x + y; print(add(3, 5)) # Output: 82.

15. How do you perform list slicing in Python?

List slicing allows you to access a subset of a list by specifying start, stop, and step values using
the syntax list[start:stop:step]. Example: numbers = [1][2][3][4][5]; subset
= numbers[1:5:2]; print(subset) # Output: [1][3]2.

16. What is PEP 8?

PEP 8 is Python's style guide that provides coding conventions for writing clean and readable
Python code. It covers topics like indentation (4 spaces), maximum line length (79 characters),
naming conventions, and other formatting recommendations.

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17. What is the difference between Python 2 and Python
3?
Key differences include: print statement vs. print function, integer division behavior, string
handling (Unicode vs. ASCII), exception handling syntax, range vs. xrange, and various library
reorganizations. Python 2 reached end-of-life in 2020, so Python 3 is now the standard.

18. What are mutable and immutable data types in

Python?
Mutable objects can be changed after creation (lists, dictionaries, sets). Immutable objects
cannot be changed after creation (integers, floats, strings, tuples, frozensets). Understanding
mutability is crucial for predicting how data will behave when passed to functions.

19. How do you create a virtual environment in Python?

Virtual environments are isolated Python environments for projects. Create one using: python
-m venv env_name, then activate it with source env_name/bin/activate (Linux/Mac) or
env_name\Scripts\activate (Windows). They help manage dependencies for different
projects.

20. What is a decorator in Python?

A decorator is a design pattern that allows adding new functionality to an existing object without
modifying its structure. In Python, decorators are functions that take another function as an
argument, add some functionality, and return another function.

21. What is the difference between == and is operators?

== checks if two objects have the same value (equality), while is checks if two variables refer
to the same object in memory (identity). For example, a = [1][2][3] and b = [1][2][3],
then a == b returns True, but a is b returns False.

22. How do you handle exceptions in Python?

Exceptions are handled using try-except blocks. The code that might raise an exception is
placed in the try block, and the code to handle the exception is in the except block. Additional
blocks like else (executes if no exception) and finally (always executes) can also be used.

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23. What are modules in Python?
A module is a file containing Python code with definitions and statements. It allows organizing
related code into a single unit that can be imported and used in other Python files, promoting
code reuse and maintainability.

24. What is a package in Python?

A package is a directory with Python files and a __init__.py file that indicates the directory
should be treated as a package. Packages allow organizing related modules into a hierarchical
structure, providing better code organization for larger projects.

25. How do you read and write files in Python?

Files are opened using the open() function with a mode parameter ('r' for reading, 'w' for
writing, 'a' for appending). Best practice is to use the with statement: with
open('filename.txt', 'r') as f: content = f.read() which automatically closes
the file when done.

26. What is a list comprehension?

List comprehension is a concise way to create lists. Syntax: [expression for item in
iterable if condition]. Example: [x**2 for x in range(10) if x % 2 == 0]
creates a list of squares of even numbers from 0 to 9.

27. What is the difference between append() and

extend() methods for lists?
append() adds a single element to the end of a list, even if that element is itself a list (creating
a nested list). extend() adds each element of an iterable to the end of the list, effectively
concatenating two lists.

28. What are dictionary comprehensions?

Dictionary comprehensions create dictionaries using a syntax similar to list comprehensions:
{key_expr: value_expr for item in iterable if condition}. Example: {x:
x**2 for x in range(5)} creates {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16}.

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29. What is the zip() function used for?
The zip() function takes iterables as arguments and returns an iterator of tuples where each
tuple contains elements from each iterable. It's useful for combining related data from multiple
sources. Example: list(zip([1][2], ['a', 'b'])) gives [(1, 'a'), (2, 'b')].

30. How does string formatting work in Python?

Python offers multiple ways to format strings: (1) f-strings: f"Hello, {name}", (2) format()
method: "Hello, {}".format(name), (3) % operator: "Hello, %s" % name. F-strings
(available in Python 3.6+) are the most readable and recommended method.

31. What is a tuple unpacking?

Tuple unpacking is assigning the elements of a tuple to individual variables: a, b, c = (1,
2, 3) or simply a, b, c = 1, 2, 3. It works with any iterable, not just tuples. It's useful for
multiple assignments, function returns, and swapping values.

32. What is the purpose of an __init__.py file?

The __init__.py file indicates that a directory should be treated as a package. It can be
empty or contain initialization code for the package. In Python 3.3+, it's optional for regular
packages but still required for implicit namespace packages.

33. How do you handle dates and times in Python?

Python's datetime module provides classes for working with dates and times. Key classes
include: datetime (date and time), date (just date), time (just time), and timedelta
(duration). The module also provides formatting and parsing methods.

34. What is the difference between range() and

xrange()?
In Python 3, range() returns a range object (similar to Python 2's xrange()), which is
memory-efficient as it generates values on demand rather than storing all numbers in memory.
Python 2's range() returned a list of all numbers. xrange() no longer exists in Python 3.

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35. What is the purpose of pass statement in Python?
The pass statement is a null operation that does nothing when executed. It's used as a
placeholder in functions, classes, loops, or conditional blocks where code will eventually be
added but is not yet implemented. It allows syntactically correct code that does nothing.

36. What is a dictionary in Python?

A dictionary is an unordered collection of key-value pairs. Keys are unique and immutable
(typically strings or numbers), while values can be any data type. Dictionaries are optimized for
retrieving values when the key is known. Syntax: dict = {'key1': value1, 'key2':
value2}.

37. What is a set in Python?

A set is an unordered collection of unique elements. It supports mathematical set operations like
union, intersection, difference, and symmetric difference. Sets are defined using curly braces or
the set() constructor: my_set = {1, 2, 3} or my_set = set([1][2][3]).

38. What is the difference between remove() and pop()

methods for sets?
remove(item) removes the specified element from the set and raises a KeyError if the
element doesn't exist. pop() removes and returns an arbitrary element from the set and raises
a KeyError if the set is empty.

39. What are generator functions in Python?

Generator functions use the yield keyword instead of return to return values one at a time.
They generate values on demand, which saves memory when dealing with large datasets. The
function state is preserved between yields, allowing for resumable iterations.

40. What are the differences between Python's sort()

and sorted()?

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sort() is a list method that sorts the list in-place (modifies the original list) and returns None.
sorted() is a built-in function that works on any iterable and returns a new sorted list without
modifying the original iterable.

41. What is a class method in Python?

A class method is a method bound to the class and not the instance. It's defined using the
@classmethod decorator and takes cls (the class) as its first parameter instead of self. It
can access and modify class state that applies across all instances.

42. What is a static method in Python?

A static method is a method that doesn't access or modify the class or instance state. It's
defined using the @staticmethod decorator and doesn't take self or cls parameters. It's
included in a class because it logically belongs to the class's functionality.

43. What is multiple inheritance in Python?

Multiple inheritance allows a class to inherit attributes and methods from more than one parent
class. Python uses the Method Resolution Order (MRO) to determine the order in which it
searches for methods in the inheritance hierarchy.

44. What is method overriding in Python?

Method overriding occurs when a derived class provides a specific implementation of a method
that is already defined in its base class. The overridden method in the derived class has the
same name, parameters, and return type as the method in the base class.

45. What is the super() function in Python?

The super() function allows calling methods defined in a parent or sibling class. It returns a
temporary object of the superclass that allows calling its methods. It's commonly used in
constructors to call the parent class's constructor: super().__init__(args).

46. What are magic methods or dunder methods in

Python?
Magic or dunder (double underscore) methods have special names starting and ending with
double underscores, like __init__, __str__, or __add__. They allow classes to implement

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operator overloading and special behaviors. For example, __str__ determines string
representation.

47. How do you create a custom exception class in

Python?
Custom exceptions are created by subclassing the built-in Exception class or one of its
subclasses: class MyCustomError(Exception): pass. This allows raising more specific
exceptions that provide better context about errors in your code.

48. What is the difference between a shallow copy and a

deep copy?
A shallow copy creates a new object but doesn't create new objects for nested elements, so it
copies references to nested objects. A deep copy creates a completely independent clone,
copying all nested objects recursively. The copy module provides both capabilities.

49. What are context managers and the with statement?

Context managers are objects that define the methods __enter__ and __exit__, allowing
resource management through the with statement. The with statement ensures proper
acquisition and release of resources (like file handles) even if an exception occurs.

50. What are lambda functions in Python?

Lambda functions are anonymous, single-expression functions defined with the lambda
keyword. They can accept multiple arguments but contain only one expression: lambda
arguments: expression. They're typically used for short operations or as arguments to
higher-order functions.

51. What is recursion in Python?

Recursion is when a function calls itself during execution. It's used for problems that can be
broken down into simpler versions of the same problem. Every recursive function needs a base
case to prevent infinite recursion. Example: calculating factorial recursively.

52. What is the pass statement in Python?

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The pass statement is a null operation that does nothing when executed. It's used as a
placeholder when syntax requires a statement but no action is needed, commonly in function
stubs, empty classes, or as a placeholder during development.

53. What are the different ways to import modules in

Python?
Modules can be imported using: (1) import module_name - imports the entire module, (2)
from module_name import function_name - imports specific items, (3) from
module_name import * - imports all items (not recommended), (4) import module_name
as alias - imports with a different name.

54. What is the use of underscore (_) in Python?

Underscore has several uses in Python: (1) as a throwaway variable for values that won't be
used, (2) to store the last expression in interactive interpreter, (3) to separate digits in large
numbers for readability, (4) in naming patterns to indicate private variables and methods.

55. What is a namespace in Python?

A namespace is a container that holds a set of identifiers (names) and their corresponding
objects. It helps avoid naming conflicts. Python has built-in, global, and local namespaces. The
dir() function can be used to explore the contents of a namespace.

56. How do you create a multidimensional list in Python?

Multidimensional lists are created by nesting lists: matrix = [[1][2][3], [4][5][6],
[7][8][9]]. Elements are accessed using multiple indices: matrix[1][2] would return 6.
These are useful for representing grids, matrices, and other structured data.

57. What is list slicing in Python?

List slicing extracts a portion of a list using the syntax list[start:stop:step]. The start
index is inclusive, and the stop index is exclusive. If omitted, start defaults to 0, stop defaults to
the list's length, and step defaults to 1. Negative indices count from the end.

58. What is the difference between str() and repr()

functions in Python?
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str() returns a user-friendly, readable string representation of an object, intended for display to
end-users. repr() returns an unambiguous string representation of an object, often containing
extra information, mainly intended for developers and debugging.

59. What is a generator expression in Python?

A generator expression creates an iterator using a syntax similar to list comprehension but with
parentheses instead of brackets: (x**2 for x in range(10)). Unlike list comprehensions,
they generate values on demand, saving memory for large sequences.

60. What is the purpose of docstrings in Python?

Docstrings are string literals that appear as the first statement in a module, class, method, or
function. They document what the code does and how to use it. They are accessible via the
__doc__ attribute or the help() function, supporting automated documentation generation.

61. What are the formatting options in Python's f-strings?

F-strings (formatted string literals) can include expressions inside curly braces {} which are
evaluated at runtime. They support formatting options like precision for floats
f"{value:.2f}", alignment f"{value:>10}", and date formatting f"{date:%Y-%m-%d}",
among others.

62. What is the difference between a function and a

method in Python?
A function is a standalone block of code defined with the def keyword that performs a specific
task. A method is a function that is associated with an object and has access to the object's data
through self. Methods are defined within classes and operate on class instances.

63. How does Python manage memory?

Python uses reference counting and garbage collection. Reference counting tracks how many
references point to an object and deallocates it when the count reaches zero. The garbage
collector identifies and cleans up reference cycles (objects referencing each other) that
reference counting can't handle.

64. What is duck typing in Python?

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Duck typing is a concept where the type or class of an object is less important than the methods
it defines or properties it has. "If it walks like a duck and quacks like a duck, it's a duck." This
allows for flexible programming focused on what objects can do rather than what they are.

65. What is the purpose of __str__ and __repr__

methods?
__str__ defines the string representation of an object for end-users (called by str()), while
__repr__ defines the string representation for developers (called by repr()). If __str__ is
not defined, Python falls back to __repr__. For debugging, implement at least __repr__.

66. What is the difference between is and == operators?

is checks if two variables refer to the same object in memory (identity), while == checks if the
values of two objects are equal (equality). For example, a = [1][2][3]; b = [1][2][3]
would give a == b as True (same values) but a is b as False (different objects).

67. How do you create and use sets in Python?

Sets are created with curly braces or the set() constructor: my_set = {1, 2, 3} or
my_set = set([1][2][3]). Sets store unique values and support operations like union (|),
intersection (&), difference (-), and symmetric difference (^).

68. What are dictionary comprehensions?

Dictionary comprehensions create dictionaries using a concise syntax: {key_expr:
value_expr for item in iterable}. Example: {x: x**2 for x in range(5)}
creates {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16}. They can also include conditional
expressions for filtering.

69. What is a Python module and how do you create one?

A module is a file containing Python code that can be imported and used in other Python scripts.
To create a module, write Python code in a file with a .py extension. This file can then be
imported using the import statement in other Python files.

70. What is the purpose of __name__ variable in Python?

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The __name__ variable is a built-in variable that indicates how the current file is being used. It
equals "__main__" if the script is run directly, and it equals the module name if the file is
imported. This allows code to behave differently when imported versus when run directly.

71. What is a decorator in Python and how does it work?

A decorator is a function that takes another function as an argument, adds functionality, and
returns a modified function. Decorators use the @decorator_name syntax above function
definitions. They allow adding functionality to existing functions without modifying their code
directly.

72. What are Python's ternary operators?

Python's ternary operator is a one-line conditional expression with the syntax: value_if_true
if condition else value_if_false. Example: "Even" if number % 2 == 0 else
"Odd". It provides a concise way to assign values based on conditions.

73. What is a list comprehension and how does it work?

List comprehension is a concise way to create lists: [expression for item in iterable
if condition]. It combines a for loop, optional filtering condition, and expression into a
single line that returns a new list. Example: [x**2 for x in range(10) if x % 2 ==
0] creates squares of even numbers.

74. What is the difference between range(), xrange(),

and enumerate() functions?
In Python 3, range() returns a memory-efficient range object (like Python 2's xrange()).
Python 2's range() returned a full list. enumerate() returns an iterator of pairs containing
index and value from an iterable, useful when you need both the element and its position.

75. What is the purpose of *args and **kwargs

parameters?
*args allows a function to accept any number of positional arguments, which are collected into
a tuple. **kwargs allows accepting any number of keyword arguments, which are collected

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into a dictionary. They provide flexibility when defining functions with variable numbers of
arguments.

76. What are Python's built-in data structures?

Python's built-in data structures include: (1) List - ordered, mutable collection, (2) Tuple -
ordered, immutable collection, (3) Dictionary - unordered key-value pairs, (4) Set - unordered
collection of unique elements, (5) String - immutable sequence of characters, (6) Frozenset -
immutable version of set.

77. What is the purpose of the with statement in Python?

The with statement creates a context where resources are properly managed (acquired and
released) even if exceptions occur. It's commonly used with files, locks, and connections.
Example: with open("file.txt") as f: content = f.read() ensures the file is
closed when the block exits.

78. What is the difference between append() and

extend() methods for lists?
append() adds a single element to the end of a list: list.append(5) adds 5 as a single
element. extend() adds all elements from an iterable to the end of a list:
list.extend([5][6]) adds each element individually. Using append([5][6]) would add
the entire list as one element.

79. What are Python's string formatting methods?

Python offers multiple string formatting methods: (1) f-strings (Python 3.6+): f"Hello,
{name}", (2) str.format() method: "Hello, {}".format(name), (3) % operator (old
style): "Hello, %s" % name. F-strings are the most modern, readable, and recommended
approach.

80. What is pickling and unpickling in Python?

Pickling is the process of serializing Python objects into a byte stream for storage or
transmission, using the pickle module's dump() or dumps() functions. Unpickling is the
reverse process of deserializing the byte stream back into Python objects using load() or
loads() functions.

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81. What is the difference between locals() and
globals() functions?
locals() returns a dictionary of the current local symbol table (variables in the current scope).
globals() returns a dictionary of the current global symbol table (global variables and
functions). These functions are useful for dynamically accessing and modifying variables.

82. What are the basic file operations in Python?

Basic file operations include: (1) Opening: open(file_path, mode), (2) Reading: read(),
readline(), readlines(), (3) Writing: write(), writelines(), (4) Closing: close().
The with statement is recommended for automatic resource management: with
open(file_path) as f: content = f.read().

83. What is the use of the enumerate() function?

The enumerate() function adds a counter to an iterable and returns it as an enumerate object.
It's useful when you need both the index and value of elements in a loop: for index, value
in enumerate(["a", "b", "c"]): print(index, value). An optional start
parameter sets the initial index value.

84. How do you handle exceptions in Python?

Exceptions are handled with try-except blocks: try: risky_code() except
ExceptionType as e: handle_error(e). Multiple exception types can be caught, and
optional else (executes if no exception) and finally (always executes) blocks can be added.
Specific exceptions should be caught before more general ones.

85. What is a dictionary and what are its features?

A dictionary is an unordered collection of key-value pairs. Features include: (1) Keys must be
unique and immutable, (2) Values can be any type, (3) Fast lookups by key, (4) Mutable (can
add/remove items), (5) Ordered in Python 3.7+ (insertion order is preserved), (6) Access by key
only.

86. What is a list in Python and what are its features?

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A list is an ordered, mutable collection of elements that can be of different types. Features
include: (1) Ordered (elements have a defined order), (2) Mutable (can add/remove/change
elements), (3) Allows duplicate elements, (4) Can contain mixed data types, (5) Accessed by
index, (6) Supports various methods like append(), extend(), insert(), remove().

87. What is the purpose of continue and break

statements in loops?
break immediately terminates the innermost enclosing loop. continue skips the rest of the
current iteration and proceeds to the next iteration of the loop. Both statements help control the
flow of loop execution based on certain conditions.

88. What is the purpose of return statement in

functions?
The return statement exits a function and optionally passes a value back to the caller. It can
return any data type, including None (default if no return value is specified). A function can have
multiple return statements, but only one will execute during any function call.

89. How do you define a class in Python?

A class is defined using the class keyword, followed by the class name and a colon. Class
definitions typically include an __init__ method to initialize new instances. Example: class
Person: def __init__(self, name): self.name = name; def greet(self):
return f"Hello, {self.name}"

90. What is inheritance in Python and how is it

implemented?
Inheritance allows a class (subclass/derived class) to inherit attributes and methods from
another class (superclass/base class). Syntax: class Child(Parent): pass. Multiple
inheritance is also supported: class Child(Parent1, Parent2): pass. Method
overriding and the super() function allow customizing inherited behavior.

91. What are Python modules and packages?

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A module is a single Python file that can be imported. A package is a directory containing
multiple modules and a special __init__.py file (optional in Python 3.3+). Packages organize
related modules into a hierarchical structure, making large codebases more manageable.

92. What is a tuple and why would you use one over a
list?
A tuple is an ordered, immutable collection of elements. Tuples are preferred over lists when: (1)
The data shouldn't change (immutability ensures data integrity), (2) As dictionary keys (lists
can't be used as keys), (3) For faster access than lists, (4) To store heterogeneous data items,
(5) For function returns with multiple values.

93. What is a set and how is it different from a list?

A set is an unordered collection of unique elements. Unlike lists, sets: (1) Don't allow duplicates,
(2) Are unordered (no indexing), (3) Are mutable but can only contain immutable elements, (4)
Support mathematical set operations like union and intersection, (5) Offer faster membership
testing for large collections.

94. What is the purpose of yield keyword in Python?

The yield keyword transforms a regular function into a generator function. When called,
generator functions return a generator object that produces values one at a time on demand,
conserving memory for large sequences. The function state is preserved between yields,
enabling resumable iterations.

95. What is the difference between append() and

insert() for lists?
append() adds an element to the end of a list: my_list.append(value). insert() adds
an element at a specific position: my_list.insert(index, value), shifting existing
elements to accommodate the new item. append() is faster as it doesn't need to shift
elements.

96. What are Python dictionaries used for?

Dictionaries are key-value stores used for: (1) Fast lookups by key, (2) Representing structured
data (like JSON), (3) Counting occurrences (frequency counters), (4) Caching results

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(memoization), (5) Representing objects with named attributes, (6) Mapping relationships
between values.

97. How do you convert between different data types in

Python?
Data types are converted using type constructor functions: int(), float(), str(), list(),
tuple(), set(), dict(). Examples: int("42") converts string to integer, list("hello")
converts string to list of characters, dict([("a", 1), ("b", 2)]) converts list of tuples to
dictionary.

98. What is the purpose of the __init__.py file in a

package?
The __init__.py file marks a directory as a Python package. It can be empty or contain
initialization code that runs when the package is imported. It can define what is exported with
__all__, run setup code, and import key functionality from submodules to simplify the
package's interface.

99. What is the use of if __name__ == "__main__"

idiom?
This idiom is used to distinguish between code being run directly versus being imported as a
module. Code within this block only executes when the file is run as the main program. It allows
files to serve dual purposes as both executable scripts and importable modules.

100. What is list unpacking in Python?

List unpacking (or sequence unpacking) is assigning elements of a sequence to multiple
variables in a single operation: a, b, c = [1][2][3]. The number of variables must match
the sequence length, or you can use * to collect remaining elements: first, *rest =
[1][2][3][4] gives first=1, rest=[2][3][4].

101. What is a dictionary comprehension?

Dictionary comprehension is a concise way to create dictionaries: {key_expr: value_expr
for item in iterable if condition}. Example: {x: x**2 for x in range(5)}

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creates {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16}. It's similar to list comprehension but
produces a dictionary instead of a list.

102. How do you access the elements of a list?

List elements are accessed using zero-based indexing: my_list[index]. Negative indices
count from the end: my_list[-1] accesses the last element. Slicing extracts subsequences:
my_list[start:stop:step]. Lists support methods like index() to find the position of a
value.

103. What is exception handling in Python?

Exception handling is managing runtime errors using try-except blocks to prevent program
crashes. The syntax is: try: risky_code() except ExceptionType:
handle_error(). Optional else and finally blocks can be added for code to execute
when no exception occurs and for cleanup code, respectively.

104. What is the purpose of the pass statement?

The pass statement is a null operation that does nothing when executed. It's used as a
placeholder where syntax requires a statement but no action is needed, such as in function
stubs, empty class definitions, or as placeholders during development.

105. What is the difference between sort() and

sorted()?
sort() is a list method that sorts the list in-place (modifies the original list) and returns None.
sorted() is a built-in function that works on any iterable, returns a new sorted list, and leaves
the original iterable unchanged. Both accept optional key and reverse parameters for
customizing the sort.

106. How do you create a class in Python and what is the

purpose of self?
A class is created using the class keyword: class MyClass: def __init__(self,
param): self.attribute = param. The self parameter refers to the instance being

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operated on, allowing the method to access and modify instance attributes. It must be the first
parameter of instance methods.

107. What are f-strings in Python?

F-strings (formatted string literals, introduced in Python 3.6) are string literals prefixed with 'f'
that contain expressions inside curly braces evaluated at runtime: name = "Alice";
f"Hello, {name}!". They offer concise, readable string interpolation and support formatting
options: f"{value:.2f}".

108. What is the use of the dir() function?

The dir() function returns a list of names in the current namespace. Without arguments, it lists
names in the current scope. With an object argument, it lists attributes, methods, and properties
of that object. It's useful for exploration and debugging to see what operations are available.

109. What is the purpose of the help() function?

The help() function displays documentation for modules, classes, functions, or methods. It
shows docstrings, parameters, return values, and other helpful information. It can be used in the
interactive interpreter to learn about Python objects: help(str), help(list.append).

110. How do you read user input in Python?

User input is read using the input() function, which returns a string: name = input("Enter
your name: "). To convert to other types, wrap the input in type constructor functions: age =
int(input("Enter your age: ")). In Python 2, raw_input() was used instead of
input().

111. How do you handle file paths in Python?

The os.path module provides platform-independent path manipulation functions. The newer
pathlib module (Python 3.4+) offers an object-oriented approach to file paths with the Path
class. Both help with joining paths, checking existence, getting file info, and normalizing paths
across different operating systems.

112. What is a Python method and how does it differ from

a function?
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A method is a function defined within a class, associated with an object, and accessed using dot
notation: object.method(). Methods automatically receive the instance (self) as their first
parameter. Functions are standalone and not associated with objects. Methods operate on
specific objects and can access/modify their data.

113. What is a list slice and how does it work?

A list slice creates a new list by extracting a portion of an existing list using the syntax
list[start:stop:step]. start (inclusive) and stop (exclusive) are the indices defining
the slice. step defines the interval between elements. All parameters are optional and can be
negative (counting from the end).

114. What is the else clause in loops?

The else clause in loops executes when the loop completes normally (not through a break
statement). For for loops, it runs after all iterations complete. For while loops, it runs when
the condition becomes false. It's useful for executing code only if the loop wasn't interrupted.

115. What is a function in Python and how do you define

one?
A function is a named block of reusable code that performs a specific task. It's defined using the
def keyword: def function_name(parameters): """Docstring"""; code_block;
return value. Functions can accept parameters, execute statements, and optionally return
values.

116. What is the difference between is and == operators?

is checks object identity (whether two variables point to the same object in memory). ==
checks value equality (whether two objects have the same value). For example, a =
[1][2][3]; b = [1][2][3] gives a == b as True (same values) but a is b as False
(different objects).

117. What is the purpose of the assert statement?

The assert statement tests a condition and raises an AssertionError if it's False. It's used for
debugging and validating assumptions during development: assert condition,

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"Optional error message". Assert statements can be disabled globally when optimizing
code with the -O flag.

118. What are Python decorators and how are they used?
Decorators are functions that modify other functions or methods. They use the @decorator
syntax above function definitions. Decorators wrap the original function, adding functionality
before or after it executes, modifying its arguments or return value, or replacing it entirely.

119. How do you handle file I/O in Python?

File I/O is handled with the open() function: file = open("filename.txt", "mode")
where mode can be "r" (read), "w" (write), "a" (append), etc. Best practice is using the with
statement for automatic closing: with open("filename.txt") as file: content =
file.read().

120. What is the difference between tuples and lists?

Lists are mutable (can be changed after creation), defined with square brackets [], and
typically used for homogeneous collections that might change. Tuples are immutable (cannot be
changed after creation), defined with parentheses (), and typically used for heterogeneous
collections that shouldn't change.

121. What are sets in Python and when would you use
them?
Sets are unordered collections of unique elements, defined with curly braces {} or the set()
constructor. Use sets when you need: (1) Only unique values, (2) Fast membership testing, (3)
Mathematical set operations (union, intersection, difference), or (4) Removing duplicates from a
sequence.

122. What is the purpose of the zip() function?

The zip() function combines multiple iterables element-wise into an iterator of tuples.
Example: zip([1][2], ['a', 'b']) creates an iterator yielding (1, 'a') then (2,
'b'). It's useful for: (1) Processing related data together, (2) Creating dictionaries, (3)
Transposing matrices.

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123. What is a lambda function and when would you use
it?
A lambda function is an anonymous, single-expression function: lambda arguments:
expression. It's used for simple functions that don't require a formal def statement, typically as
arguments to higher-order functions like map(), filter(), or sorted(). Example:
sorted(words, key=lambda x: len(x)).

124. How do you read lines from a file in Python?

Lines can be read using: (1) file.readlines() which returns all lines as a list, (2)
file.readline() which reads one line at a time, (3) Iterating directly over the file object: for
line in file:. The third method is memory-efficient for large files.

125. What is the purpose of the map() function?

The map() function applies a given function to each item in an iterable and returns a map
object (iterator): map(function, iterable). It's used to transform elements without writing
explicit loops. Example: list(map(len, ["a", "ab", "abc"])) produces [1][2][3].

126. What is the difference between a module and a

package?
A module is a single Python file containing definitions and statements. A package is a directory
of Python modules containing a special __init__.py file. Packages organize related modules
into a hierarchical structure, allowing for better code organization and namespace management.

127. What is the purpose of virtual environments in

Python?
Virtual environments are isolated Python environments that allow projects to have their own
dependencies regardless of what dependencies other projects have. They solve version
conflicts between projects, enable clean dependency management, and make projects more
portable and reproducible.

128. What is the purpose of the filter() function?

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The filter() function creates an iterator containing elements from an iterable for which a
function returns True: filter(function, iterable). It's used to select elements based on
a condition without writing explicit loops. Example: list(filter(lambda x: x > 0, [-1,
0, 1, 2])) yields [1][2].

129. How do you write to a file in Python?

Files are written to using the write() method after opening in write mode: with
open("file.txt", "w") as f: f.write("content"). For multiple lines, use
writelines() which takes an iterable of strings: f.writelines(["line1\n",
"line2\n"]). The file is automatically closed when the with block exits.

130. What is the purpose of list comprehensions?

List comprehensions provide a concise way to create lists based on existing sequences:
[expression for item in iterable if condition]. They combine mapping and
filtering operations in a single readable line, replacing longer for loops and temporary lists.

131. What is a generator in Python?

A generator is a function that returns an iterator using the yield statement instead of return.
It generates values one at a time on demand, rather than all at once, saving memory for large
sequences. The function's state is preserved between yields, allowing for resumable iterations.

132. What is a generator expression?

A generator expression is similar to a list comprehension but creates an iterator instead of a list:
(expression for item in iterable if condition). It uses parentheses instead of
square brackets and evaluates elements lazily (on demand), making it memory-efficient for large
datasets.

133. How do you handle missing keys in dictionaries?

Missing keys can be handled using: (1) get() method: dict.get(key, default) returns
the value or a default if the key isn't found, (2) setdefault(): sets and returns a default if the
key isn't found, (3) defaultdict from collections module, (4) try-except blocks catching
KeyError.

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134. What is the purpose of the __init__ method?
The __init__ method is a special method (constructor) automatically called when creating a
new instance of a class. It initializes new objects, setting initial attribute values and performing
any setup required. Example: def __init__(self, name): self.name = name;
self.created_at = datetime.now().

135. What is the difference between __str__ and

__repr__ methods?
__str__ defines a human-readable string representation of an object, intended for display to
end-users. __repr__ defines an unambiguous string representation, ideally an expression that
could recreate the object, intended for developers. If __str__ is undefined, Python falls back to
__repr__.

136. What is the purpose of the * and ** operators in

function definitions?
In function definitions, *args collects excess positional arguments into a tuple, and **kwargs
collects excess keyword arguments into a dictionary. This allows functions to accept variable
numbers of arguments. They can also be used when calling functions to unpack sequences and
dictionaries.

137. What are named arguments and default parameters?

Named arguments (or keyword arguments) are specified by parameter name in function calls:
function(name="Alice"). Default parameters have values assigned in the function
definition that are used if not overridden in the call: def greet(name="Guest"): return
f"Hello, {name}".

138. How do you import specific functions from a

module?
Specific functions can be imported using the from ... import ... syntax: from math
import sqrt, sin. This brings the named functions directly into the current namespace, so
they can be used without the module prefix: result = sqrt(16) instead of result =
math.sqrt(16).

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139. What is a dictionary in Python and how is it created?
A dictionary is a mutable collection of key-value pairs. It's created using curly braces with
key:value pairs, or the dict() constructor: my_dict = {"name": "Alice", "age": 30}
or my_dict = dict(name="Alice", age=30). Dictionary keys must be immutable
(strings, numbers, tuples with immutable elements).

140. How do you delete an element from a list?

Elements can be deleted using: (1) del list[index] to remove by index, (2)
list.remove(value) to remove the first occurrence of a value, (3) list.pop(index) to
remove and return an element at a specific index (defaults to the last element if index is not
provided).

141. What are format specifiers in string formatting?

Format specifiers control how values are displayed in formatted strings. Common specifiers
include: {:d} for integers, {:.2f} for floating-point with 2 decimal places, {:>10} for
right-aligned with width 10, {:<10} for left-aligned, {:,} for thousand separators in numbers.

142. What is the purpose of the enumerate() function?

The enumerate() function adds a counter to an iterable and returns an enumerated object
yielding pairs of (index, value). It's useful in loops when both the index and value are needed:
for i, value in enumerate(["a", "b", "c"]): print(i, value). An optional
start parameter sets the initial index value.

143. What is the purpose of the join() method in

strings?
The join() method concatenates elements of an iterable with a specified string as the
separator: separator.join(iterable). Example: "-".join(["a", "b", "c"])
produces "a-b-c". It's more efficient than using + for string concatenation, especially for large
numbers of strings.

144. How do you copy a list in Python?

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Lists can be copied using: (1) Slicing: new_list = old_list[:], (2) List constructor:
new_list = list(old_list), (3) Copy method: new_list = old_list.copy()
(Python 3.3+), (4) Copy module: import copy; new_list = copy.copy(old_list).
These create shallow copies (nested objects are referenced, not copied).

145. What is a deep copy and when would you use it?
A deep copy creates a completely independent clone of an object, copying all nested objects
recursively. It's created using the copy module: import copy; new_object =
copy.deepcopy(old_object). Use deep copies when you need to modify nested objects in
the copy without affecting the original.

146. What is the purpose of the with statement?

The with statement creates a context where resources are properly managed (acquired and
released) even if exceptions occur. It works with context managers implementing __enter__
and __exit__ methods. Common uses include file handling, database connections, and locks
in threaded programs.

147. How do you convert a string to uppercase or

lowercase?
Strings have methods to change case: (1) str.upper() converts to uppercase, (2)
str.lower() converts to lowercase, (3) str.capitalize() capitalizes first letter, (4)
str.title() capitalizes first letter of each word, (5) str.swapcase() swaps case of each
letter. These methods return new strings.

148. What is string interpolation in Python?

String interpolation is embedding expressions inside string literals. Methods include: (1) f-strings
(Python 3.6+): f"Hello, {name}!", (2) str.format(): "Hello, {}!".format(name),
(3) Template strings: from string import Template; Template("Hello,
$name!").substitute(name="Alice"), (4) %-formatting: "Hello, %s!" % name.

149. What is the purpose of the all() and any()

functions?

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all() returns True if all elements in an iterable are truthy (or if empty). any() returns True if at
least one element is truthy. They're useful for checking conditions across collections: all(x >
0 for x in numbers) checks if all numbers are positive.

150. What are the common string methods in Python?

Common string methods include: split() (divide into list), join() (combine list into string),
strip() (remove whitespace), replace() (substitute substrings), find()/index() (locate
substrings), startswith()/endswith() (check prefixes/suffixes), and case manipulation
methods like upper() and lower().

151. What is the purpose of the ord() and chr()

functions?
ord() returns the Unicode code point for a character: ord("A") returns 65. chr() converts a
Unicode code point to its character: chr(65) returns "A". These functions are useful for
character-level operations and conversions between characters and their numeric
representations.

152. How do you define a function with optional

parameters?
Optional parameters are defined by assigning default values in the function definition: def
greet(name, greeting="Hello"): return f"{greeting}, {name}!". Required
parameters come before optional ones. Optional parameters can be omitted in function calls:
greet("Alice") or specified: greet("Alice", "Hi").

153. What is method overriding in Python?

Method overriding occurs when a subclass provides a specific implementation of a method
already defined in its parent class. The overriding method has the same name, parameters, and
return type. To call the parent's method from the overriding method, use the super() function.

154. What is the difference between __str__ and

__repr__ methods?

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__str__ defines the string representation when str() is called or when the object is printed,
intended to be readable for end-users. __repr__ defines the representation when repr() is
called, intended to be unambiguous, often a valid Python expression that could recreate the
object.

155. How do you check if a key exists in a dictionary?

Key existence can be checked using: (1) in operator: if key in dictionary:, (2) get()
method: if dictionary.get(key) is not None:, (3) keys() method: if key in
dictionary.keys():. The in operator is most common and efficient, directly checking the
dictionary's keys.

156. What is duck typing in Python?

Duck typing is a programming concept where an object's suitability is determined by its methods
and properties rather than its type. "If it walks like a duck and quacks like a duck, it's a duck."
Python emphasizes what an object can do over what it is, focusing on behavior over type
hierarchies.

157. What is the purpose of the reversed() function?

The reversed() function returns an iterator that traverses an iterable in reverse order:
reversed([1][2][3]). It works with any sequence supporting the __reversed__()
method or with a sequence having __len__() and __getitem__(). It's memory-efficient as it
doesn't create a reversed copy.

158. How do you sort a list of dictionaries by a specific

key?
Lists of dictionaries are sorted using the sorted() function with a key parameter that specifies
a function to extract the comparison value. Example: sorted(people, key=lambda
person: person["age"]) sorts by the "age" key. The operator.itemgetter() function
can also be used.

159. What is the purpose of the globals() and

locals() functions?

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globals() returns a dictionary of the current global symbol table, containing global variables
and functions. locals() returns a dictionary of the current local symbol table, containing local
variables. These functions are useful for introspection and dynamic code execution.

160. How do you merge two dictionaries in Python?

In Python 3.9+, dictionaries can be merged using the | operator: combined = dict1 |
dict2. In Python 3.5+, use the unpacking operator: combined = {**dict1, **dict2}. In
older versions, create a new dictionary and update it: combined = dict1.copy();
combined.update(dict2).

161. What is the use of the itertools module?

The itertools module provides functions for creating efficient iterators. Common functions
include: count() (infinite counter), cycle() (cycle through an iterable), repeat() (repeat an
element), chain() (chain iterables together), groupby() (group elements), and
permutations()/combinations() for combinatorial generation.

162. What is the purpose of the collections module?

The collections module provides specialized container datatypes beyond the built-in types.
Common types include: Counter (count occurrences), defaultdict (dictionaries with default
values), OrderedDict (dictionaries that remember insertion order), namedtuple (tuple with
named fields), and deque (double-ended queue).

163. How do you remove duplicates from a list?

Duplicates are removed by converting the list to a set (which only contains unique elements)
and back to a list: list(set(my_list)). This approach doesn't preserve order. To preserve
order, use a dictionary or ordered set: list(dict.fromkeys(my_list)) (Python 3.6+) or
the unique_everseen recipe from itertools.

164. What is the purpose of the datetime module?

The datetime module provides classes for manipulating dates and times. Key classes include:
datetime (date and time), date (just date), time (just time), and timedelta (duration). The
module offers methods for creating, formatting, parsing, comparing, and performing arithmetic
operations on dates and times.

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165. What is a slice object in Python?
A slice object represents the indices specified by start:stop:step notation. It can be
created explicitly with slice(start, stop, step) or implicitly in slicing operations like
sequence[start:stop:step]. Slice objects can be stored, reused, and passed to
__getitem__ methods.

166. How does exception inheritance work in Python?

Exceptions form an inheritance hierarchy with BaseException at the top. Custom exceptions
typically inherit from Exception (or a more specific subclass). When an exception is raised, it
is caught by handlers for its own class and any of its parent classes. More specific exceptions
should be caught before their parent classes.

167. What is the purpose of the __del__ method?

The __del__ method (finalizer or destructor) is called when an object is about to be destroyed.
It's useful for cleanup operations like closing files or network connections. However, it should not
be relied upon for critical cleanup due to garbage collection timing uncertainties; context
managers or explicit cleanup methods are preferred.

168. What is the difference between str.find() and

str.index()?
Both str.find() and str.index() search for a substring and return the lowest index where
it's found. The difference is their behavior when the substring isn't found: find() returns -1,
while index() raises a ValueError. rfind() and rindex() are their right-to-left searching
counterparts.

169. What is a static method in Python?

A static method is a method that belongs to a class but doesn't access or modify the class state
or instance state. It's defined using the @staticmethod decorator and doesn't take self or
cls parameters. Static methods are included in a class because they are logically related to the
class's functionality.

170. What is a class method in Python?

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A class method is a method that is bound to a class rather than its instances. It's defined using
the @classmethod decorator and takes cls (the class) as its first parameter. Class methods
can access and modify class-level state that applies across all instances of the class.

171. How do you raise an exception in Python?

Exceptions are raised using the raise statement. You can raise built-in exceptions: raise
ValueError("Invalid input") or custom exceptions: raise
CustomException("Message"). Without arguments, raise re-raises the current exception
in exception handlers. Exceptions can include messages that provide context about the error.

172. What is the purpose of the assert statement?

The assert statement tests a condition and raises an AssertionError if it's False: assert
condition, "Optional error message". It's used for debugging, input validation, and
invariant checking during development. Assert statements can be disabled globally by running
Python with the -O optimization flag.

173. What is the use of the dir() function?

The dir() function returns a list of names in the current namespace. Without arguments, it lists
variables, functions, and classes in the current scope. With an object argument, it returns a list
of its attributes and methods. It's useful for introspection and discovering available operations on
objects.

174. What is a docstring in Python?

A docstring is a string literal that appears as the first statement in a module, function, class, or
method definition. It documents what the code does and how to use it. Docstrings are enclosed
by triple quotes and are accessible via the __doc__ attribute or the help() function.

175. How do you count occurrences in a list?

Occurrences in a list can be counted using: (1) list.count(item) method for a single item,
(2) collections.Counter for all items: from collections import Counter; counts
= Counter(my_list), (3) A dictionary comprehension: {item: my_list.count(item)
for item in set(my_list)}.

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176. What is the purpose of the id() function?
The id() function returns the unique identity of an object (its memory address in CPython). It's
useful for understanding object identity when working with references, determining if two
variables refer to the same object, and debugging memory-related issues.

177. How do you check the data type of a variable?

The type of a variable is checked using: (1) type(variable) returns the type object, (2)
isinstance(variable, type) checks if the variable is of the specified type or a subclass
of it. isinstance() is preferred when checking against inheritance hierarchies.

178. What is list comprehension and how does it work?

List comprehension is a concise way to create lists based on existing sequences:
[expression for item in iterable if condition]. It combines a for loop, optional
filtering condition, and expression in a single line. Example: [x**2 for x in range(10)
if x % 2 == 0] creates squares of even numbers.

179. What is the difference between a shallow copy and a

deep copy?
A shallow copy creates a new container but references the same nested objects as the original.
A deep copy creates a completely independent clone, recursively copying all nested objects.
Use copy.copy() for shallow copies and copy.deepcopy() for deep copies from the copy
module.

180. What is a closure in Python?

A closure is a function that retains access to variables from the enclosing scope even after the
outer function has finished execution. It "closes over" the free variables from the surrounding
scope, preserving their values. Closures are useful for data hiding, maintaining state between
function calls, and creating function factories.

181. What is a decorator in Python and how do you create

one?

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A decorator is a function that modifies another function. Basic structure: def
decorator(func): def wrapper(*args, **kwargs): # Do something before;
result = func(*args, **kwargs); # Do something after; return result;
return wrapper. Decorators use the @decorator syntax above function definitions.

182. What is recursion and when would you use it?

Recursion is when a function calls itself to solve smaller instances of the same problem. It
consists of a base case (termination condition) and a recursive case. Recursion is useful for
problems that can be divided into identical subproblems, like tree traversals, factorial
calculations, or the Tower of Hanoi puzzle.

183. What is the purpose of the super() function?

The super() function returns a proxy object that delegates method calls to a parent or sibling
class, following the Method Resolution Order (MRO). It's commonly used in constructors to call
parent constructors: super().__init__() and in method overriding to extend rather than
replace parent behavior.

184. How do you define a variable in Python?

Variables are defined by assigning values: variable_name = value. Python uses dynamic
typing, so no type declaration is needed. Variable names must start with a letter or underscore,
followed by letters, numbers, or underscores. Python follows snake_case naming convention for
variables: first_name = "Alice".

185. What is the difference between is and == operators?

The is operator checks if two variables refer to the same object in memory (identity
comparison). The == operator checks if two objects have the same value (equality comparison).
For immutable types like integers in a specific range, is may return True due to Python's object
interning optimization.

186. How do you implement inheritance in Python?

Inheritance is implemented by including the parent class in parentheses after the child class
name: class Child(Parent): pass. Multiple inheritance is supported by listing multiple
parent classes: class Child(Parent1, Parent2): pass. Child classes inherit attributes
and methods from parent classes and can override them.

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187. What is the purpose of the in operator?
The in operator checks if a value exists in a sequence (list, string, tuple) or collection (set,
dictionary): if item in collection:. With dictionaries, it checks keys. With strings, it
checks substrings. It returns a boolean and is useful for membership testing. The not in
operator provides the inverse check.

188. How do you swap values between two variables?

In Python, values can be swapped using tuple unpacking: a, b = b, a. This creates a tuple
of the right-side values, then unpacks them into the left-side variables. This is more concise and
efficient than the traditional approach using a temporary variable: temp = a; a = b; b =
temp.

189. What are Python's mutable and immutable data

types?
Mutable types (can be modified after creation) include: lists, dictionaries, sets, and user-defined
classes by default. Immutable types (cannot be modified after creation) include: integers, floats,
strings, tuples, frozensets, and bytes. Understanding mutability affects how data is passed to
functions and behaves in collections.

190. What is a ternary operator in Python?

Python's ternary operator (conditional expression) has the syntax: value_if_true if
condition else value_if_false. It's a one-line alternative to an if-else statement for
assigning values based on a condition: status = "Even" if number % 2 == 0 else
"Odd".

191. What is the purpose of the pass statement?

The pass statement is a null operation that does nothing when executed. It's used as a
placeholder where syntax requires a statement but no action is needed, such as in function
stubs, empty class definitions, or as placeholders during development. Unlike comments, it is a
part of the code structure.

192. What is a function annotation in Python?

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Function annotations are arbitrary metadata associated with function parameters and return
values: def func(param: annotation) -> return_annotation:. They don't affect
runtime behavior but provide hints about types or constraints. They're accessible via the
__annotations__ attribute and useful for documentation, type checking, and tools like mypy.

193. How do you create and use a custom exception?

Custom exceptions are created by subclassing existing exception classes: class
CustomError(Exception): pass. They're raised like built-in exceptions: raise
CustomError("Message") and caught in try-except blocks: try: code() except
CustomError as e: handle_error(e). Custom exceptions improve error specificity and
handling.

194. What is the purpose of the nonlocal keyword?

The nonlocal keyword declares a variable in a nested function referring to a variable from an
enclosing scope (not global). It allows modification of variables in outer functions from within
inner functions. Without it, assignments create new local variables in the inner function rather
than modifying the outer scope's variables.

195. What is the purpose of __name__ variable in

Python?
The __name__ variable contains the name of the current module. It equals "__main__" when
the script is run directly and the module name when imported. The pattern if __name__ ==
"__main__": allows code to behave differently when run as a script versus imported as a
module.

196. What is the use of the collections.Counter

class?
Counter is a dict subclass that counts hashable objects. It creates a counter from an iterable,
such as a list or string: Counter(['a', 'b', 'a', 'c', 'a']) gives {'a': 3, 'b':
1, 'c': 1}. It provides methods like most_common() for retrieving the most common
elements and mathematical operations for counter objects.

197. What is the purpose of the operator module?

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The operator module provides function equivalents for Python's operators. For example,
operator.add(x, y) is equivalent to x + y. It's useful in functional programming,
particularly with functions like map(), filter(), and sorted(). Functions like
itemgetter() and attrgetter() create key functions for sorting.

198. How do you split a string in Python?

Strings are split using the split() method: string.split(separator). With no
arguments, it splits on whitespace. A specific separator can be provided:
"a,b,c".split(',') gives ['a', 'b', 'c']. The rsplit() method splits from the
right, and splitlines() splits on line breaks.

199. What is the purpose of __init__.py file in

packages?
The __init__.py file marks a directory as a Python package. It can be empty or contain
initialization code that runs when the package is imported. It can define what's exported with
__all__, import submodules to simplify the package's interface, and run setup code needed
for the package.

200. What is the Global Interpreter Lock (GIL) in Python?

The Global Interpreter Lock (GIL) is a mutex that prevents multiple native threads from
executing Python bytecode simultaneously in one process. It ensures thread safety for Python's
memory management but limits true parallelism for CPU-bound tasks. The GIL is specific to
CPython (Python's main implementation) and doesn't affect I/O-bound or multi-process code2.

Conclusion
This comprehensive collection of 200 Python interview questions covers the fundamental
concepts that every beginner should understand before interviewing for Python-related
positions. These questions span the core language features, data structures, object-oriented
programming concepts, file handling, error management, and standard library functionality.

Mastering these questions and their answers will provide you with a solid foundation in Python
programming and prepare you for technical interviews. Remember that understanding the
concepts behind these answers is more important than memorizing them. Practice implementing
these concepts in your own code to reinforce your learning and build practical experience with
Python's features and idioms.

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Copyright © 2025 by SkillForgePrep
160 Intermediate-Level Python Interview
Questions and Answers
Below are 160 unique, intermediate-level Python interview questions and answers. None
overlap with the beginner topics previously covered.

1. What is a metaclass in Python?

A metaclass is a class of a class that defines how a class behaves. Classes are instances of
metaclasses, just as objects are instances of classes. You can use metaclasses to customize
class creation by overriding methods like __new__ and __init__.

2. How does Python's method resolution order (MRO)

work?
The MRO determines the order in which base classes are searched when executing a method.
Python uses the C3 linearization algorithm, which ensures a consistent and predictable order,
especially in multiple inheritance scenarios.

3. What is the difference between @staticmethod and

@classmethod?
@staticmethod defines a method that doesn't access class or instance data, while
@classmethod receives the class (cls) as its first argument and can modify class state.

4. How do you create an abstract base class in Python?

Use the abc module. Inherit from ABC, and decorate abstract methods with
@abstractmethod. Subclasses must implement all abstract methods before instantiation.

5. What is monkey patching in Python?

Monkey patching means modifying or extending code at runtime, such as adding or changing
methods in classes or modules dynamically.

6. How do you implement a singleton pattern in Python?

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Override the __new__ method to ensure only one instance is created, or use a module (since
modules are singletons by nature).

7. What is the difference between deepcopy and copy in

the copy module?
copy.copy() creates a shallow copy (references nested objects), while copy.deepcopy()
recursively copies all objects, creating a fully independent clone.

8. How can you make a class iterable?

Implement the __iter__ method (returning an iterator) and the iterator’s __next__ method,
or use a generator in __iter__.

9. What is a property in Python and how is it used?

A property allows you to define methods that can be accessed like attributes, using the
@property decorator for getters and @x.setter for setters.

10. How do you enforce encapsulation in Python?

By convention, prefix attributes with a single underscore for protected or double underscore for
name-mangled (private) attributes.

11. What are descriptors in Python?

Descriptors are objects that define any of the methods __get__, __set__, or __delete__,
and are used to manage attribute access in classes.

12. What is the purpose of the __slots__ declaration?

__slots__ restricts the set of attributes a class can have, reducing memory usage and
preventing dynamic attribute creation.

13. How can you implement method chaining in Python?

Return self from each method so multiple methods can be called in a single statement.

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14. How do you use the @dataclass decorator?
The @dataclass decorator (from the dataclasses module) automatically generates special
methods like __init__, __repr__, and __eq__ for classes with attributes.

15. What is the difference between a generator and an

iterator?
A generator is a function or expression that yields values lazily using yield. An iterator is any
object implementing __iter__ and __next__.

16. How do you implement custom context managers?

Implement the __enter__ and __exit__ methods, or use the
contextlib.contextmanager decorator with a generator function.

17. What is the GIL and how does it affect

multithreading?
The Global Interpreter Lock (GIL) allows only one thread to execute Python bytecode at a time,
limiting true parallelism in CPU-bound threads.

18. How can you achieve parallelism in Python despite

the GIL?
Use multiprocessing (multiple processes) instead of threading for CPU-bound tasks, as each
process has its own Python interpreter and memory space.

19. What is a weak reference and when would you use it?
A weak reference allows referencing an object without increasing its reference count, useful for
caches and avoiding memory leaks.

20. How do you create a custom iterator?

Define a class with __iter__ (returning self) and __next__ (raising StopIteration when
done).

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21. What is duck typing? Give an example.
Duck typing is when code relies on an object’s behavior (methods/attributes) rather than its type.
Example: any object with a __len__ method can be used with len().

22. What is the difference between isinstance() and

type() for type checking?
isinstance() checks for subclass relationships and is preferred for polymorphism, while
type() checks for exact type matches.

23. How do you create a thread-safe singleton?

Combine the singleton pattern with thread synchronization (e.g., using a threading.Lock).

24. What is the purpose of the nonlocal keyword?

nonlocal allows assignment to variables in the nearest enclosing scope (not global), useful in
nested functions.

25. How do you implement memoization in Python?

Use a dictionary to cache function results, or use functools.lru_cache for automatic
memoization.

26. What is the difference between @property and a

regular method?
@property allows method access via attribute syntax, enabling getter/setter logic while
appearing as a simple attribute.

27. How do you create a read-only property?

Define a method with the @property decorator and omit the setter.

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28. What is the difference between __call__ and regular
methods?
__call__ makes an instance callable like a function: obj(). Regular methods require explicit
invocation.

29. How do you implement operator overloading?

Define special methods like __add__, __sub__, __mul__, etc., in your class.

30. What is the difference between __eq__ and

__hash__?
__eq__ defines equality comparison; __hash__ defines the hash value (used in sets/dicts).
Objects that are equal must have the same hash.

31. How do you use the super() function in multiple

inheritance?
super() delegates method calls following the MRO, allowing cooperative multiple inheritance.

32. What is a namedtuple and how is it different from a

regular tuple?
A namedtuple is a tuple subclass with named fields, providing attribute access and improved
readability.

33. How do you serialize and deserialize objects in

Python?
Use the pickle module for binary serialization, or json for text-based serialization (only for
JSON-compatible types).

34. What is the difference between __getattr__ and

__getattribute__?
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__getattr__ is called only for missing attributes; __getattribute__ is called for all
attribute access.

35. How do you prevent a class from being subclassed?

Raise a TypeError in the __init_subclass__ method.

36. What is the difference between a shallow and deep

copy for nested objects?
A shallow copy copies the outer object but not nested objects; a deep copy recursively copies
all nested objects.

37. How do you implement a decorator that accepts

arguments?
Define a decorator factory function that returns the actual decorator.

38. What is the purpose of the __new__ method?

__new__ is a static method that creates a new instance before __init__ initializes it. Used for
immutable types and metaclasses.

39. How do you implement a custom iterable that

supports slicing?
Implement __getitem__ to handle both integer indices and slice objects.

40. What is the difference between @classmethod and

@staticmethod?
@classmethod receives the class as its first argument and can modify class state;
@staticmethod receives no implicit first argument.

41. How do you use the contextlib module?

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It provides utilities for context managers, such as contextlib.contextmanager for
generator-based managers and contextlib.closing.

42. What are type annotations and how are they used?
Type annotations specify expected types for function arguments and return values, aiding static
analysis and documentation.

43. How do you enforce type checking at runtime?

Use libraries like pydantic, enforce, or manual type checks with isinstance().

44. What is the purpose of the __del__ method?

__del__ is a destructor called when an object is garbage collected, used for cleanup, but its
timing is unpredictable.

45. How do you create a custom exception?

Subclass Exception and optionally override __init__ and __str__.

46. What is the difference between raise and assert?

raise explicitly throws exceptions; assert is used for debugging and can be disabled with
optimization flags.

47. How do you chain exceptions?

Use raise ... from ... to indicate direct exception causality.

48. What is a coroutine in Python?

A coroutine is a special generator that can consume values with yield or await (in async
functions).

49. How do you run asynchronous code in Python?

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Use async def to define coroutines and await to pause execution; use asyncio.run() to
execute.

50. What is the difference between yield and yield

from?
yield yields a single value; yield from delegates to another generator or iterable.

51. How do you implement a plugin architecture?

Use dynamic imports, entry points, or register plugins in a registry dictionary.

52. What is the difference between os.path and

pathlib?
os.path provides functional path manipulation; pathlib provides an object-oriented approach
with Path objects.

53. How do you monitor file changes in Python?

Use libraries like watchdog for cross-platform file system monitoring.

54. What is the difference between threading and

multiprocessing?
threading runs threads within a process (affected by GIL); multiprocessing runs separate
processes for true parallelism.

55. How do you share data between processes?

Use multiprocessing.Queue, Pipe, or shared memory objects.

56. What are futures and how are they used?

A future represents a result that may not be available yet; used in concurrent.futures for
asynchronous execution.

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57. How do you implement a producer-consumer pattern?
Use queue.Queue with threads or processes, where producers put items and consumers get
them.

58. What is the difference between map, filter, and

reduce?
map applies a function to all items, filter selects items by predicate, reduce combines items
using a binary function.

59. How do you use partial functions?

Use functools.partial to fix some arguments of a function, returning a new function with
fewer arguments.

60. What is function currying?

Currying transforms a function with multiple arguments into a sequence of functions each taking
a single argument.

61. How do you implement a decorator that preserves

function metadata?
Use functools.wraps to copy metadata from the original function to the wrapper.

62. What are context variables?

Context variables (from contextvars module) allow managing context-local state, especially
in async code.

63. How do you create a thread-safe data structure?

Use thread-safe collections like queue.Queue or synchronize access with locks.

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64. What is the difference between a lock and a
semaphore?
A lock allows only one thread at a time; a semaphore allows a fixed number of concurrent
threads.

65. How do you implement a barrier for thread

synchronization?
Use threading.Barrier to block threads until a specified number have reached the barrier.

66. What is the difference between Event, Condition,

and Barrier in threading?
Event signals between threads, Condition allows complex waiting and notification, Barrier
synchronizes a fixed number of threads.

67. How do you avoid deadlocks?

Carefully order lock acquisition, use timeouts, and minimize lock scope.

68. What is the difference between os.fork() and

subprocess?
os.fork() creates a child process as a copy of the parent (Unix only); subprocess runs
external commands and works cross-platform.

69. How do you handle signals in Python?

Use the signal module to register handlers for Unix signals.

70. What is the difference between

try...except...finally and with?
try...finally ensures cleanup code runs; with uses context managers for automatic
resource management.
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71. How do you handle timeouts in Python?
Use signal.alarm (Unix), threading.Timer, or timeout parameters in libraries (e.g.,
requests).

72. How do you profile Python code?

Use cProfile, profile, or timeit modules to measure performance.

73. What is the purpose of the gc module?

The gc module provides access to the garbage collector, allowing manual collection and
inspection of unreachable objects.

74. How do you avoid memory leaks in Python?

Break reference cycles, use weak references, and ensure resources are released (e.g., files,
sockets).

75. How do you implement a cache with a maximum size?

Use functools.lru_cache or collections.OrderedDict to implement an LRU cache.

76. What is the difference between deepcopy and

serialization?
deepcopy clones objects in memory; serialization converts objects to a storable format (e.g.,
pickle, JSON).

77. How do you parse command-line arguments?

Use the argparse module for flexible command-line parsing.

78. How do you create a CLI tool in Python?

Combine argparse for argument parsing and package with setuptools entry points.

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79. How do you read and write CSV files?
Use the csv module’s reader and writer classes.

80. How do you read and write Excel files?

Use libraries like openpyxl (for .xlsx) or xlrd/xlwt (for .xls).

81. How do you interact with a database in Python?

Use DB-API compatible libraries (e.g., sqlite3, psycopg2, mysql-connector) and ORMs
like SQLAlchemy.

82. What is an ORM and why use one?

An ORM (Object-Relational Mapper) maps database tables to Python classes, simplifying
database interaction and reducing boilerplate.

83. How do you prevent SQL injection in Python?

Always use parameterized queries or ORM methods, never concatenate user input into SQL
statements.

84. How do you send HTTP requests?

Use the requests library for simple, human-friendly HTTP operations.

85. How do you parse XML in Python?

Use xml.etree.ElementTree or third-party libraries like lxml.

86. How do you parse JSON in Python?

Use the json module’s load, loads, dump, and dumps methods.

87. What is the difference between json and pickle?

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json is text-based and interoperable; pickle is binary and Python-specific, supporting more
object types.

88. How do you implement logging?

Use the logging module, configure loggers, handlers, and formatters.

89. How do you log exceptions?

Use logger.exception() in an except block to log the stack trace.

90. How do you test Python code?

Use unittest, pytest, or doctest frameworks for automated testing.

91. How do you mock dependencies in tests?

Use unittest.mock to replace objects and functions with mocks.

92. How do you test asynchronous code?

Use pytest-asyncio or unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase for async test support.

93. How do you measure code coverage?

Use the coverage package to measure which lines are executed during tests.

94. How do you handle deprecation warnings?

Use the warnings module to issue or filter deprecation warnings.

95. How do you internationalize Python applications?

Use the gettext module for translation and localization.

96. How do you manage configuration files?

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Use configparser for INI files, json/yaml for structured configs, or environment variables.

97. How do you create a virtual environment?

Use python -m venv venv_name to create and activate isolated environments.

98. How do you package and distribute Python code?

Use setuptools with a setup.py or pyproject.toml, and upload to PyPI.

99. How do you document Python code?

Use docstrings, Sphinx for generating documentation, and type annotations for clarity.

100. How do you maintain backward compatibility?

Avoid breaking changes, use feature flags, and document deprecated features.

101. How do you handle circular imports?

Refactor code to avoid circular dependencies, use local imports, or restructure modules.

102. How do you monkey patch for testing?

Replace objects or functions at runtime, often using unittest.mock.patch.

103. How do you create a custom iterable that supports

both forward and reverse iteration?
Implement both __iter__ and __reversed__.

104. How do you implement a custom sorting order?

Define __lt__, __gt__, etc., or use the key parameter in sorted().

105. How do you implement a priority queue?

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Use heapq for efficient min-heap operations.

106. How do you implement a circular buffer?

Use collections.deque with a maxlen parameter.

107. How do you flatten a nested list?

Use recursion or itertools.chain.from_iterable for 2D lists.

108. How do you remove duplicates while preserving

order?
Use dict.fromkeys() or an ordered set implementation.

109. How do you merge two sorted lists?

Use heapq.merge() for efficient merging.

110. How do you find the most common elements in a

list?
Use collections.Counter’s most_common() method.

111. How do you implement a trie (prefix tree)?

Create a tree of nested dictionaries or nodes for prefix-based operations.

112. How do you implement a linked list?

Define a Node class and manage next pointers manually.

113. How do you implement a graph?

Use adjacency lists (dict of lists) or adjacency matrices (nested lists).

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114. How do you traverse a graph (BFS/DFS)?
Use a queue for BFS and a stack or recursion for DFS.

115. How do you detect cycles in a graph?

Use DFS with a visited set or parent tracking.

116. How do you implement Dijkstra’s algorithm?

Use a priority queue (heapq) and a distance dictionary.

117. How do you implement a binary search tree?

Define Node classes with left/right children and insert/search methods.

118. How do you balance a binary tree?

Implement AVL or Red-Black tree algorithms.

119. How do you serialize a tree?

Use pre-order or level-order traversal to convert to a list or string.

120. How do you deserialize a tree?

Reconstruct the tree from the serialized format using recursion or iteration.

121. How do you implement an LRU cache?

Use functools.lru_cache or a custom implementation with OrderedDict.

122. How do you implement a bloom filter?

Use a bit array and multiple hash functions for probabilistic membership testing.

123. How do you implement a set with custom equality?

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Define __eq__ and __hash__ methods in your element class.

124. How do you implement a custom hash function?

Override __hash__ to return an integer based on object attributes.

125. How do you implement a custom equality check?

Override __eq__ to compare relevant attributes.

126. How do you implement a custom string

representation?
Override __str__ and/or __repr__.

127. How do you implement a custom context manager

for database transactions?
Wrap connection/transaction logic in __enter__ and __exit__ methods.

128. How do you implement a retry mechanism for

function calls?
Use a decorator that catches exceptions and retries a specified number of times.

129. How do you implement exponential backoff?

Combine a retry loop with increasing sleep intervals (e.g., via time.sleep).

130. How do you implement rate limiting?

Track timestamps of recent calls and delay or reject excess calls.

131. How do you implement a simple web server?

Use http.server in the standard library or frameworks like Flask.

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132. How do you implement REST APIs in Python?
Use frameworks like Flask or FastAPI to define endpoints and handle requests.

133. How do you validate user input?

Use type checks, regular expressions, or validation libraries like pydantic.

134. How do you handle file uploads in web applications?

Use frameworks’ request handling (e.g., Flask’s request.files) and save files securely.

135. How do you implement authentication in web apps?

Use sessions, tokens (JWT), or OAuth libraries.

136. How do you implement authorization?

Check user roles/permissions before allowing access to resources.

137. How do you prevent CSRF attacks?

Use CSRF tokens in forms and verify them on submission.

138. How do you prevent XSS attacks?

Escape user input in HTML output and use secure templating engines.

139. How do you implement pagination?

Limit query results and provide navigation controls (offset/limit or cursors).

140. How do you implement background tasks?

Use threading, multiprocessing, or task queues like Celery.

141. How do you schedule periodic tasks?

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Use sched module, APScheduler, or external tools like cron.

142. How do you handle signals and graceful shutdown?

Register signal handlers and clean up resources on shutdown.

143. How do you measure memory usage?

Use tracemalloc, memory_profiler, or psutil.

144. How do you detect and fix memory leaks?

Profile allocations, use weak references, and ensure objects are released.

145. How do you optimize Python code for performance?

Profile code, use efficient algorithms/data structures, and consider C extensions or JIT (e.g.,
PyPy).

146. How do you use C extensions in Python?

Write modules in C using the Python C API or use tools like Cython.

147. How do you interface with external C libraries?

Use ctypes, cffi, or SWIG to call C functions from Python.

148. How do you use environment variables in Python?

Access with os.environ and set with os.environ['VAR'] = value.

149. How do you implement dependency injection?

Pass dependencies as parameters or use frameworks like injector.

150. How do you use the typing module for generics?

Annotate with List[T], Dict[K, V], TypeVar, and custom generics.

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151. How do you create a plugin system with entry
points?
Use setuptools entry points in setup.py and load plugins dynamically.

152. How do you create a custom build step in

packaging?
Define cmdclass in setup.py to override or extend build commands.

153. How do you use pyproject.toml?

Define build system requirements and metadata for modern packaging.

154. How do you use the __main__ module?

Implement CLI entry points and conditional execution with if __name__ == "__main__":.

155. How do you use the atexit module?

Register cleanup functions to run on interpreter exit.

156. How do you use the tempfile module?

Create temporary files/directories with automatic cleanup.

157. How do you create a cross-platform Python

application?
Avoid OS-specific code, use standard libraries, and test on all target platforms.

158. How do you internationalize error messages?

Use gettext and message catalogs for translation.

159. How do you handle Unicode in Python?

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Use Unicode strings (str in Python 3), encode/decode as needed, and specify encodings for
file I/O.

160. How do you debug Python code?

Use pdb, IDE debuggers, logging, and print statements for troubleshooting.

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160 Advanced Python Interview Questions
and Answers
1. Explain the CPython interpreter's execution model.
CPython compiles Python code into bytecode, which is executed by the Python Virtual Machine
(PVM). The interpreter uses a stack-based approach for bytecode execution, handling memory
via reference counting and a garbage collector for cycle detection9.

2. How does Python's garbage collection handle

reference cycles?
The garbage collector uses a generational approach with three generations. It periodically runs
a cycle detector that identifies unreachable reference cycles using trial deletion9.

3. What is the difference between __dict__ and

__slots__?
__dict__ stores instance attributes dynamically in a dictionary, while __slots__ preallocates
fixed memory for specified attributes, reducing memory overhead by 40-50% for instances9.

4. Describe the descriptor protocol with an example.

Descriptors implement __get__, __set__, or __delete__. Example:

python
class Celsius:
def __get__(self, instance, owner):
return (instance.fahrenheit - 32) * 5/9
def __set__(self, instance, value):
instance.fahrenheit = value * 9/5 + 32

5. How does asyncio's event loop manage coroutines?

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The event loop schedules coroutines using cooperative multitasking. It maintains a queue of
awaitables (Tasks) and uses await to yield control back to the loop15.

6. Implement thread-safe singleton with a metaclass.

python
import threading
class SingletonMeta(type):
_instances = {}
_lock = threading.Lock()
def __call__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
with cls._lock:
if cls not in cls._instances:
instance = super().__call__(*args, **kwargs)
cls._instances[cls] = instance
return cls._instances[cls]

7. What are Python's weakrefs and use cases?

Weak references allow object access without preventing garbage collection. Used in caching:

python
import weakref
class Data: pass
data = Data()
weak_ref = weakref.ref(data)

8. Explain __prepare__ in metaclasses.

__prepare__ returns the namespace dict for class creation. Used to customize attribute
ordering:

python
class OrderedMeta(type):
@classmethod
def __prepare__(cls, name, bases):
return collections.OrderedDict()

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9. Implement factory pattern with metaclasses.
python
class ProductFactory(type):
registry = {}
def __init__(cls, name, bases, attrs):
if 'product_type' in attrs:
cls.registry[attrs['product_type']] = cls
@classmethod
def create(cls, product_type):
return cls.registry[product_type]()

10. Optimize NumPy operations with vectorization.

python
# Non-vectorized
result = [np.sin(x) for x in large_array]

# Vectorized
result = np.sin(large_array) # 100x faster

11. Profile memory usage with tracemalloc.

python
import tracemalloc
tracemalloc.start()
# Code snapshot
snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
top_stats = snapshot.statistics('lineno')
print(top_stats[:10])

12. Dynamic class creation with type().

python
MyClass = type('MyClass', (Base,), {'x': 42, 'method': lambda self:
self.x})

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13. Modify classes at runtime using decorators.
python
def add_method(cls):
def method(self):
return "Added!"
cls.new_method = method
return cls

Advanced Libraries

14. Implement Dask for out-of-core computations.

python
import dask.array as da
x = da.random.random((100000, 100000), chunks=(1000, 1000))
y = x.mean(axis=0).compute()

15. Use Cython for performance-critical code.

python
# cython: language_level=3
def fib(int n):
cdef int a=0, b=1, i
for i in range(n):
a, b = b, a+b
return a

Networking and Async

16. WebSocket client with websockets.

python
import asyncio, websockets
async def client():
async with websockets.connect('ws://server') as ws:

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 await ws.send("Hello")
print(await ws.recv())
asyncio.run(client())

17. Handle backpressure in asyncio.

python
async def producer(queue):
while True:
await queue.put(data)
await asyncio.sleep(0) # Yield control

async def consumer(queue):

while True:
data = await queue.get()
# Process data

18. Secure pickle deserialization.

python
import pickle
class RestrictedUnpickler(pickle.Unpickler):
def find_class(self, module, name):
if module == '__main__':
return getattr(sys.modules[__name__], name)
raise pickle.UnpicklingError("global '%s.%s' is forbidden" %
(module, name))

Testing and Debugging

19. Property-based testing with Hypothesis.

python
from hypothesis import given

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from hypothesis.strategies import integers

@given(integers())
def test_addition_commutative(x):
assert x + 0 == 0 + x

20. Debug hanging asyncio tasks.

python
import asyncio
tasks = asyncio.all_tasks()
for task in tasks:
print(task.get_name(), task.get_coro())

21. Create platform-specific wheels.

python
# setup.py
from setuptools import setup, Extension
setup(
ext_modules=[Extension('fast', ['fast.c'])],
options={'bdist_wheel': {'plat_name': 'manylinux2014_x86_64'}}
)

22. Secure PyPI uploads with Twine.

bash
twine upload --sign --identity [email protected] dist/*

Advanced Type Hints

23. Structural subtyping with Protocols.

python
from typing import Protocol
class Flyer(Protocol):
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 def fly(self) -> str: ...

class Bird:
def fly(self) -> str:
return "Flapping wings"

24. Exception groups handling.

python
try:
raise ExceptionGroup(
"Multiple errors",
[ValueError(1), TypeError(2)]
)
except* ValueError:
print("Handled ValueError")
except* TypeError:
print("Handled TypeError")

25. How do you implement a thread pool using

concurrent.futures?
Use ThreadPoolExecutor to manage a pool of worker threads. Example:

python
from concurrent.futures import ThreadPoolExecutor
with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=5) as executor:
futures = [executor.submit(lambda x: x*2, i) for i in range(10)]
results = [f.result() for f in futures]

26. Explain the use of __getattr__ vs.

__getattribute__.
__getattr__ is called when an attribute isn’t found, while __getattribute__ is called for
every attribute access. Override __getattribute__ carefully to avoid recursion.
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27. Implement an LRU cache with a decorator.
Use functools.lru_cache. For custom:

python
from functools import lru_cache
@lru_cache(maxsize=128)
def expensive_func(arg):
# computation

28. How to handle signals in async programs?

Use loop.add_signal_handler in asyncio to register signal handlers that interact with the
event loop.

29. Create a custom exception with chaining.

Use raise NewException from original_exception to preserve the original
traceback.

30. Implement a descriptor for type checking.

python
class Typed:
def __init__(self, type_):
self.type = type_
def __set__(self, instance, value):
if not isinstance(value, self.type):
raise TypeError
instance.__dict__[self.name] = value

31. Use asyncio to timeout a coroutine.

python
try:
await asyncio.wait_for(coro(), timeout=1.0)
except asyncio.TimeoutError:

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 # handle

32. What are Python's coroutine objects?

Coroutines are created by async functions and can be awaited. They are managed by the
event loop.

33. Implement a context manager for transactions.

python
class Transaction:
def __enter__(self):
start_transaction()
def __exit__(self, *args):
commit_or_rollback()

34. How to profile memory usage in a Python script?

Use tracemalloc to track allocations and compare snapshots.

35. Optimize Python with Cython.

Annotate variables with cdef, compile to C extensions for speed.

36. Handle circular imports in large projects.

Refactor code, use import inside functions, or defer imports with sys.modules.

37. Use weakref for caching without memory leaks.

WeakValueDictionary holds references without preventing GC.

38. Implement a plugin system with entry points.

Use setuptools entry points in setup.py to register plugins.

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39. Secure Python code against injection attacks.
Use parameterized queries, avoid eval, sanitize inputs.

40. What is __init_subclass__ used for?

Hook to customize subclass creation, enforce constraints.

41. Use __subclasses__ to find all subclasses.

MyClass.__subclasses__() returns immediate subclasses.

42. Implement a state machine with coroutines.

Use async functions and await to transition states.

43. How does Python's MRO affect multiple inheritance?

MRO uses C3 linearization to resolve method order, preventing ambiguity.

44. Use enum for type-safe constants.

python
from enum import Enum
class Color(Enum):
RED = 1

45. Implement a custom JSON encoder.

Subclass JSONEncoder and override default.

46. Handle large files with memory mapping.

Use mmap module to map file into memory.

47. Implement a decorator with parameters.

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Nest decorator functions to accept args:

python
def deco(arg):
def wrapper(func):
def inner():
# use arg
return func()
return inner
return wrapper

48. Use __call__ to make objects callable.

Define __call__ method in class for instance() syntax.

49. Implement a binary protocol with struct.

Pack/unpack bytes with struct.pack('I', 42).

50. Optimize loops with vectorization in NumPy.

Replace Python loops with NumPy array operations.

51. Use multiprocessing.Manager for shared state.

manager.list() allows processes to share a list.

52. Handle subprocesses with asyncio.

Use asyncio.create_subprocess_exec and await output.

53. What are Python's coroutine decorators?

@asyncio.coroutine (deprecated) vs. async def.

54. Implement a WebSocket server with websockets.

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Use websockets.serve and handle connections in async loops.

55. Use inspect module for introspection.

Get function signatures, source code, etc., dynamically.

56. Implement a custom iterator with yield.

Use yield in a function to create a generator iterator.

57. Handle memory fragmentation in long-running

processes.
Use object pools, limit allocations, or restart processes.

58. Use __dict__ for dynamic attribute management.

Modify __dict__ directly to add/remove attributes.

59. Implement a custom collection with

collections.abc.
Inherit from MutableSequence and implement required methods.

60. Optimize string concatenation with io.StringIO.

Use StringIO for efficient appends in loops.

61. Use __getitem__ for slicing support.

Handle slice objects in __getitem__ to enable slicing.

62. Implement a thread-safe queue with queue.Queue.

Use Queue for producer-consumer patterns with threads.

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63. Handle SIGINT in asyncio applications.
Catch KeyboardInterrupt and cancel running tasks.

64. Use __prepare__ to customize class namespace.

Return an OrderedDict from __prepare__ to track order.

65. Implement a custom metaclass for validation.

Override __new__ to check class attributes before creation.

66. Use functools.singledispatch for function

overloading.
Register implementations based on argument type.

67. Handle recursion limits with

sys.setrecursionlimit().
Increase limit cautiously, but prefer iterative solutions.

68. Implement a custom exception with extra attributes.

Subclass Exception and add __init__ parameters.

69. Use __delete__ in descriptors for cleanup.

Define __delete__ to handle attribute deletion.

70. Optimize pandas DataFrame memory usage.

Use dtype parameter, category type, and downcast numerics.

71. Implement a custom logger with logging.

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Create a logger instance, add handlers, and set levels.

72. Use __annotations__ for runtime type checking.

Access __annotations__ to validate types dynamically.

73. Handle zip files with zipfile module.

Use ZipFile to read/write, extractall with precautions.

74. Implement a reverse proxy with aiohttp.

Use aiohttp.web to route requests to backend services.

75. Use __post_init__ in dataclasses.

Process initialized fields after __init__.

76. Handle POSIX signals in multi-threaded apps.

Use signal.pthread_sigmask to manage signal handlers.

77. Implement a custom pickling strategy.

Define __getstate__ and __setstate__ methods.

78. Use __reduce__ to customize object pickling.

Return a tuple specifying constructor and arguments.

79. Optimize with __slots__ in inheritance hierarchies.

Declare __slots__ in each subclass to save memory.

80. Handle database connections with context managers.

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Use contextlib.contextmanager for connection pooling.

81. Implement a retry decorator with exponential backoff.

Use tenacity library or custom decorator with retry logic.

82. Use __getattr__ for dynamic attribute lookup.

Fetch attributes from a remote API or lazy-load.

83. Implement a custom format specifier.

Define __format__ method to handle format strings.

84. Use __dir__ to customize dir() output.

Return a list of attributes for tab-completion.

85. Handle memory leaks in long-lived objects.

Use weak references, break cycles, and monitor with gc.

86. Implement a custom iterator with __next__.

Define __iter__ and __next__ for manual iteration.

87. Use sys.settrace for debugging.

Set a trace function to monitor code execution.

88. Optimize regex patterns with re.compile.

Precompile patterns for reuse in loops.

89. Handle CSV files with csv.DictReader.

Read rows as dictionaries with column headers as keys.
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90. Implement a custom HTTP server with http.server.
Subclass BaseHTTPRequestHandler and handle requests.

91. Use __get__ and __set__ for data binding.

Descriptors can trigger updates when attributes change.

92. Handle time zones with pytz or zoneinfo.

Use aware datetime objects for accurate time handling.

93. Implement a custom metaclass for method

registration.
Track methods in a registry during class creation.

94. Use __init__ vs. __new__ for immutable types.

__new__ creates the instance, __init__ initializes it.

95. Handle binary data with bytes and bytearray.

bytes is immutable, bytearray is mutable.

96. Implement a custom comparator for sorting.

Use key function in sorted() or define __lt__.

97. Use asyncio.Queue for producer-consumer

coroutines.
Pass messages between coroutines safely.

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98. Handle partial function application with
functools.partial.
Fix certain arguments of a function.

99. Implement a custom exception hook with

sys.excepthook.
Log uncaught exceptions or send alerts.

100. Use __getitem__ for multidimensional arrays.

Handle tuples of indices to support array[1,[2] syntax.

101. Optimize Python with JIT compilation using PyPy.

Switch to PyPy interpreter for CPU-bound code.

102. Implement a custom AST transformer.

Subclass ast.NodeTransformer to modify code at the AST level.

103. Use __getnewargs__ for pickle compatibility.

Control arguments passed to __new__ during unpickling.

104. Handle Unicode normalization with unicodedata.

Use normalize('NFC', text) for consistent string comparisons.

105. Implement a custom file-like object.

Define read, write, and seek methods.

106. Use __all__ to control from module import *.

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List exported names in __all__ to limit wildcard imports.

107. Handle HTTP/2 with httpx or hyper.

Use modern libraries for HTTP/2 support in async code.

108. Implement a custom codec for text encoding.

Register codecs with codecs.register for custom encodings.

109. Use __getstate__ to exclude transient attributes.

Omit non-pickleable attributes during serialization.

110. Handle system-level file operations with os module.

Use os.open, os.read, and os.write for low-level I/O.

111. Implement a custom memory allocator.

Use PyMem_RawMalloc in C extensions for custom allocation.

112. Use __debug__ for development-only code.

Conditional code: if __debug__: check_invariants().

113. Handle Python interpreter embedding in C.

Use Py_Initialize() and PyRun_SimpleString() to embed Python.

114. Implement a custom REPL with code module.

Subclass code.InteractiveConsole for custom read-eval-print loops.

115. Use __builtins__ to modify built-in functions.

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Override built-ins in a controlled scope (not recommended).

116. Handle Python wheel vs. egg packaging.

Use wheels for binary distribution, eggs are deprecated.

117. Implement a custom thread-local storage.

Use threading.local() to isolate data per thread.

118. Use __import__ for dynamic module loading.

Import modules by name: module = __import__('module').

119. Handle Python package versioning with

setuptools.
Define version='1.0.0' in setup.py for version metadata.

120. Implement a custom file system watcher.

Use watchdog library to monitor directory changes.

121. Use __set_name__ for descriptor initialization.

Automatically set the owner class and attribute name.

122. Handle Python in scientific computing with scipy.

Use scipy.optimize for advanced mathematical functions.

123. Implement a custom gradient descent in NumPy.

Define loss functions and update weights iteratively.

124. Use __getattr__ for lazy module imports.

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Import submodules only when accessed to reduce startup time.

125. Handle Python in machine learning with

scikit-learn.
Use sklearn.pipeline for streamlined model training.

126. Implement a custom PyPI mirror.

Use bandersnatch to mirror PyPI packages locally.

127. Use __future__ imports for forward compatibility.

Enable features like annotations with from __future__ import annotations.

128. Handle Python in web scraping with

BeautifulSoup.
Parse HTML/XML and extract data with selector queries.

129. Implement a custom JWT authentication.

Use pyjwt to encode/decode JSON Web Tokens.

130. Use __del__ for resource cleanup (with caution).

Release non-memory resources, but prefer context managers.

131. Handle Python in GUI development with tkinter.

Build cross-platform desktop apps with built-in toolkit.

132. Implement a custom plugin architecture.

Load plugins dynamically with importlib and entry points.

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133. Use __getattr__ for API proxy objects.
Forward attribute access to a remote service.

134. Handle Python in game development with pygame.

Create 2D games with sprite management and event loops.

135. Implement a custom ORM with metaclasses.

Track model fields and generate SQL queries dynamically.

136. Use __setattr__ to prevent attribute modification.

Override __setattr__ and raise AttributeError for immutables.

137. Handle Python in data visualization with

matplotlib.
Generate plots, histograms, and interactive visualizations.

138. Implement a custom DSL (Domain-Specific

Language).
Use parser generators like ply or lark for syntax parsing.

139. Use __dict__ for dynamic proxy objects.

Forward attribute access to another object’s __dict__.

140. Handle Python in automation with fabric.

Automate SSH tasks and deployment workflows.

141. Implement a custom code generator.

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Use ast module to generate and compile code dynamically.

142. Use __call__ for function composition.

Chain functions by returning new callable objects.

143. Handle Python in blockchain with hashlib.

Compute cryptographic hashes for blocks and transactions.

144. Implement a custom web framework.

Route HTTP requests and generate responses with wsgiref.

145. Use __prepare__ to inject helper functions.

Add utility methods to the class namespace during creation.

146. Handle Python in IoT with micropython.

Run Python on microcontrollers for embedded systems.

147. Implement a custom debugger with pdb.

Subclass pdb.Pdb to add custom breakpoint handling.

148. Use __getattr__ for deprecated attribute warnings.

Warn users when accessing outdated attributes.

149. Handle Python in finance with pandas_datareader.

Fetch financial data from Yahoo, Google, etc.

150. Implement a custom regex engine.

Use finite automata or backtracking algorithms for pattern matching.

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151. Use __slots__ for memory-critical applications.
Reduce overhead in classes with many instances.

152. Handle Python in NLP with nltk or spaCy.

Tokenize, parse, and analyze text for language processing.

153. Implement a custom garbage collection strategy.

Override gc module behavior for specialized memory management.

154. Use __getattr__ for dynamic API clients.

Generate API endpoints on-the-fly using attribute access.

155. Handle Python in DevOps with ansible.

Automate infrastructure provisioning and configuration.

156. Implement a custom pattern matching engine.

Use the match statement (Python 3.10+) for structural pattern matching.

157. Use __set_name__ for descriptor self-awareness.

Automatically bind descriptors to their owning class.

158. Handle Python in cybersecurity with cryptography.

Encrypt data, generate keys, and implement secure protocols.

159. Implement a custom bytecode optimizer.

Modify bytecode instructions for performance improvements.

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160. Use __getattr__ for dynamic mixin composition.
Combine behaviors from multiple classes at runtime.

This comprehensive list covers advanced Python topics, from metaprogramming and
concurrency to optimization and domain-specific applications. Each question tests deep
understanding of Python's internals and ecosystem.

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