Unit4 #include <iostream>

using namespace std;

// Function template to add two variables

template <typename T>

T add(T a, T b) {

return a + b;

}int main() {

// Adding integers

int int1 = 10, int2 = 20;

cout << "Sum of integers: " << add(int1, int2) << endl;

// Adding floats

float float1 = 5.5, float2 = 2.3;

cout << "Sum of floats: " << add(float1, float2) << endl;

// Adding doubles

double double1 = 3.1415, double2 = 2.7182;

cout << "Sum of doubles: " << add(double1, double2) << endl;

// Adding strings

string str1 = "Hello ", str2 = "World!";

cout << "Sum of strings: " << add(str1, str2) << endl;

return 0;

C++, templates allow you to write generic and reusable code. They are of two main types:

Uses of Class Template and Function Template

Function Template

Function templates are used to create a single function that works with different data types without
rewriting code multiple times.

Uses:

• To perform the same operation on different data types (e.g., add, swap, compare).

• Reduces code duplication.

Class Template

Class templates allow you to define a class with generic data types, which can later be specified when
the object is created.

Uses:

• To create generic data structures (like Stack, Queue, LinkedList).

• Helps in creating type-safe container classes.

Encourages code reuse and cleaner design

Unit - 1 Let’s break your question into parts and explain clearly in C++ (not “Coo”, which seems like a
typo):

What is Recursion?

Recursion is a process where a function calls itself to solve a smaller part of the original problem.

It is often used for problems that can be broken down into similar sub-problems, such as:

• Factorial

• Fibonacci

• Tree Traversals

• Tower of Hanoi

Conditions for Recursion

To avoid infinite recursion, two key conditions must be met:

1. Base Condition

• It stops the recursion.

• Example: If n == 0, return 1.

2. Recursive Call

• The function should call itself with modified arguments that bring it closer to the base case.

Different Ways to Call a Function in C++

In C++, functions can be called in the following ways:

1. Call by Value

• A copy of the variable is passed.

2. Call by Reference
• The original variable is passed using reference (&).

3. Call by Pointer

• The address of the variable is passed using pointers (*).

Example Program: Using Recursion and Function Call Types

We will:• Write a recursive function for factorial.

Use a simple function to demonstrate call by value and call by reference.

Unit2What is Inheritance in C++?

Inheritance is an Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) concept where a class (child/derived) can acquire
properties and behavior (data and functions) of another class (parent/base).

It promotes code reusability, extensibility, and maintainability.

Types of Inheritance in C++

1. Single Inheritance• One base class → One derived class

2. Multiple Inheritance• Two or more base classes → One derived class

3. Multilevel Inheritance• A class is derived from a derived class

4. Hierarchical Inheritance• Multiple classes inherit from a single base class

5. Hybrid Inheritance• Combination of two or more types of inheritance

Multiple Inheritance Example:

We will create a program using multiple inheritance to calculate the:

• Area of the surface of a cubic box

• Volume of a cubic box

Formula:• Area = 6 × side²

• Volume = side³

The "" syntax is used in user-defined literals, introduced in C++11, to extend the meaning of literal
constants (like 10_m for 10 meters).

This is done by overloading the operator"" function.

Example: User-Defined Literal for Distance Conversion

Let’s write a program that:

• Uses 1.0_m to represent meters

• Uses 10.0_cm to represent centimeters

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

// User-defined literal for meters -> returns value in centimeters

long double operator"" _m(long double val) {

return val * 100; // convert meters to centimeters

// User-defined literal for centimeters

long double operator"" _cm(long double val) {

return val;

int main() {

long double height = 1.75_m + 25.0_cm; // 1.75 meters + 25 centimeters

cout << "Total height in centimeters: " << height << " cm" << endl;

return 0;

What is an Abstract Class and Abstract Method in C++?

In C++, an abstract class is a class that cannot be instantiated directly. It is used to provide a base for
other classes.

A class becomes abstract when it has at least one pure virtual function.

Key Concepts

Abstract Class:• Contains one or more pure virtual functions.

• Used for inheritance and polymorphism.

• Cannot create objects of abstract classes.

Pure Virtual Function:• A function declared with = 0 in the base class.

Forces derived classes to implement this function.

Program: Calculate Area of Cube Using Abstract Class

We will:

• Create an abstract class Shape with a pure virtual function calculateArea().

• Inherit it in class Cube and implement the area calculation.

What is the Use of Constructor and Destructor in C++?

In C++, constructors and destructors are special member functions of a class used to manage object
initialization and cleanup, respectively.

Constructor in C++-A constructor is a special function that is automatically called when an object of a
class is created.

Uses:To initialize data members of a class.

• Automatically sets up the object when it is created.

• Can be overloaded to allow different ways to construct an object.

Destructor in C++

A destructor is a special function that is automatically called when an object goes out of scope or is
deleted.

Uses:• To free resources (like memory, files, etc.) that were allocated during the object’s lifetime.

Ensures clean-up before the object is destroyed.

2. Pure Virtual Function

A pure virtual function is a virtual function that has no definition in the base class and is declared by
assigning = 0.

A class containing at least one pure virtual function becomes an abstract class — it cannot be
instantiated.

Key Features:

• Declared in the base class without a body.

• Forces derived classes to override the function.

Makes the class abstract.

Xyz and abctxt

#include <iostream>

#include <fstream> // For file handling

#include <string> // For string operations

using namespace std;

int main() {

// Input file stream to read from XYZ.txt

// Output file stream to write to ABC.txt

ofstream outFile("ABC.txt");

// Check if input file opened successfully

if (!inFile) {

cout << "Error: Unable to open XYZ.txt for reading!" << endl;

return 1;

// Check if output file opened successfully

if (!outFile) {

cout << "Error: Unable to open ABC.txt for writing!" << endl;

return 1;

string line;

// Read line-by-line from XYZ.txt and write to ABC.txt

while (getline(inFile, line)) {

outFile << line << endl;

// Close the file streams

inFile.close();

outFile.close();

cout << "Data copied successfully from XYZ.txt to ABC.txt." << endl;

return 0;