Cambridge (CIE) A Level Your notes

Computer Science
Data Representation
Contents
Binary Prefixes
Number Systems
Binary Arithmetic
Uses of Number Systems
Character Encoding

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 Binary Prefixes
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Binary prefixes
What is a binary prefix?
A binary prefix is a unit prefix used to indicate multiples of bytes in binary
Consider the word kilobyte, "kilo" is the prefix
Bytes are the smallest unit of data that can be stored in a computer so there needs to be
a way of expressing bytes in larger multiples

Denary prefixes
A common way of expressing multiples of bytes is to use denary prefixes:

Denary unit Equivalent size (bytes)

1 kilobyte (1 KB) 1000

1 megabyte (1 MB) 1 000 000

1 gigabyte (1 GB) 1 000 000 000

1 terabyte (1 TB) 1 000 000 000 000

1 petabyte (1 PB) 1 000 000 000 000 000

This system relies on the assumption that 1 kilo = 1000

This assumption is based on the denary (base 10) number system
E.g. a 1 GB hard drive can store 1 x 109 bytes

Binary prefixes
However, computers use the binary (base 2) number system so the denary system is
technically inaccurate when describing storage
To be precise, expressing multiples of bytes is done using binary prefixes:

Binary unit Number of bytes (base 2) Equivalent size (base 10)

1 kibibyte (1 KiB) 210 1024

1 mebibyte (1 MiB) 220 1 048 576

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1 gibibyte (1 GiB) 230 1 073 741 824
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1 tebibyte (1 TiB) 240 1 099 511 627 776

1 pebibyte (1 PiB) 250 1 125 899 906 842 624

Notice the prefixes change depending on the system being used, e.g. kilo (denary) vs
kibi (binary)

Why does it matter?

The importance of the system being used depends on how precise you need to be
Identifying the total amount of memory (RAM) available to a computer must be
accurate (use binary prefixes)
E.g. 16 GiB RAM can store 16 x 230 bytes of data (64 719 476 736 bytes)
when describing storage space, a rough estimate is acceptable (use denary prefixes)
E.g. a 16 GB memory stick can store 16 x 109 bytes of data (16 000 000 000 bytes)

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 Number Systems
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Number bases
What is a number base?
A number base is the number of different digits or symbols a number system uses to
represent values
Each place in a number represents a power of the base, starting from the right

Denary
Denary is a number system that is made up of 10 digits (0-9)
Denary is referred to as a base-10 number system
Each digit has a weight factor of 10 raised to a power, the rightmost digit is 1s (100), the
next digit to the left 10s (101) and so on
Humans use the denary system for counting, measuring and performing maths
calculations
Using combinations of the 10 digits we can represent any number

In this example, (3 x 1000) + (2 x 100) + (6 x 10) + (8 x 1) = 3268

To represent a bigger number we add more digits

Binary
Binary is a number system that is made up of two digits (1 and 0)
Binary is referred to as a base-2 number system
Each digit has a weight factor of 2 raised to a power, the rightmost digit is 1s (20), the
next digit to the left 2s (21) and so on
Each time a new digit is added, the column value is multiplied by 2
Using combinations of the 2 digits we can represent any number

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 Your notes

In this example, Binary 1100 = (1 x 8) + (1 x 4) = 12

To represent bigger numbers we add more binary digits (bits)

32,768 16,384 8,192 4,096 2,048 1,024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4

215 214 213 212 211 210 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22

Hexadecimal
Hexadecimal is a number system that is made up of 16 digits, 10 numbers (0-9) and 6
letters (A-F)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

Hexadecimal is referred to as a base-16 number system

Each digit has a weight factor of 16 raised to a power, the rightmost digit is 1s (160), the
next digit to the left 16s (161)

16s 1s

1 3

1 x16 3x1 = 19

A quick comparison table demonstrates a relationship between hexadecimal and a

binary nibble
One hexadecimal digit can represent four bits of binary data

Denary Binary Hexadecimal

0 0000 0

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 1 0001 1
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2 0010 2

3 0011 3

4 0100 4

5 0101 5

6 0110 6

7 0111 7

8 1000 8

9 1001 9

10 1010 A

11 1011 B

12 1100 C

13 1101 D

14 1110 E

15 1111 F

Binary to denary & denary to binary

Binary numbers can be converted into denary and vice-versa
For example the 8-bit binary number 01101001 can be converted into denary using the
following method:

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 Your notes

Binary to denary conversion

Therefore the 8-bit binary number 01101001 is 105 as a denary value

To convert the denary number 101 to binary, we firstly write out binary number system

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Then we start at the left and look for the highest number that is less than or equal to 101
and if so, place a 1 in that column
Otherwise, place a 0 in the column
128 is bigger than 101 and therefore we place a 0 in that column
64 is smaller than 101 so we place a 1 in that column
101 - 64 = 37
This now means we have 37 left to find
32 is smaller than 37 so we place a 1 in that column
37 - 32 = 5
This now means we have 5 left to find
16 is bigger than 5 and therefore we place a 0 in that column
8 is bigger than 5 and therefore we place a 0 in that column
4 is smaller than 5 so we place a 1 in that column
5-1=1
This now means we have 1 left to find
2 is bigger than 1 and therefore we place a 0 in that column
1 is equal to the number we have left so we place a 1 in that column

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 64 + 32 + 4 + 1 = 101
Therefore the denary number 101 in binary is 01100101 Your notes
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

Hexadecimal to denary & denary to hexadecimal

To convert the denary number 163 to hexadecimal, start by dividing the denary value by
16 and recording the whole times the number goes in and the remainder
163 16 = 10 remainder 3
In hexadecimal the whole number = digit 1 and the remainder = digit 2
Digit 1 = 10 (A)
Digit 2 = 3
Denary 163 is A3 in hexadecimal
To convert the hexadecimal number 79 to denary, start by multiplying the first
hexadecimal digit by 16
7 ✖ 16 = 112
Add digit 2 to the result
112 + 9 = 121
Hexadecimal 79 is 121 in denary

Binary to hexadecimal & hexadecimal to binary

To convert the binary number 10110111 to hexadecimal, first split the 8 bit number into 2
binary nibbles

8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1

1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1

For each nibble, convert the binary to it’s denary value

(1 x 8) + (1 x 2) + (1 x 1) = 11 (B)
(1 x 4) + (1 x 2) + (1 x 1) = 7
Join them together to make a 2 digit hexadecimal number
Binary 10110111 is B7 in hexadecimal
To convert the hexadecimal number 5F to binary, first split the digits apart and convert
each to a binary nibble

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 8 4 2 1
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0 1 0 1 =5

8 4 2 1

1 1 1 1 = 15 (F)

Join the 2 binary nibbles together to create an 8 bit binary number

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1

Hexadecimal 5F is 01011111 in binary

Worked Example
Convert the positive binary integer 1010 0010 into hexadecimal. [1]
Answer
A2 [1 mark]

Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

What is Binary Coded Decimal?
Binary coded decimal is a number system that uses 4 bit codes to represent each
denary digit (0-9)

BCD Denary digit

0000 0

0001 1

0010 2

0011 3

0100 4

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 0101 5
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0110 6

0111 7

1000 8

1001 9

To represent the denary number 2500 in BCD format would be:

2500 = 0010 0101 0000 0000
BCD can be stored in a computer as either half a byte (4 bits) or as two 4 bit codes
joined to from a byte (8 bits)

Four single bytes

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 =2

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 =5

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 =0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 =0

Two bytes
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 = 2, 5

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 0, 0

One's & two's complement

What is one's complement?
One's complement is a method of representing both positive and negative numbers
To turn a positive binary number in to a negative the positive binary number is inverted
(0 becomes 1 and 1 becomes 0)

0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 = 72

1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 = -72

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 The issue with one's complement is that it can have two representations for 0 (positive
and negative)
Your notes
What is two's complement?
Two's complement is another method of representing both positive and negative
numbers
To turn a positive binary number into a negative:
Positive binary number is inverted
'1' is added to the right most bit
Using two's complement the leftmost bit is designated the most significant bit (MSB)
To represent negative numbers this bit must equal 1, turning the column value into a
negative
Working with 8 bits, the 128 column becomes -128

-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 = 72

invert

1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1

add 1

1 +

result

1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 = -72

8 bit two's complement can represent values between 0111 1111 (+127) and 1000 0000
(-128)
An alternative way of thinking about this is:
Starting from the right, keep all the bits the same up to and including the first 1
Flip the rest of the digits
0101 1000 becomes...
1010 1000

Key reasons to use two's complement

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Consistency
You don’t need different rules for signed and unsigned numbers Your notes
Whether you're adding +37 and +58, or −37 and +58, or −37 and −58, the binary
addition process is the same
Two’s complement works for any combination of positive and negative values
Hardware simplicity
CPUs are built to do simple binary addition
Two’s complement means:
The same adder circuit can handle everything
No special logic is needed to detect signs or subtract manually
It still works, up to a point
As long as the sum doesn't exceed the max value (+127 in 8-bit), you can add two
positive numbers with two’s complement without any issues

Worked Example
Convert the denary number 649 into Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) [1]
Answer
0110 0100 1001 [1 mark]

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 Binary Arithmetic
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Binary addition
What is binary addition?
Binary addition involves summing numbers in base-2, which uses only the digits 0 and 1
Like denary addition, start from the rightmost digit and move towards the left
Carrying over occurs when the sum of a column is greater than 1, passing the excess to
the next left column

Example addition

Worked Example
Add the following two binary integers using binary addition. Show your working. [2]
10011010+00101111
Answer

carry 1 1 1 1 1

1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0

+ 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1

1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

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 1 mark for working [1 mark]
1 mark for answer [1 mark]
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Overflow
What is an overflow?
Overflow occurs when the sum of two binary numbers exceeds the given number of bits
In signed number representations, the leftmost bit often serves as the sign bit; overflow
can flip this, incorrectly changing the sign of the result
Overflow generally leads to incorrect or unpredictable results as the extra bits are
truncated or wrapped around

Binary subtraction
To carry out subtraction, the number being subtracted is converted into its negative
equivalent using two's complement
The two numbers are then added together

Example
48 - 12

-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 = 48

0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 = 12

find two's complement of -12

0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 = 12

invert

1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1

add 1

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 1
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result

1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 = -12

Add 48 and -12

-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 = 48

1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 = -12

carries

1 1 1 1

result

0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 = 36

48 - 12 = 36
The additional overflow bit is ignored leaving a result of 0010 0100, denary equivalent
of 36, which is the correct answer
In two's complement arithmetic, the overflow bit does not contribute to the actual
value of the operation but is more of a by-product of the method

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 Uses of Number Systems
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Applications of Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
What are the uses of binary-coded decimal (BCD)?
Use Case Why BCD is used

Electronic calculators Keeps numbers in decimal format for easier display and
accuracy

Digital clocks and watches Time is naturally decimal (e.g. 12:45), so BCD makes
display logic simpler

Banking and financial systems Avoids rounding errors when doing decimal
calculations, especially with money

Old digital systems / Simpler to implement with hardware that displays digits
embedded systems individually

Binary coded decimal is commonly used in systems that need to display decimal
numbers clearly and accurately
BCD is ideal for applications like digital clocks, calculators, and financial systems where
decimal precision matters
Using BCD avoids rounding errors that can occur in binary-based arithmetic, especially
with money and time
It’s still found in older or embedded systems where simple hardware-based decimal
output is needed

Applications of hexadecimal
Why is hexadecimal used?
In Computer Science hexadecimal is often preferred when working with large values
It takes fewer digits to represent a given value in hexadecimal than in binary
1 hexadecimal digit corresponds 4 bits and can represent 16 unique values (0-F)
It is beneficial to use hexadecimal over binary because:
The more bits there are in a binary number, the harder it makes for a human to read
Numbers with more bits are more prone to errors when being copied
Examples of where hexadecimal can be seen:
MAC addresses

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 Colour codes
URLs Your notes
MAC addresses
A typical MAC address consists of 12 hexadecimal digits, equivalent to 48 digits in in
binary
AA:BB:CC:DD:EE:FF
10101010:10111011:11001100:11011101:11101110:11111111
Writing down or performing calculations with 48 binary digits makes it very easy to
make a mistake

Colour codes
A typical hexadecimal colour code consists of 6 hexadecimal digits, equivalent to 24
digits in binary
#66FF33 (green)
01000010:11111111:00110011

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 Your notes

URL's
A URL can only contain standard characters (a-z and A-Z), numbers (0-9) and some
special symbols which is enough for basic web browsing
If a URL needs to include a character outside of this set, they are converted into a
hexadecimal code
Hexadecimal codes included in a URL are prefixed with a % sign

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 Character Encoding
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Character sets
What is a character set?
A character set is all the characters and symbols that can be represented by a
computer system
Each character is given a unique binary code
Character sets are ordered logically, the code for ‘B’ is one more than the code for ‘A’
A character set provides a standard for computers to communicate and send/receive
information
Without a character set, one system might interpret 01000001 differently from another
The number of characters that can be represented is determined by the number of bits
used by the character set
Two common character sets are:
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
Universal Character Encoding (UNICODE)

ASCII
What is ASCII?
ASCII is a character set and was an accepted standard for information interchange
ASCII uses 7 bits, providing 27 unique codes (128) or a maximum of 128 characters it can
represent
This is enough to represent the letters, numbers, and symbols from a standard keyboard
The sixth bit changes from 1 to 0 when comparing uppercase and lowercase
characters
a 0110 0001
A 0100 0001
b 0110 0010
B 0100 0010
This made conversion between the two much easier
This speeds up the overall usability of the character set

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 Your notes

Part of the ASCII code table

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 ASCII only represents basic characters needed for English, limiting its use for other
languages
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Extended ASCII
What is extended ASCII?
Extended ASCII uses an 8th bit, providing 256 unique codes (28 = 256) or a maximum of
256 characters it can represent
Extended ASCII provides essential characters such as mathematical operators and
more recent symbols such as ©
This allows for non-English characters and for drawing characters to be included

UNICODE
What is UNICODE?
UNICODE is a character set and was created as a solution to the limitations of ASCII
UNICODE uses a minimum of 16 bits, providing 216 unique codes (65,536) or a minimum
of 65,536 characters it can represent
UNICODE can represent characters from all the major languages around the world
UNICODE was designed to create a universal standard that covered all languages and
all writing systems
The first 128 characters in the UNICODE character set are the same as ASCII

ASCII vs UNICODE
ASCII UNICODE

Number of bits 7-bits 16-bits

Number of 128 characters 65,536 characters

characters

Uses Used to represent characters in Used to represent characters

the English language. across the world.

Benefits It uses a lot less storage space It can represent more characters
than UNICODE. than ASCII.
It can support all common
characters across the world.
It can represent special
characters such as emoji's.

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Drawbacks It can only represent 128 It uses a lot more storage space
characters. than ASCII.
Your notes
It cannot store special characters
such as emoji's.

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