FLUID

MECHANICS
Dr. Tevfik Denizhan MÜFTÜOĞLU
Civil Engineer (Ph.D.)
 INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS
OBJECTIVES
When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to understand
the basic concepts of fluid mechanics and recognize the various types of fluid
flow problems encountered in practice, model engineering problems and solve
them in a systematic manner, have a working knowledge of accuracy,
precision, and significant digits, and recognize the importance of dimensional
homogeneity in engineering calculations.
In this introductory chapter, the basic concepts are introduced.

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We also discuss the no-slip condition at solid-fluid interfaces. After presenting the
concepts of system and control volume, we review the unit systems that will be
used. We then discuss how mathematical models for engineering problems are
prepared and how to interpret the results obtained from the analysis of such
models. Finally, we discuss accuracy, precision, and significant digits in
engineering measurements and calculations.

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 1-1 INTRODUCTION
Mechanics: The oldest physical science that
deals with both stationary and moving bodies
under the influence of forces.
Statics: The branch of mechanics that
deals with bodies at rest.
Dynamics: The branch that deals with
bodies in motion.
Fluid mechanics: The science that deals with the
behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in
motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction of
fluids with solids or other fluids at the
boundaries.
Fluid dynamics: Fluid mechanics is also referred
to as fluid dynamics by considering fluids at rest
as a special case of motion with zero velocity.
Fluid mechanics deals with liquids and gases in
motion or at rest.
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Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids that can be
approximated as incompressible (such as liquids, especially water, and
gases at low speeds).

Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics, which deals with liquid

flows in pipes and open channels.

Gas dynamics: Deals with the flow of fluids that undergo significant
density changes, such as the flow of gases through nozzles at high
speeds.

Aerodynamics: Deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over bodies
such as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or low speeds.

Meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology: Deal with naturally occurring

flows.
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 What Is a Fluid?
Fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the
application of shear stress. You will recall from physics that
a substance exists in three primary phases: solid, liquid,
and gas.

A substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred to as a

fluid. Distinction between a solid and a fluid is made on the
basis of the substance’s ability to resist an applied shear
(or tangential) stress that tends to change its shape.

A solid can resist an applied shear stress by deforming,

whereas a fluid deforms continuously under the influence of
shear stress, no matter how small it is.

In solids, stress is proportional to strain, but in fluids stress

is proportional to strain rate.
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FIGURE 1.2:Deformation of a rubber eraser placed between two
parallel plates under the influence of a shear force.

The normal component of the force acting on a

surface per unit area is called the normal stress,
and the tangential component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area is called shear stress (Fig. 1-
3).
In a fluid at rest, the normal stress is called
pressure.

In a liquid, chunks of molecules can move relative

to each other, but the volume remains relatively
constant because of the strong cohesive forces
between the molecules.

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As seen in the figure 1-4, the difference
between a gas and a liquid in a tank is
shown, where in a liquid free surface
occurs, on the other hand in a gas no free
surface occurs.

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In a liquid, the intermolecular forces are weaker relative to solids, but still strong
compared with gases. The distances between molecules generally increase
slightly as a solid turns liquid, with water being a notable exception. In the gas
phase, the molecules are far apart from each other, and a molecular order is
nonexistent. Therefore, the gas must release a large amount of its energy before
it can condense or freeze.

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 Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics

Fluid mechanics is widely used both in everyday activities and in the design of
modern engineering systems from vacuum cleaners to supersonic aircraft.
Therefore, it is important to develop a good understanding of the basic principles
of fluid mechanics.

Other application areas of fluid mechanics can be classified as human body

blood flow, the piping system of a city such as the clean water piping system,
natural gas, and sewage water piping system.

Knowledge and understanding of the basic principles and concepts of fluid

mechanics are essential to analyse and system in which a fluid is the working
medium. The design virtually all means of transportation requires application of
the principles of fluid mechanics.

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 Figure 1.7 Piping and plumbing systems

In recent years automobile manufacturers have given more consideration to

aerodynamic design. The design of propulsion systems for space flight as well
as for toy rockets is based on the principles of fluid mechanics. The design of all
types of fluid machinery including pumps, fans, blowers, compressors, and
turbines clearly requires knowledge of the basic principles of fluid mechanics.

Lubrication, heating and ventilating systems, homes, large office buildings,

underground tunnels, and the design of pipeline systems are further examples
of technical problem areas requiring knowledge of fluid mechanics. It is not
surprising that the design of artificial hearts, heart-lung machines, breathing
aids and other such devices must rely on the basic principles of fluid mechanics.
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On a broader scale, fluid mechanics plays a major part in the design and
analysis of aircraft, boats, submarines, rockets, jet engines, wind turbines,
biomedical devices, the cooling of electronic components, and the transportation
of water, crude oil, and natural gas. The rain cycle, weather patterns, the rise of
ground water to the top of trees, winds, ocean waves, and currents in large
water bodies are also governed by the principles of fluid mechanics (Fig. 1-8).

Figure 1.8 Some Applications

of Fluid Mechanics

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 Let us give more examples
Fluid dynamics is used extensively in CFD flow modeling (Computational
the design of artificial hearts. Fluid Dynamics)

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 Human Body Boats Aircraft and spacecraft

Power Plant Cars

Natural Flows and Weather
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Wind Turbines Piping and Plumbing Systems
Industrial applications

Target Flow meter Centrifugal Pump flow in stall condition 19

 1-2 THE NO-SLIP CONDITION

Figure 1.9. The development of

a velocity profile due to the no-
slip condition as a fluid flows over
a blunt nose.

All experimental observations indicate that a fluid in motion comes to a

complete stop at the surface and assumes a zero velocity relative to the
surface. This is known as the no-slip condition.

The no-slip condition is responsible for the development of the velocity

profile.
A consequence of the no-slip condition is that all velocity profiles must have
zero values with respect to the surface at the points of contact between a
fluid and a solid surface.

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When a fluid is forced to flow over a curved surface, such as the back side of
a cylinder at sufficiently high velocity, the boundary layer can no longer
remain attached to the surface, and at some point it separates from the
surface, a process called flow separation, it is shown down below (Figure 1-
10).

Figure 1.10. Flow separation

during flow over a curved surface

Figure 1.11. A schematic view of

a fluid flowing over a stationary
surface comes to a complete stop at
the surface because of the no-slip
condition.
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 Figure 1.12
Segment of Pergamon pipeline. Each clay pipe
section was 13 to 18 cm in diameter.

Above is the city of Hellenistic city Pergamon in present-day Turkey who built
a series of pressurized lead and clay pipelines.

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 Figure 1.13
A mine hoist powered by a
reversible water wheel.

One of the progress which its creator is unknown, however the

devices themselves were well documented by several technical
writers such as Georgius Agricola.

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 Figure 1.14
The Wright Brothers take flight at
Kitty Hawk.

Wright Brothers primitive invention containing all the major aspects of modern

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 Figure 1.15. The Wind Power Plant in Belen/Hatay, Türkiye

The kinetic energy of the wind is converted into mechanical energy by

the rotor of the wind turbine. The rotational movement of the rotor
shaft transfers the mechanical energy to the generator and the
generator transfers the mechanical energy into electric energy. The
electrical energy obtained from the generator can be stored in batteries
or delivered directly to the customers. (Figure 1-15) 25
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 1-3 Viscosity

All fluids when flowing exhibit a resistance to one layer moving

relative to an adjacent one. This resistance is described to the
fluid viscosity since relative motions imply the presence of shear
force the resisting forces is equal and opposite .

When two fluid layers move relative to each other, a friction force
develops between them and the slower layer tries to slow down
the faster layer. This internal resistance to flow is quantified by
the fluid property viscosity. Viscosity is caused by cohesive forces
between the molecules in liquids and by molecular collisions in
gases.

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 Figure 1.16.The flow of an originally
uniform fluid stream over a flat plate,
and the regions of viscous flow (next
to the plate on both sides) and inviscid
flow (away from the plate).

The development of viscous and inviscid

regions of flow as a result of inserting a
flat plate parallel into a fluid stream of
uniform velocity is shown in figure 1-16.

Viscous flow can be defined as the flows that involve the frictional effects.

Figure 1.17.
Definition of viscosity

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Newton postulated that, for the straight and parallel motion of a given fluid, the
tangential stress between two adjacent layers is proportional to the velocity
gradient in a direction perpendicular to the layers. When two solid bodies in contact
move relative to each other, a friction force develops at the contact surface in the
direction opposite to the motion.

Figure 1.18

Where  is the coefficient of the viscosity and has the unit of Ns/m2.Kinematic
viscosity is defined =/. For a constant temperature many fluids exhibit a
constant value of /. These are called Newtonian fluids. There are also several29
non-Newtonian fluids.
 Viscosity: Newtonian vs. Non-Newtonian

Latex
Paint

Corn
Starch

Newtonian Fluids have a Linear Relationships between stress and strain: Most
common fluids are Newtonian.
Non-Newtonian Fluids have a Non-Linearrelationship between stress and strain
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 1-4 Fluid Flow Classification
1-4.1 External and Internal Flow:The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface
such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe is external flow (see figure 1.19). The flow in a
pipe or duct is internal flow.

FIGURE 1.19.External flow

over a tennis ball, and the
turbulent wake region behind.

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Internal flow

Pumps and pipes

Internal flow around in a combustion engine 33

Open channel flow

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