NATIONAL DIPLOMA

IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

ELEMENT OF GEOINFORMATICS
COURSE CODE: (GIT 201)
LECTURE NOTE

MARCH 202

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1.0 GEO-INFORMATICS
DIFFINATION OF TERMS
Geo-Informatics: – Is a computer based system for mapping, acquiring,
processing, analyzing and disseminating geographic phenomena that exist on the
earth.
Geoinformatics provides an environment for the integration of geospatial data, models and
knowledge. An upper undergraduate level introductory geoinformatics course was
established at the University of Alaska Fairbanks in 2004, with collaborative efforts of three
academic schools, three research institutes, and two data providers. The course consists of
distinct but interrelated units on introduction to Earth system science, field data capture,
photogrammetry and remote sensing, geographic information systems, database
management, cartography, and geo-information visualization. Assessment data from two
years for this course reveal that students taking the course could use geoinformatics to address
a variety of Earth system science problems. The undergraduate course was retailored and
extended to train high school teachers. Parts of the course material were introduced to high
school students. Based on assessment data, observations, and experience in teaching the
course, the author recommends that spatial concepts should be reinforced from the beginning
in elementary schools, and components of geoinformatics should be integrated within the
science and geography curricula in secondary school. At the undergraduate level,
geoinformatics can be introduced as a specialization within an existing program, or as a
program by itself.

What is Geoinformatics?
The term geoinformatics is used globally with varying connotations, though it has its origin
and popular use in Europe. According to the International Institute of Geo-Information
Science and Earth Observations (ITC), the Netherlands, technologies supporting the
processes of acquiring, analyzing, and visualizing spatial data form the core of geoinformatics
(ITC, 2001). Other researchers consider geoinformatics as a new discipline integrating
elements of various disciplines that deal with geographic or geospatial data, i.e. data linked
to some locality on the surface of the Earth. These disciplines include, but are not limited to,
surveying, remote sensing, geographic information systems (GIS), cartography, geosciences,
informatics, computer science, statistics, and management (Virrantaus and Haggrén, 2000).

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In recent years the term geoinformatics became popular in the US Earth Science community
when the Geoscience Network (GEON), a National Science Foundation funded program,
adopted the term to describe a variety of efforts that promoted collaboration between
computer science and the geosciences to solve complex scientific questions using advanced
information technologies and integrated analysis (GEON, 2003).I define geoinformatics as
the collection, integration, management, anal y sis, and presentation of geospatial data, mod
els and knowl edge that support disciplinary, multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and trans-
disciplinary research and education. For further reading on the definition and differences
between multi-disciplinarity, inter disciplinarity and trans disciplinarity, the readers are
referred to the work of Ertas (2000), Ertas et al. (2000) and Nicolescu (2005).
The main objectives of this article are to (1) demonstrate how geoinformatics can play an
important role in the evolution of the systems approach to understanding the Earth, (2) share
with a wider education community the author's experience in creating and teaching an
interdisciplinary upper undergraduate level geoinformatics course at the University of Alaska
Fairbanks (UAF), and (3) recommend when and where components of geoinformatics should
be introduced into the formal educational curricula.

Map: – The representation of graphic portrait of spatial information, relationships

and phenomenon over a small segment of the earth or the entire globe.
Map is a picture or representation of the Earth's surface, showing how things are related to
each other by distance, direction, and size. Maps are a way of showing many things about a
portion of the earth's surface on a flat piece of paper that can be carried and transported
easily. A map is not a photograph of the Earth's surface. It can show many things that a
picture cannot show, and as a result, a map looks different in many ways from a photograph
of the Earth's surface.

Digital Mapping – The process of converting physical maps or data into digital map by
feeding the data into digital model (software) or using digitizers on maps which may be stored
in soft copies or otherwise.

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Data Base – Data bank containing information about map spatial reference, location,
size, map type, information obtainable from map, scale coverage etc.

Data structure – The technique for encoding data into geo-informatics model (software) for
the purpose of developing geo-informatics system. Can a land use map be related to a satellite
image, a timely indicator of land use? Yes, but because digital data are collected and stored
in different ways, the two data sources may not be entirely compatible. Therefore, a GIS must
be able to convert data from one structure to another. Satellite image data that have been
interpreted by a computer to produce a land use map can be "read into" the GIS in raster
format. Raster data files consist of rows of uniform cells coded according to data values. An
example is land cover classification (fig. 11). Raster files can be manipulated quickly by the
computer, but they are often less detailed and may be less visually appealing than vector data
files, which can approximate the appearance of more traditional hand-drafted maps. Vector
digital data have been captured as points, lines (a series of point coordinates), or areas (shapes
bounded by lines) (fig. 12). An example of data typically held in a vector file would be the
property boundaries for a particular housing subdivision.

Principle and Concept of Geo-Informatics

The concept of geo-informatics is that of producing a system of acquiring,

maintaining and updating on continuous basis comprehensive spatial information and the
dissemination of the same to multiple users through an effective ICT based means .

History of Development

About 15,500 years ago on the walls of caves near Lascaux, France, Cro-Magnon hunters
drew pictures of the animals they hunted. Associated with the animal drawings are track lines
and tallies thought to depict migration routes. While simplistic in comparison to modern
technologies, these early records mimic the two-element structure of modern geographic
information systems, an image associated with attribute information.

In 1854, John Snow depicted a cholera outbreak in London using points to represent the
locations of some individual cases, possibly the earliest use of the geographic method. His
study of the distribution of cholera led to the source of the disease, a contaminated water

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pump (the Broad Street Pump, whose handle he disconnected terminating the outbreak)
within the heart of the cholera outbreak.

E. W. Gilbert's version (1958) of John Snow's

1855 map of the Soho cholera outbreak showing the clusters of cholera cases in the London
epidemic of 1854

While the basic elements of topology and theme existed previously in cartography, the John
Snow map was unique, using cartographic methods not only to depict but also to analyze
clusters of geographically dependent phenomena for the first time.

The early 20th century saw the development of "photo lithography" where maps were
separated into layers. Computer hardware development spurred by nuclear weapon research
would lead to general purpose computer "mapping" applications by the early 1960s.

The year 1962 saw the development of the world's first true operational GIS in Ottawa,
Ontario, Canada by the federal Department of Forestry and Rural Development. Developed
by Dr. Roger Tomlinson, it was called the "Canada Geographic Information System" (CGIS)
and was used to store, analyze, and manipulate data collected for the Canada Land Inventory
(CLI)—an initiative to determine the land capability for rural Canada by mapping
information about soils, agriculture, recreation, wildlife, waterfowl, forestry, and land use at
a scale of 1:50,000. A rating classification factor was also added to permit analysis.

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CGIS was the world's first "system" and was an improvement over "mapping" applications
as it provided capabilities for overlay, measurement, and digitizing/scanning. It supported a
national coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded lines as "arcs" having a true
embedded topology, and it stored the attribute and locational information in separate files. As
a result of this, Tomlinson has become known as the "father of GIS," particularly for his use
of overlays in promoting the spatial analysis of convergent geographic data. CGIS lasted into
the 1990s and built the largest digital land resource database in Canada. It was developed as
a mainframe based system in support of federal and provincial resource planning and
management. Its strength was continent-wide analysis of complex datasets. The CGIS was
never available in a commercial form.

In 1964, Howard T Fisher formed the Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis
at the Harvard Graduate School of Design (LCGSA 1965-1991), where a number of
important theoretical concepts in spatial data handling were developed, and which by the
1970s had distributed seminal software code and systems, such as 'SYMAP', 'GRID', and
'ODYSSEY' -- which served as literal and inspirational sources for subsequent commercial
development -- to universities, research centers, and corporations worldwide.

By the early 1980s, M&S Computing (later Intergraph), Environmental Systems Research
Institute (ESRI) and CARIS (Computer Aided Resource Information System) emerged as
commercial vendors of GIS software, successfully incorporating many of the CGIS features,
combining the first generation approach to separation of spatial and attribute information with
a second generation approach to organizing attribute data into database structures. In parallel,
the development of two public domain systems began in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
MOSS, the Map Overlay and Statistical System project started in 1977 in Fort Collins,
Colorado under the auspices of the Western Energy and Land Use Team (WELUT) and the
US Fish and Wildlife Service. GIS was begun in 1982 by the U.S. Army Corp of Engineering
Research Laboratory (USA-CERL) in Champaign, Illinois, a branch of the U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers to meet the need of the United States military for software for land management
and environmental planning. The later 1980s and 1990s industry growth were spurred on by
the growing use of GIS on Unix workstations and the personal computer. By the end of the
20th century, the rapid growth in various systems had been consolidated and standardized on
relatively few platforms and users were beginning to export the concept of viewing GIS data
over the Internet, requiring data format and transfer standards. More recently, there are a

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growing number of free, open source GIS packages which run on a range of operating systems
and can be customized to perform specific tasks.

2.0 PRINCIPLE OF DIGITAL MAPPING

The principle digital mapping is to convert physical maps and plans that
are generally too cumbersome to handle (especially where large volumes of
them are involves) to a computer based digital data that is easy to handle, access
and retrieve in any desired form.

Types of Digital Data

Topographic Data: This data shows the physical undulation or relief of the ground
terrain. It may come in a table of spot elevations of a portion of the earth’s surface
or relief maps like contour map. It may also occur in forms of longitudinal or
sectional profiles of a stretch of land as is often required in Engineering.

Topographic Map

Land use/Land cover data – e.g. ownership and political boundaries data,
Transportation and hydrographic data.

Socio-economic data:- This may include census tract boundaries data/map,

maps showing population concentration or movements dittographic and
socioeconomic data etc.

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 Soils data: This includes a geotechnical map of a portion of the earth’s surface
showing the several variations in soils characterization, strength
properties like the angle of internal of resistance / cohension,
permeability, water table fluctuation etc. maps of different agricultural
soil data, rock outcrops and their engineering properties are included here.

Wet Lands data: Data in relation to flood prove areas, submerge lands etc.
Remotely sensed data:- Data that has been collected by a sensor that is not
in direct contact with the area being mapped.
Remote sensing is the science of obtaining information about an object or
areas from a distance, typically from aircraft or satellite.

Accuracies of Data Types

* Digital data relating to topography, land use/ land cover that is obtained with
highly refined survey equipment has the best accuracies.
* Soil data remotely sensed data and socioeconomic data which are based on the
statistics of physically obtained data are very much of acceptable accuracies.

3.0 GEO-INFORMATICS HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

Components of Geo-Informatics hardware
* Host computer (server): It performs the major operations like running the
geo-informatics software and holding data base open to enquiry from any
remote terminal.

Server

* Display Unit: This enables the visual inspection of all operations in form of a
monitor or cathode ray tube.

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 Visual Display Unit

* Input devices: it is used for inputting both geometric and attribute data e.g.
mouse, digitizer, scanner, keyboard etc.

Input devices (keyboard and mouse)

Output devices: This enables the final product to be rolled out e.g. printer, plotter,
corecorder, DVD RAM

Printer

* Storage devices: Enables data to be recorded and preserved for future use,
these are mainly internal and external driver.

* Human operator: Supervise, support or override automated control, accept

or reject outcome.
Requirement for components capacity
* Server – Must support multi-user/ multi tasking operations and must
concurrently support both server and host work station functions.

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 * Minimum of dual 600 MHZ PIII processor, 256MB RAM, each with 512K
cache, 5 No 4.2 GB ultia wide ScSi hard drives, 128 CD-ROM/ DVD ROM
drives fast Ethernet adapter, window NT Server.
* Motherboard with expansive slots etc.

Geographic information can be accessed, transferred, transformed, overlaid, processed and

displayed using numerous software applications. Within industry, commercial offerings from
companies such as Smallworld, Manifold System, ESRI, Intergraph, Mapinfo and Autodesk
dominate, offering an entire suite of tools. Government and military departments often use
custom software, open source products, such as GRASS, or more specialized products that
meet a well defined need. Although free tools exist to view GIS datasets, public access to
geographic information is dominated by online resources such as Google Earth and
interactive web mapping.

Background

Originally up to the late 1990s, when GIS data was mostly based on large computers and used
to maintain internal records, software was a stand-alone product. However with increased
access to the internet and networks and demand for distributed geographic data grew, GIS
software gradually changed its entire outlook to the delivery of data over a network. GIS
software is now usually marketed as combination of various interoperable applications and
APIs.

Data creation

GIS processing software is used for the task of preparing data for use within a GIS. This
transforms the raw or legacy geographic data into a format usable by GIS products. For
example an aerial photograph may need to be stretched (orthorectified) using
photogrammetry so that its pixels align with longitude and latitude gradations (or whatever
grid is needed). This can be distinguished from the transformations done within GIS analysis
software by the fact that these changes are permanent, more complex and time consuming.
Thus, a specialized high-end type of software is generally used by a person skilled in Remote
Sensing and / or GIS processing aspects of computer science. In addition, AutoCAD,
normally used for drafts of engineering projects, can be configured for the editing of vector
maps, and has some products that have migrated towards GIS use. It is especially useful as it

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has strong support for digitization. Raw geographic data can be edited in many standard
database and spreadsheet applications and in some cases a text editor may be used as long as
care is taken to properly format data.

Geodatabases
A geodatabase is a database with extensions for storing, indexing, querying, and manipulating
geographic information and spatial data. While some geodatabases have functions built in to
allow geoprocessing, the primary benefit of a geodatabase is in the "database type"
capabilities that it gives to spatial data. Some of these capabilities include easy access using
standard database drivers such as ODBC, the ability to easily link or join data tables, also
indexing and grouping of spatial datasets independent of software platform.

Management and analysis

GIS analysis software takes GIS data and overlays or otherwise combines it so that the data
can be visually analysed. It can output a detailed map, image or movie used to communicate
an idea or concept with respect to a region of interest. This is usually used by persons who
are trained in cartography, geography or a GIS professional as this type of application is
complex and takes some time to master. The software performs transformation on raster and
vector data sometimes of differing datums, grid system, or reference system, into one
coherent image. It can also analyse changes over time within a region. This software is central
to the professional analysis and presentation of GIS data. Examples include the ArcGIS
family of ESRI GIS applications (which replaced ESRI's older Arc/INFO), Smallworld, Civil
Designer, XMap, and GRASS.

Statistical

GIS statistical software uses standard database queries to retrieve and analyse data for
decision making. For example, if one has geographic data that includes detailed demographic
information, one can determine how many individuals of a certain age, income, and ethnicity
live in a given street block. The data is sometimes referenced with postal codes or street
locations rather than with geodetic data. This can be used by computer scientists and
statisticians with computer science skills, with an objective of characterizing an area to aid in
decisions regarding marketing, social services, emergency planning, etc. Standard DBMS can

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be used or specialized GIS statistical software. These are often housed on servers so that they
can be queried with web browsers. Examples are MySQL or ArcSDE.

Readers

GIS readers are computer applications that are designed to allow users to easily view digital
maps as well as view and query GIS-managed data. By definition, they usually allow very
little if any editing of the map or underlying map data. Readers can be normal standalone
applications that need to be installed locally, though they are often designed to connect to
data servers over the Internet to access the relevant information. Readers can also be included
as an embedded application within a web page, obviating the need for local installation.
Readers are designed to be relatively simple and easy to use as well as free.

Web API

This is the evolution of the scripts that were common with most early GIS systems. An
application programming interface (API) is a set of subroutines (organized as object oriented
programming) designed to perform a specific task. GIS APIs are designed to manage GIS
data for its delivery to a web browser client from a GIS server. They are accessed with
commonly used scripting language such as VBA or JavaScript. They are used to build a server
system for the delivery of GIS that is to made available over an intranet or publicly over the
Internet.

Mobile GIS

GIS has seen many implementations on mobile devices. With the widespread adoption of
GPS, GIS has been used to capture and integrate data in the field. In the past, gathering GIS
in the field was done through marking geographic information onto a paper map and then
translating that information into digital format back at the computer. Now, through the use of
mobile devices, geographic data can be directly captured out in the field.

GIS Customisation

GIS Customisation is the process of adding and/or modifying user interface and
functionalities on an existing system to suit the requirements of a customer. It helps to

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automate many complex processes without worrying about underlying algorithms and
processing steps in conventional GIS software.

Various Geo-informatics software.

* CAD – AUTOCAD
* GIS Vector Map Info
* GIS Raster
* DIP
* View (windows base)
* Land dev.
* Suffer 7.0
* Arch View

Types of Map
Topographic Map
Topographic maps: shows a 3 dimensional world in 2 dimensions by using contour lines.
Many people have trouble reading these maps, because they have mountains and valleys are
represented with concentric circles and lines. Many hikers use topographic maps, especially
in areas where there are no roads with signs. Geologists depend on topographic maps to
record the types of rocks. Engineers use topographic maps when they are planning roads,
buildings, or other human–made structures. Imagine designing a city without considering

where hills and valleys are located!

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 BIOGEOGRAPHIC MAPS

Scientists involved in the study of animals, plants, and other living organisms use maps to
illustrate where these groups live or migrate. It is important to many zoologists to know where
the organisms that they study live and where they move to. People who monitor endangered
species need to know if the ranges of migration have become larger or smaller through time.

GEOLOGIC MAPS

Geologic map: is a map of the different types of rocks that are on the surface of the Earth. By
mapping different rock types, geologists can determine the relationships between different
rock formations which can then be used to find mineral resources, oil, and gravel deposits.
Also, you want to know what type of rock you are building on or else you might have a
Leaning Tower of Pisa or a pile of rubble after a strong earthquake.

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Environmental maps

These types of maps include maps that look at human's activity in urban and metropolitan
areas and the environment in which we all live. Maps that illustrate physiographic features
such as forests, grassland, woodland, tundra, grazing land, ocean floors, and ocean sediments
could be included in this large grouping.

Meteorological maps
These type of maps show climate, weather and wind types of environmental. Meteorologists,
oceanographers, geographers, city planners, and many other professionals depend greatly on
these maps to record and forecast their specific field.

* Isarithmic Map – Represents quantum of equal values e.g. contour map.

* Thematic Map – Showing spatial variations of a single phenomenon
* Digital Map – maps that are stored in digital model
* Chloropleth – Showing magnitude of continuous variables within a
boundary e.g. census map.
* Dot Map – Showing spatial distribution of varying number of uniform quantity e.g.
in US population where each DOT represent 10,000 people.
* Line Map – Shows the direction and magnitude of potential or actual flows
e.g. stream flows or patterns of population movement.
* Land form Maps – Depicting the earth’s surface as viewed from an oblique
aerial point of view.

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 Types of images
* Aerial Image – is an image obtained from aerial photography.
* Satellite Images – is an image obtained from satellite signals
* Radar Images – is an image obtained from radar photography
* Scanned aerial photographs – these are images obtained by transferring
photographic images into a computer via a scanner or software

4.0 DATA TYPE

Types of observed data
* Theodolite – It is used to observe both horizontal and vertical angles. The horizontal
angle is usually measured between any two or more vertical planes while the
vertical angles are measured between the true horizontal plane and any other
plane in the horizontal direction; this plane may either be above (elevation) or
below (depression) the true horizontal plane.
A theodolite may also be used in conjunction with a vertical staff to obtain
differences in heights among many points. This combination can also be used
in a survey method called Tacheometry to obtain approximate distances
between the instrument station and staff stations.
The Theodolite is a precision scientific instrument. It is fairly robust, but care
should be taken to avoid harsh treatment. There are several moving parts and
it is quite heavy, so it is easy to inadvertently drop it when removing it from
its case.
It is designed to be used in all weathers, but if it gets wet it should be dried out
at the earliest opportunity (best by leaving in a warm room). The case lining
also holds water, so don’t forget to dry the case as well.
Please remember to unlock a clamp before you try to rotate it.

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The Controls

Upper rough sight

1 minutes and seconds adjuster

Small eyepiece (scales)

Main eyepiece (viewing)
G vertical clamp and fine adjuster
The mirror light source for the scale can be
seen on the left of the picture
Horizontal bubble [Fine adjustment]

E upper horizontal clamp and fine adjuster

D lower horizontal clamp and fine adjuster

Circular spirit level [Rough adjustment]

The theodolite’s controls are labelled A to I and are as follows
A levelling screw
A , B , C three levelling screws.
lower horizontal clamp (outer ring) and fine adjuster (inner). Used to align on the
reference north.
Upper horizontal clamp and fine adjuster. Used to align on the object to be
measured.
Vertical sighting to align the theodolite over a set point on the ground.
Vertical clamp and fine adjuster. Used when measuring vertical angles.
Mirror Supplies a source of light to the internal scales.
Minutes and seconds adjuster. Used to align the degree scale so angles to a
resolution of minutes and seconds of arc can be made

In addition, the telescope has upper and lower rough sights and a small eyepiece on the right
to view the scales.

Setting up the Theodolite.

The Theodolite is mounted on a tripod. First, extend the tripod legs, splay them fully and
push the ends firmly into the ground. Next look at the Theodolite mounting platform. This
should be reasonably level and not too high nor too low for the users. Adjust the leg lengths
until it is right then screw the theodolite onto the platform.
You may wish to set the theodolite up over a reference point on the ground. In this case, you
can use the sight (F) on the front of the instrument to view the point and adjust the theodolite’s

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position by slightly unscrewing the mounting screw and moving the theodolite sideways.
Alternatively, you can ask a helper to push a nail or peg into the ground under your guidance
to fix a new reference point.

Levelling the Theodolite.

There are 3 levelling screws (labelled A, B and C) at the base of the instrument. These should
be used with the round spirit level to obtain a coarse adjustment. When this is done, line the
long spirit level with 2 of the levelling screws and make the first fine adjustment. Then turn
the theodolite through 90 degrees so the long spirit level is pointing at the 3rd levelling screw
and adjust that until it is level. Recheck the fine adjustment if necessary. If there is not
enough adjustment in the levelling screws, then the theodolite table is not level enough and
you will have to adjust the leg heights until it is.
This method for levelling also applies to the EDM.

Zero the scales

Release clamps D and E. Align the red mark on the upper part of the theodolite with the white
mark on the black ring and lock the upper horizontal clamp (E). This roughly sets the
theodolite optics to zero on the horizontal scale.

Open the mirror (H) and adjust until you see a bright
patch of light falling on the window underneath it. Now
if you look through the small eyepiece, you will see some illuminated scales.
A view through the small eyepiece shows the vertical and horizontal degree scales and the
minutes and seconds scale.

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 95 93
v
| || |
.
.
♦ . 0’ 00”
H 0 . 0’ 20”

|| |

Adjust the fine adjuster (I) so the mark in the right hand scale is aligned with 0’00”. Using
the fine adjuster on the upper horizontal clamp (E) adjust the 0 so the single vertical line
which moves with it on the bottom scale is between the double vertical lines (as above) as
near central as possible. Now clamp (E). Movement now on the bottom plate will move the
whole instrument without changing the reading. From now on clamp (D), rotate by loosening
(E) and read the change.
This completes the horizontal zero adjustment. There is no adjustment for vertical angles.
That is done internally and is correct if the theodolite is properly levelled

Align on a reference North

All your theodolite measurements are made relative to a reference baseline, which by
definition is oriented at 0 degrees. This does not need to be true north, but could be a line to
a convenient feature such as a chimneystack or telegraph pole. With the upper horizontal
clamp (E) still on, rotate the theodolite until the arrow in the upper or lower rough sight is in
line with the selected feature. Gently lock the lower horizontal clamp (D) and, looking
through the main eyepiece (you may need to focus it) use the lower horizontal clamp fine
adjuster to line the vertical lines on the feature.
Once this is done, the theodolite is set to zero on the reference line and the lower horizontal
clamp (D) should not be touched again.

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To take a measurement
Unlock the upper horizontal clamp (E). Rotate the theodolite until the arrow in the upper or
lower rough sight points to the feature of interest and lock the clamp. Look through the main
eyepiece (you may need to refocus) and use the upper horizontal adjuster to align the vertical
lines on the feature. To take the reading, you should look through the small eyepiece. Using
the minutes and seconds adjuster (I) set the one of the degrees on the horizontal scale so the
single vertical line on the bottom scale is between the double vertical lines under the selected
degree. The reading is the degree you have aligned and the minutes and seconds read from
the right hand scale and is the horizontal angle (in degrees, minutes and seconds) from your
reference line.
To measure a vertical angle, unlock the vertical clamp (G) and tilt the eyepiece until the
feature is aligned on the horizontal lines. Gently lock the clamp and use the vertical adjuster
to make fine adjustments. Now looking through the small eyepiece, use the minutes and
seconds adjuster (I) to align one of the degrees on the vertical scale with the double lines just
below it. The reading is the degree you have aligned and the minutes and seconds read from
the right hand scale. This is the angle from the vertical; where vertical is 0 degrees. To
complete the reading, you may now need to measure the distance from the theodolite to that
feature.

To use the measurement.

Often, your two measurements, an angle from your reference line and the distance from the
object have to be converted into Eastings and Northings. These are distances East from the
reference line and along (North) the reference line. Once you know these, you can produce a
scale drawing. If you get negative values you have to change direction; for negative Easting
go West by that amount, for a negative Northing you have to go South. You need to know
2 equations:-
Easting = sin(angle) times distance
Northing = cos(angle) times distance

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 Total station Geophone facilities

* Levels – These are instruments constructed rigidly in a true horizontal plane

to measures differences in heights in all directions by observing to vertical
staff held at different points of interest. In this way, if the height of a bench
mark is known, the heights of other observed points may be deduced by
transference
* Hydrophones

Hydrophone: is a device that converts acoustic energy into electrical energy and is used in
passive underwater systems to listen only. Hydrophones are usually used below their
resonance frequency over a much wider frequency band where they provide uniform output
levels.

Underwater echo detection systems were developed for the purpose of underwater navigation
by submarines in World war I and in particular after the Titanic sank in 1912. Alexander
Belm in Vienna described an underwater echo-sounding device in the same year. The first
patent for an underwater echo ranging sonar was filed at the British Patent Office by English
metereologist Lewis Richardson, one month after the sinking of the Titanic. The first working

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sonar system was designed and built in the United States by Canadian Reginald Fessenden in
1914. The Fessenden sonar was an electromagnetic moving-coil oscillator that emitted a
lowfrequency noise and then switched to a receiver to listen for echoes. It was able to detect
an iceberg underwater from 2 miles away, although it could not precisely determine its
direction. The turn of the century also saw the invention of the Diode and the Triode, allowing
powerful electronic amplifications necessary for developments in ultrasonic instruments.
Powerful high frequency ultrasonic echo-sounding device was developed by emminent
French physicist Paul Langévin and Russian scientist Constantin Chilowsky. They called
their device the 'hydrophone'. The transducer that Langevin used in the earlier days was a
mosaic of thin quartz crystals glued between two steel plates (the composite having a resonant
frequency of about 150 KHz), mounted in a housing suitable for submersion. In the
underwater community the word transducer means a device that has the capability of both
transmitting and receiving sound. A projector is a device that transmits sound underwater.
Projectors are used in active systems. In active systems, after the sound has been generated,
the sound waves travel to a target and return as echoes to be detected. Projectors are usually
used near their resonance frequencies where they provide the highest acoustic output.

The first hydrophones, invented during World War I by British, American and French
scientists, were used to locate submarines and icebergs. These were passive listening devices.
The committee was named the ASDICS (for Anti-Submarine Detection Investigation
Committee

* Geophones

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 Figure 1: An isometric and cross-sectional view of a geophone

Geophones are highly sensitive ground motion transducers that have been used by
seismologists and geophysicists for decades. Figure 1 shows both an isometric and
crosssectional view of a geophone, which uses the motion of a spring supported coil in the
field of a permanent magnet to generate an output signal. A typical geophone, such as the
OYO Geospace GS-11D used in many of our group's measurements, costs $50, has a resonant
frequency of 4.5 Hz, a proof mass of 23 grams, and a peak sensitivity of 20 V/g. The
conventional geophone's ratio of cost to performance, including noise, linearity and dynamic
range, is unmatched by modern, micro machined accelerometers.

However, a geophone is typically only used for high frequency (4Hz-400Hz) seismology
experiments because its resolution degrades at low frequency. The poor low frequency (10
mHz-1Hz) performance arises because the output is proportional to the velocity of the proof
mass, in this case the cylinder and coil assembly. We have been investigating methods to
improve the performance of a geophone through feedback and position sensing in various
combinations.

The sensitivity of a geophone as a function of frequency can be altered by feeding back the
conventional output. This will not improve the resolution, but will amplify low frequency
signals. However, the resolution can be improved by measuring proof mass position.

Soil characterization

* Statistics – Statistically analyzed data based on a measured representative value.

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 Sources of data
* Cadastral – Records of political land boundaries
* History – verbal or documented records of past events
* Archaeological – signs of extinct human societies through their extant
remains.
* Natural sources like economic trees, rock arts etc.

Various methods of data acquisition

* Aerial
* Satellite
* Surveying
* Digitalization scanning
* Radar
* Statistical survey

5.0 PROCEDURES INVOLVED IN DATA ACQUISITION

Field procedures of data acquisition methods
* Aerial – This includes terrestrial photography where cameras are mounted on tripods
situated on the ground. Cameras may also be carried in an aircraft during photography
– aerial photography.
* Satellite – Track stations receive signals from satellite and convert the data into hard
and soft copies.
* Surveying – survey equipments like total station, theodolite, levels, GPS, are used to
obtain field data in form of coordinates, heights, distances, angles etc and they are
either applied directly as the case may be or used to produce required plans and maps.

Use of total station

The main purpose of using a total station for engineering l fieldwork is to impose a grid
(X-northing, Y-easting, Z-elevation) on the site to locate every point and feature in 3-D
space and to make topographic maps of the site. Every site has a site datum that spatial
measurements are referenced to. Topographic maps record the position of natural and

24
humanmade features on the earth’s surface. Some features that are mapped at an
archaeological site include elevation, streams, roads, excavation units, artifacts, features,
the datum, site boundaries, and any other important features. Many topographic maps use
contour lines to represent terrain. A contour line is a line that passes through points with
the same elevation. Other features are usually represented by symbols. Data collected by
the total station can be downloaded into a computer and mapped using mapping software.

Introduction to the Total Station

What is a Total Station?

A total station (a.k.a. EDM, transit, theodolite, the instrument) is the ultimate in survey
instruments. A total station combines a digital theodolite and an EDM that work together with
a microprocessor to rapidly and accurately perform tasks. With this combination, the total
station can measure horizontal and vertical angles, slope, and horizontal and vertical
distances. A total station also has a built-in calculator that performs trigonometric
calculations, as well as an electronic field notebook used for storing data. The total station
can interface with a computer for data transfer.

EDM (Electromagnetic Distance Measuring Device): An EDM is a device mounted on the

top of the total station that sends out a light wavelength. The EDM measures the time it takes
for the light to travel from the EDM to a prism, bounce off the prism, then return to the EDM.
This measurement is displayed as distance, but it is really a measurement of time. Very
accurate distance measurements are taken using an EDM.

Theodolite (Transit): A theodolite measures horizontal and vertical angles. Horizontal angles
are measured along a level horizontal axis. Vertical angles are measured along a level vertical
axis.

Components of a Total Station

Tripod: The base that the total station instrument is mounted on.

Plumb Bob: Used to center the tripod over a point (an optical plummet on the instrument can
also be used).

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Total Station Instrument: The electronic unit that combines the EDM, theodolite, and field
notebook.

Prism and Rod: A prism is mounted on a graduated rod. The EDM reflects light off the prism.
The rod has a circle level to keep the rod plumb.

(Total Station) General Field Procedures

Each day one student is assigned to set up and dismantle the total station (I will help). Total
station setup assignments rotate daily. At the beginning of each day this person sets up the
tripod, total station, and prism; levels the instrument; turns on the instrument; creates a Job;
conducts the instrument station setup; shoots in the laser level; and fills in the information on
the top of the EDM form for each Job. At the end of the day this person turns the total station
off and saves the settings and dismantles the instrument, tripod, and prism.

Each student is responsible for running the instrument (after they feel comfortable with
performing this task without help) when recording their own shots (taking the measurements
of their point while someone else holds the prism). Your crew leader (or me) will help you
take measurements and record data. The data that a student collects using the total station is
used to map units and profiles. The total station has one Job every day. A Job organizes all
recorded data into a database. Each day a new Job is created (labeled with the day’s date) that
is used when recording shots. When recording a shot, the student must record their point into
the day’s Job, enter in the point number, and enter their initials after the code (e.g., BF/KLT).
Each point information is recorded manually by the student into the EDM Log and into the
total station. At the end of each day I will download all the information from the total station
to the computer.

General Survey Methods

Setting an Instrument Over a Point and Leveling the Instrument

1. Roughly set the tripod over the point by holding two legs and set the third past the point.
Move the two legs that you are holding until the top of the tripod is approximately over the
point. Make sure that the top of the tripod is roughly level. Press the legs of the tripod
firmly into the ground. Screw the instrument onto the tripod. Make sure that the leveling

26
 screws are even. If they are not even, screw each one of the screws so that it is in the middle
of its leg.

2. The plumb bob can be used to position the instrument over the point. The optical plummet
is quicker and, in my opinion, easier to use than a plumb bob. Look through the optical
plummet and determine its location relative to the point (you sometimes have to place your
foot next to the point to determine its location). Adjust the location of the tripod (if
necessary) to find the point in the optical plummet by lifting two legs and pivoting the
instrument on the third leg while looking through the optical plummet. Center the optical
plummet exactly on the point.

3. Level the tripod base. Carefully adjust the tripod legs (one at a time) up or down to center
the circular level on the instrument. Check that the optical plummet is still on the point.

4. Level the instrument plate bubble using the plate level.

a. Align the level so that its axis is parallel to the line between two of the leveling screws.

b. Observe the location of the bubble. Move both leveling screws with your thumbs equal
amounts in opposite directions. Center the level exactly between the two large lines.

Left Thumb Rule: Both thumbs move in or both thumbs move out. The level follows the
direction of the left thumb.

c. Rotate the instrument 90 degrees so that the bubble is aligned over the third screw. Use
that screw only to center the bubble exactly.

d. Turn the instrument to its original position (as in a.). Level again if necessary. Continue
this process until the bubble stays centered as the instrument is rotated.

5. Check the optical plummet. If it is slightly off of the point, loosen the instrument’s
attachment screw on the tripod. Carefully slide the instrument exactly over the point while
looking through the optical plummet. Do not rotate the instrument. Tighten the clamp. Then
re-level the plate level.

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Assembling and Holding the Prism (Rod Person)

1. Attach the prism onto the top of the rod.

2. Place the tip of the rod’s base on the center of the point that will be measured.

3. Usually the height of the rod should stay at 1.5 m. This is the distance from the tip of the
rod that is on the point to the center of the prism. The lower the rod is, the more accurate
the measurement. If the person running the instrument cannot see the prism, then you
should raise the rod. Tell the person running the instrument the height of the rod or target
(HT). The person running the instrument will use the HOT key to change the height of the
target.

4. Position the prism so that it is facing the instrument. Hold the rod so that the circle bubble
is centered.

5. Keep the prism in position until the person running the instrument says "Okay" or "Good."

Sighting a Point

Unlock the vertical and upper clamps. Sight in the reflector so that the crosshairs on the
telescope are in the center of the prism. To do this, use the optical sight (Finder). Align the
optical sight arrow with the prism rod or prism. Lock the upper clamp. Look through the
telescope and find the prism. Lock the vertical clamp. Use the fine-tuning knobs on the ends
of the clamps to center the crosshairs on the center of the prism.

Using the Total Station

The following is a daily step-by-step procedure of how to use the total station during
excavation after the instrument is leveled.

1. Turn on the Total Station. Press the [power] button. The person assigned to
instrument setup will perform this step.

2. Create the Job. Press the [menu] key. Press [1] Job. Press the [menu] key. Press [1]
create. Input Job name (for example: 62802). Press the [enter] key.

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3. Set the Horizontal Angle to 0. Make sure that the EDM laser is on top of the
instrument. Sight in a point along the N-S baseline looking north. Sight the crosshairs on the
bottom of the rod. Lock the horizontal angle (use the upper clamp). Press the [ANG] key.
Press [1] key for HA 0-set. The horizontal angle is now 0.

4. Instrument Station Setup From a Known Point. A point is assigned at the site that the
total station will be set on every day during excavation. The coordinates of this point will be
known in relation to the site datum. The site datum’s coordinates are X:1000 m, Y:1000 m,
Z:1000 m. The instrument station must be set up before any data points (shots) can be
recorded.

Press the [STN] key to display the menu screen.

Press the [1] key for "known" coordinates. A screen is displayed for input of the station point
information (ST: ). The station point is the point that the instrument is over. Input "1" for the
station name and the coordinates of the point. If the point number/name has already been
recorded its coordinates are displayed. If the input point is new, the screen waits for the input
of coordinates of the point that the instrument station is set on in relation to the site datum.
We will know these coordinates. Input the height of the instrument (HI: ). Measure (in m) the
height of the instrument from the ground to the center of the eyepiece. Input the code (CD: )
"ST" for the station point. Press the [ENT] key. Press the [ENT] key. The screen changes to
the menu display for methods of setting the backsight point.

The screen menu still displays methods of setting the backsight point. Press the [1] key to
select "coordinates." Input the backsight point name (PT: ). The backsight point name for the
point that we use for the excavation's backsight point will always be the next point after the
station point (or 2). Input the height of the target (HT). The height of the target is usually 1.5
m, but this might change. Input the code (CD: ). The code is always "BS" for backsight. Enter
the coordinates of the backsight point. Press the [ENT] key. Set the prism on the backsight
point and sight in the prism. Press the [ENT] key.

The station is recorded and the HA (horizontal azimuth) is calculated between the two points
from the input coordinates. The BMS (Basic Measurement Screen) is displayed but no
coordinates are displayed. Now all of the points measured will be referenced to the site datum.

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5. Perform the Backsight Check. To make sure that the total station is on the grid
system, take a measurement of a known point (see #7 for measurements). If the measurement
is correct then record the shot as the next consecutive point number after the backsight and
the code BAC. If the measurement is wrong then the total station should be re-set up.

6. Shoot the Laser Level. On the first day the laser level will be tied to the site datum
(we will calculate the distance below the datum). The X, Y, Z will be recorded relative to the
datum. The student assigned to the total station setup will measure and record the laser level
before any other measurements (or shots) are taken and before the laser level is turned on.
The Z of the laser level is set to 1001.13. This is the height of the laser level relative to the
height of the site datum. The rod person places the center of the prism exactly on the location
that the laser is emitted. The height of the target is now 0, so the person running the instrument
will use the HOT key to change the height of the target. The laser level must be set to 1001.13,
so the rod person must move the laser level up or down then wait for the person running the
instrument to measure and read the Z coordinates. The rod person adjusts the laser level, and
the person running the instrument will measure the elevation (Z) until it is 1001.13. The
coordinates of the laser level are then recorded. The person assigned to the total station setup
performs this task. The code for the laser level is LL. The total station is now ready to take
measurements.

7. Taking Measurements (shooting a point, taking a shot, recording a shot/point)

Take the Measurement: Make sure that the X, Y, Z are displayed on the BMS menu. If they
are not displayed then press the [DSP] key until they are displayed. Have the rod person
position the prism on the point. Sight in the center of the prism on the crosshairs. If the height
of the target is not 1.5 m, press the [HOT] key. Select HT and input the height of the target
that the rod person reads to you from the prism rod. Press the [MSR] key.

Record the Measurement: Write the X, Y, Z coordinates on the EDM form. Press the [REC]
key to record the measurement into the specified Job’s database. Raw and coordinate (XYZ)
data are recorded. The point name input screen is displayed. Enter the point information for
the point name (PT: ), such as "8." Enter the height of the target (HT: ) (a.k.a. height of the
rod that the prism is on, usually 1.5 m). Enter the code (CD: ). Use the code list to identify
what the point item is. Enter the code for that item followed by a / (slash) followed by the
initials of the student who is taking the shot (to know whose point the shot is) (e.g., BF/KLT).

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Copy this information onto the EDM form. Write any comments about the shot on the EDM
form that might help you when mapping. Be sure to press ENTER.

8. Putting the Instrument to Sleep or Turning the Instrument Off

Sleep: After taking a measurement, and if no one is waiting to use the instrument, put the
instrument to sleep. Press the [PWR] key, then press the [4] key to put the station to sleep.
Make sure that the upper and vertical clamps are unlocked and the lens cap is on the eyepiece.

Off: To turn the instrument off, press the [PWR] key, then press the [ENT] key. This will
save all of the instrument settings.

Miscellaneous Useful Screens, Commands, and Keys

BMS Screen
The BMS (Basic Measurement Screen) is where all the measurement data is displayed. This
screen is usually the default screen when the total station is not performing any functions.
Press the [DSP] to change between the types of data displayed.

[ESC] Key
This is probably the most useful key. Press this key if you want to abort an operation, get out
of a screen, etc.

Arrow keys
The arrow keys can be used to scroll across and up and down the screen.

Deleting text
To delete letters or numbers on a screen put the cursor on the number or letter, then either
type over the text or press the [ESC] key. Or place the cursor to the right of the text and scroll
back (left arrow key).

Typing Text
Letters are shown above the key and numbers are shown to the left of the key. Press the
[mode] key to change the input mode between alphanumeric and numeric. In alphanumeric
mode a box with an "A" is displayed on the right side of the screen. Letters above the keys
can be input. In numeric mode a box with a "1" is displayed on the right side of the screen.
The numbers to the left of the key can be input. Use these keys to input code, point, and
coordinate data.

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 * Digitalization scanning – geometric data is scanned and digitalized using
relevant software like Land Dev. Into a computer for various uses.

* Radar – cameras are carried on radar facilities during photography

* Statistical survey – This involves the measurement of a representative value
that is used to analyzed the unmeasured population.

5.2 Specification and limitations of data acquisition method.

* Aerial – Some data may escape the camera lens except where technical
overlaps of consecutive shots are designed as in photogrammetry.
* Satellite – quite accurate but may not be good enough for precise
establishment of data location.
* Surveying – This is certainly the most accurate in the precise definition of
data position, however the cost of facility acquisition could be prohibited.
* Digitalization scanning – This is very much affordable and accurate given
the relevant software and skills.

* Radar – The long distance barrier often results in poor resolution of images
and hence it is applied in conjunction with other methods for better definition
of data location.
* Statistical survey – requires rigorous calculations.

6.0 DATA STRUCTURE

6.10 Description of data structures and formats

Data structure pertains to the way spatial data or information is represented for entry
into the computer. In other words, it refers to the techniques used in encoding
geometric information into the computer database in digital form.

The power of a GIS comes from the ability to relate different information in a spatial
context and to reach a conclusion about this relationship. Most of the information we
have about our world contains a location reference, placing that information at some

32
 point on the globe. When rainfall information is collected, it is important to know
where the rainfall is located. This is done by using a location reference system, such
as longitude and latitude, and perhaps elevation. Comparing the rainfall information
with other information, such as the location of marshes across the landscape, may
show that certain marshes receive little rainfall. This fact may indicate that these
marshes are likely to dry up, and this inference can help us make the most appropriate
decisions about how humans should interact with the marsh. A GIS, therefore, can
reveal important new information that leads to better decision making.

Many computer databases that can be directly entered into a GIS are being produced
by Federal, State, tribal, and local governments, private companies, academia, and
nonprofit organizations. Different kinds of data in map form can be entered into a GIS
(figs. 1a, 1b, 1c, 1d, 1e, 1f, and 2). A GIS can also convert existing digital information,
which may not yet be in map form, into forms it can recognize and use. For example,
digital satellite images can be analyzed to produce a map of digital information about
land use and land cover (figs. 3 and 4). Likewise, census or hydrologic tabular data
can be converted to a map like form and serve as layers of thematic information in a
GIS (figs. 5 and 6)

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) digital line

USGS DLG of contour lines (hypsography).
graph (DLG) data of roads.

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USGS scanned, rectified topographic map
USGS digital elevation (DEM).

USGS DLG of rivers.

USGS digital orthophoto quadrangle

(DOQ).
called a digital raster graphic DRG
How can a GIS use the information in a map? If the data to be used are not already in
digital form, that is, in a form the computer can recognize, various techniques can
capture the information. Maps can be digitized by hand-tracing with a computer
mouse on the screen or on a digitizing tablet to collect the coordinates of features.
Electronic scanners can also convert maps to digits (fig. 7). Coordinates from Global
Positioning System (GPS) receivers can also be uploaded into a GIS (fig. 8).

A GIS can be used to emphasize the spatial relationships among the objects being
mapped. While a computer-aided mapping system may represent a road simply as a
line, a GIS may also recognize that road as the boundary between wetland and urban
development between two census statistical areas.

34
 Data capture—putting the information into the system—involves identifying the
objects on the map, their absolute location on the Earth's surface, and their spatial
relationships. Software tools that automatically extract features from satellite images
or aerial photographs are gradually replacing what has traditionally been a
timeconsuming capture process. Objects are identified in a series of attribute tables—
the "information" part of a GIS. Spatial relationships, such as whether features
intersect or whether they are adjacent, are the key to all GIS-based analysis.

Data integration

A GIS makes it possible to link, or integrate, information that is difficult to associate

through any other means. Thus, a GIS can use combinations of mapped variables to
build and analyze new variables (fig. 9).

Data structures

Can a land use map be related to a satellite image, a timely indicator of land use? Yes,
but because digital data are collected and stored in different ways, the two data sources
may not be entirely compatible. Therefore, a GIS must be able to convert data from
one structure to another.

Satellite image data that have been interpreted by a computer to produce a land use
map can be "read into" the GIS in raster format. Raster data files consist of rows of
uniform cells coded according to data values. An example is land cover classification
(fig. 11). Raster files can be manipulated quickly by the computer, but they are often
less detailed and may be less visually appealing than vector data files, which can
approximate the appearance of more traditional hand-drafted maps. Vector digital
data have been captured as points, lines (a series of point coordinates), or areas
(shapes bounded by lines) (fig. 12). An example of data typically held in a vector file
would be the property boundaries for a particular housing subdivision.

Data representation

GIS data represents real world objects (roads, land use, elevation) with digital data. Real
world objects can be divided into two abstractions: discrete objects (a house) and continuous

35
fields (rain fall amount or elevation). There are two broad methods used to store data in a
GIS for both abstractions: Raster and Vector.

Raster

A raster data type is, in essence, any type of digital image represented in grids. Anyone who
is familiar with digital photography will recognize the pixel as the smallest individual unit of
an image. A combination of these pixels will create an image, distinct from the commonly
used scalable vector graphics which are the basis of the vector model. While a digital image
is concerned with the output as representation of reality, in a photograph or art transferred to
computer, the raster data type will reflect an abstraction of reality. Aerial photos are one
commonly used form of raster data, with only one purpose, to display a detailed image on a
map or for the purposes of digitization. Other raster data sets will contain information
regarding elevation, a DEM, or reflectance of a particular wavelength of light, LANDSAT.

Digital elevation model, map (image), and vector data

Raster data type consists of rows and columns of cells, with each cell storing a single value.
Raster data can be images (raster images) with each pixel (or cell) containing a color value.

Additional values recorded for each cell may be a discrete value, such as land use, a
continuous value, such as temperature, or a null value if no data is available. While a raster
cell stores a single value, it can be extended by using raster bands to represent RGB (red,
green, blue) colors, colormaps (a mapping between a thematic code and RGB value), or an

36
extended attribute table with one row for each unique cell value. The resolution of the raster
data set is its cell width in ground units.

Raster data is stored in various formats; from a standard file-based structure of TIF, JPEG,
etc. to binary large object (BLOB) data stored directly in a relational database management
system (RDBMS) similar to other vector-based feature classes. Database storage, when
properly indexed, typically allows for quicker retrieval of the raster data but can require
storage of millions of significantly-sized records.

Vector
A simple vector map, using each of the vector elements: points for wells, lines for rivers, and
a polygon for the lake.

In a GIS, geographical features are often expressed as vectors, by considering those features
as geometrical shapes. Different geographical features are expressed by different types of
geometry:

Points
Zero-dimensional points are used for geographical features that can best be expressed by a
single point reference; in other words, simple location. For example, the location of wells,
peak elevations, features of interest or trailheads. Points convey the least amount of
information of these file types. Points can also be used to represent areas when displayed at

37
a small scale. For example, cities on a map of the world would be represented by points rather
than polygons. No measurements are possible with point features.
Lines or polylines
One-dimensional lines or polylines are used for linear features such as rivers, roads, railroads,
trails, and topographic lines. Again, as with point features, linear features displayed at a small
scale will be represented as linear features rather than as a polygon. Line features can measure
distance.

Polygons
Two-dimensional polygons are used for geographical features that cover a particular area of
the earth's surface. Such features may include lakes, park boundaries, buildings, city
boundaries, or land uses. Polygons convey the most amount of information of the file types.
Polygon features can measure perimeter and area.

Each of these geometries is linked to a row in a database that describes their attributes. For
example, a database that describes lakes may contain a lake's depth, water quality, pollution
level. This information can be used to make a map to describe a particular attribute of the
dataset. For example, lakes could be coloured depending on level of pollution. Different
geometries can also be compared. For example, the GIS could be used to identify all wells
(point geometry) that are within 1-mile (1.6 km) of a lake (polygon geometry) that has a high
level of pollution.

Vector features can be made to respect spatial integrity through the application of topology
rules such as 'polygons must not overlap'. Vector data can also be used to represent
continuously varying phenomena. Contour lines and triangulated irregular networks (TIN)
are used to represent elevation or other continuously changing values. TINs record values at
point locations, which are connected by lines to form an irregular mesh of triangles. The face
of the triangles represent the terrain surface.

Advantages and disadvantages

There are advantages and disadvantages to using a raster or vector data model to represent
reality. Raster datasets record a value for all points in the area covered which may require
more storage space than representing data in a vector format that can store data only where
needed. Raster data also allows easy implementation of overlay operations, which are more

38
difficult with vector data. Vector data can be displayed as vector graphics used on traditional
maps, whereas raster data will appear as an image that, depending on the resolution of the
raster file, may have a blocky appearance for object boundaries. Vector data can be easier to
register, scale, and re-project. This can simplify combining vector layers from different
sources. Vector data is more compatible with relational database environments. They can be
part of a relational table as a normal column and processed using a multitude of operators.

The file size for vector data is usually much smaller for storage and sharing than raster data.
Image or raster data can be 10 to 100 times larger than vector data depending on the
resolution. Another advantage of vector data is that it is easy to update and maintain. For
example, a new highway is added. The raster image will have to be completely reproduced,
but the vector data, "roads," can be easily updated by adding the missing road segment. In
addition, vector data allows much more analysis capability, especially for "networks" such
as roads, power, rail, telecommunications, etc. For example, with vector data attributed with
the characteristics of roads, ports, and airfields, allows the analyst to query for the best route
or method of transportation. In the vector data, the analyst can query the data for the largest
port with an airfield within 60 miles and a connecting road that is at least two lane highway.
Raster data will not have all the characteristics of the features it displays.

Non-spatial data

Additional non-spatial data can also be stored along with the spatial data represented by the
coordinates of a vector geometry or the position of a raster cell. In vector data, the additional
data contains attributes of the feature. For example, a forest inventory polygon may also have
an identifier value and information about tree species. In raster data the cell value can store
attribute information, but it can also be used as an identifier that can relate to records in
another table.

There is also software being developed to support spatial and non-spatial decision-making.
In this software, the solutions to spatial problems are integrated with solutions to non-spatial
problems. The end result it is hoped with these Flexible Spatial Decision-Making Support
Systems (FSDSS) will be that non experts can use GIS and spatial criteria with their other
non spatial criteria to view solutions to multi-criteria problems that will support decision
making. Data capture

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Data capture—entering information into the system—consumes much of the time of GIS
practitioners. There are a variety of methods used to enter data into a GIS where it is stored
in a digital format.

Existing data printed on paper or PET film maps can be digitized or scanned to produce digital
data. A digitizer produces vector data as an operator traces points, lines, and polygon
boundaries from a map. Scanning a map results in raster data that could be further processed
to produce vector data.

Survey data can be directly entered into a GIS from digital data collection systems on survey
instruments using a technique called Coordinate Geometry (COGO). Positions from a Global
Positioning System (GPS), another survey tool, can also be directly entered into a GIS.

Remotely sensed data also plays an important role in data collection and consist of sensors
attached to a platform. Sensors include cameras, digital scanners and LIDAR, while
platforms usually consist of aircraft and satellites.

The majority of digital data currently comes from photo interpretation of aerial photographs.
Soft copy workstations are used to digitize features directly from stereo pairs of digital
photographs. These systems allow data to be captured in two and three dimensions, with
elevations measured directly from a stereo pair using principles of photogrammetry.
Currently, analog aerial photos are scanned before being entered into a soft copy system, but
as high quality digital cameras become cheaper this step will be skipped.

Satellite remote sensing provides another important source of spatial data. Here satellites use
different sensor packages to passively measure the reflectance from parts of the
electromagnetic spectrum or radio waves that were sent out from an active sensor such as
radar. Remote sensing collects raster data that can be further processed using different bands
to identify objects and classes of interest, such as land cover.

When data is captured, the user should consider if the data should be captured with either a
relative accuracy or absolute accuracy, since this could not only influence how information
will be interpreted but also the cost of data capture.

40
In addition to collecting and entering spatial data, attribute data is also entered into a GIS.
For vector data, this includes additional information about the objects represented in the
system.

After entering data into a GIS, the data usually requires editing, to remove errors, or further
processing. For vector data it must be made "topologically correct" before it can be used for
some advanced analysis. For example, in a road network, lines must connect with nodes at
an intersection. Errors such as undershoots and overshoots must also be removed. For
scanned maps, blemishes on the source map may need to be removed from the resulting
raster. For example, a fleck of dirt might connect two lines that should not be connected.
Raster-tovector translation

Data restructuring can be performed by a GIS to convert data into different formats. For
example, a GIS may be used to convert a satellite image map to a vector structure by
generating lines around all cells with the same classification, while determining the cell
spatial relationships, such as adjacency or inclusion.

More advanced data processing can occur with image processing, a technique developed in
the late 1960s by NASA and the private sector to provide contrast enhancement, false colour
rendering and a variety of other techniques including use of two dimensional Fourier
transforms.

Since digital data is collected and stored in various ways, the two data sources may not be
entirely compatible. So a GIS must be able to convert geographic data from one structure to
another.

Projections, coordinate systems and registration

A property ownership map and a soils map might show data at different scales. Map
information in a GIS must be manipulated so that it registers, or fits, with information
gathered from other maps. Before the digital data can be analyzed, they may have to undergo
other manipulations—projection and coordinate conversions, for example—that integrate
them into a GIS.

The earth can be represented by various models, each of which may provide a different set
of coordinates (e.g., latitude, longitude, elevation) for any given point on the earth's surface.

41
The simplest model is to assume the earth is a perfect sphere. As more measurements of the
earth have accumulated, the models of the earth have become more sophisticated and more
accurate. In fact, there are models that apply to different areas of the earth to provide
increased accuracy (e.g., North American Datum, 1927 - NAD27 - works well in North
America, but not in Europe). See datum (geodesy) for more information.

Projection is a fundamental component of map making. A projection is a mathematical means

of transferring information from a model of the Earth, which represents a threedimensional
curved surface, to a two-dimensional medium—paper or a computer screen. Different
projections are used for different types of maps because each projection particularly suits
certain uses. For example, a projection that accurately represents the shapes of the continents
will distort their relative sizes. See Map projection for more information.

Since much of the information in a GIS comes from existing maps, a GIS uses the processing
power of the computer to transform digital information, gathered from sources with different
projections and/or different coordinate systems, to a common projection and coordinate
system. For images, this process is called rectification.

Today, even laypeople are aware of GPS used for locating in terms of latitude, longitude and
height. Many people are aware of Google Earth and even GIS. In this scenario, however,
majority of us misunderstands latitude and longitude. Authalic coordinates are what generally
conceived as latitude and longitude, in which the Earth is assumed as spherical in shape. In
day-to-day life, the coordinates we see on maps such as those from GPS are geodetic latitude
and longitude. It is also imperative to know the datum of the map in use; and if the datum is
changed, any selected location can have different geodetic coordinates.

Spatial analysis with GIS

Given the vast range of spatial analysis techniques that have been developed over the past
half century, any summary or review can only cover the subject to a limited depth. This is a
rapidly changing field, and GIS packages are increasingly including analytical tools as
standard built-in facilities or as optional toolsets, add-ins or 'analysts'. In many instances such
facilities are provided by the original software suppliers (commercial vendors or
collaborative non commercial development teams), whilst in other cases facilities have been
developed and are provided by third parties. Furthermore, many products offer software

42
development kits (SDKs), programming languages and language support, scripting facilities
and/or special interfaces for developing one’s own analytical tools or variants. The website
Geospatial Analysis and associated book/ebook attempt to provide a reasonably
comprehensive guide to the subject.

Data modeling

It is difficult to relate wetlands maps to rainfall amounts recorded at different points such as
airports, television stations, and high schools. A GIS, however, can be used to depict two-
and three-dimensional characteristics of the Earth's surface, subsurface, and atmosphere from
information points. For example, a GIS can quickly generate a map with isopleth or contour
lines that indicate differing amounts of rainfall.

Such a map can be thought of as a rainfall contour map. Many sophisticated methods can
estimate the characteristics of surfaces from a limited number of point measurements. A
twodimensional contour map created from the surface modeling of rainfall point
measurements may be overlaid and analyzed with any other map in a GIS covering the same
area.

Additionally, from a series of three-dimensional points, or digital elevation model, isopleth

lines representing elevation contours can be generated, along with slope analysis, shaded
relief, and other elevation products. Watersheds can be easily defined for any given reach, by
computing all of the areas contiguous and uphill from any given point of interest. Similarly,
an expected of where surface water would want to travel in intermittent and permanent
streams can be computed from elevation data in the GIS.

Topological modeling

In recent years, has there been any gas station or factories operating next to a swamp? Any
within two miles (3 km) and uphill from a swamp? A GIS can recognize and analyze the
spatial relationships that exist within digitally stored spatial data. These topological
relationships allow complex spatial modelling and analysis to be performed. Topological
relationships between geometric entities traditionally include adjacency (what adjoins what),
containment (what encloses what), and proximity (how close something is to something else).

43
Networks

If all the factories near a wetland were accidentally to release chemicals into the river at the
same time, how long would it take for a damaging amount of pollutant to enter the wetland
reserve? A GIS can simulate the routing of materials along a linear network. Values such as
slope, speed limit, or pipe diameter can be incorporated into network modeling in order to
represent the flow of the phenomenon more accurately. Network modelling is commonly
employed in transportation planning, hydrology modeling, and infrastructure modeling.

Cartographic modeling

An example of use of layers in a GIS application

. In this example, the forest cover layer (light green) is at the bottom, with the
topographic layer over it. Next up is the stream layer, then the boundary layer, then the
road layer. The order is very important in order to properly display the final result. Note
that the pond layer was located just below the stream layer, so that a stream line can be
seen overlying one of the ponds.

The term "cartographic modeling" was (probably) coined by Dana Tomlin in his PhD
dissertation and later in his book which has the term in the title. Cartographic modeling
refers to a process where several thematic layers of the same area are produced,

44
processed, and analyzed. Tomlin used raster layers, but the overlay method (see below)
can be used more generally. Operations on map layers can be combined into algorithms,
and eventually into simulation or optimization models.

Map overlay

The combination of several spatial datasets (points, lines or polygons) creates a new output
vector dataset, visually similar to stacking several maps of the same region. These overlays
are similar to mathematical Venn diagram overlays. A union overlay combines the
geographic features and attribute tables of both inputs into a single new output. An intersect
overlay defines the area where both inputs overlap and retains a set of attribute fields for
each. A symmetric difference overlay defines an output area that includes the total area of
both inputs except for the overlapping area. Data extraction is a GIS process similar to vector
overlay, though it can be used in either vector or raster data analysis. Rather than combining
the properties and features of both datasets, data extraction involves using a "clip" or "mask"
to extract the features of one data set that fall within the spatial extent of another dataset.

In raster data analysis, the overlay of datasets is accomplished through a process known as
"local operation on multiple rasters" or "map algebra," through a function that combines the
values of each raster's matrix. This function may weigh some inputs more than others through
use of an "index model" that reflects the influence of various factors upon a geographic
phenomenon.

Automated cartography

Digital cartography and GIS both encode spatial relationships in structured formal
representations. GIS is used in digital cartography modeling as a (semi)automated process of
making maps, so called Automated Cartography. In practice, it can be a subset of a GIS,
within which it is equivalent to the stage of visualization, since in most cases not all of the
GIS functionality is used. Cartographic products can be either in a digital or in a hardcopy
format. Powerful analysis techniques with different data representation can produce
highquality maps within a short time period. The main problem in Automated Cartography
is to use a single set of data to produce multiple products at a variety of scales, a technique
known as Generalization.

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Geostatistics

Geostatistics is a point-pattern analysis that produces field predictions from data points. It is
a way of looking at the statistical properties of those special data. It is different from general
applications of statistics because it employs the use of graph theory and matrix algebra to
reduce the number of parameters in the data. Only the second-order properties of the GIS
data are analyzed.

When phenomena are measured, the observation methods dictate the accuracy of any
subsequent analysis. Due to the nature of the data (e.g. traffic patterns in an urban
environment; weather patterns over the Pacific Ocean), a constant or dynamic degree of
precision is always lost in the measurement. This loss of precision is determined from the
scale and distribution of the data collection.

To determine the statistical relevance of the analysis, an average is determined so that points
(gradients) outside of any immediate measurement can be included to determine their
predicted behavior. This is due to the limitations of the applied statistic and data collection
methods, and interpolation is required in order to predict the behavior of particles, points, and
locations that are not directly measurable.

Hillshade model derived from a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the Valestra area in the northern Apennines
(Italy)

Interpolation is the process by which a surface is created, usually a raster dataset, through
the input of data collected at a number of sample points. There are several forms of
interpolation, each which treats the data differently, depending on the properties of the data
set. In comparing interpolation methods, the first consideration should be whether or not the

46
source data will change (exact or approximate). Next is whether the method is subjective, a
human interpretation, or objective. Then there is the nature of transitions between points:
are they abrupt or gradual. Finally, there is whether a method is global (it uses the entire
data set to form the model), or local where an algorithm is repeated for a small section of
terrain.

Interpolation is a justified measurement because of a Spatial Autocorrelation Principle that

recognizes that data collected at any position will have a great similarity to, or influence of
those locations within its immediate vicinity.

Digital elevation models (DEM), triangulated irregular networks (TIN), Edge finding
algorithms, Theissen Polygons, Fourier analysis, weighted moving averages, Inverse
Distance Weighted, Moving averages, Kriging, Spline, and Trend surface analysis are all
mathematical methods to produce interpolative data.

Address Geocoding

Geocoding is interpolating spatial locations (X,Y coordinates) from street addresses or any
other spatially referenced data such as ZIP Codes, parcel lots and address locations. A
reference theme is required to geocode individual addresses, such as a road centerline file
with address ranges. The individual address locations are interpolated, or estimated, by
examining address ranges along a road segment. These are usually provided in the form of a
table or database. The GIS will then place a dot approximately where that address belongs
along the segment of centerline. For example, an address point of 500 will be at the midpoint
of a line segment that starts with address 1 and ends with address 1000. Geocoding can also
be applied against actual parcel data, typically from municipal tax maps. In this case, the
result of the geocoding will be an actually positioned space as opposed to an interpolated
point.

It should be noted that there are several (potentially dangerous) caveats that are often
overlooked when using interpolation. See the full entry for Geocoding for more information.

Various algorithms are used to help with address matching when the spellings of addresses
differ. Address information that a particular entity or organization has data on, such as the
post office, may not entirely match the reference theme. There could be variations in street
name spelling, community name, etc. Consequently, the user generally has the ability to make

47
matching criteria more stringent, or to relax those parameters so that more addresses will be
mapped. Care must be taken to review the results so as not to map addresses incorrectly due
to overzealous matching parameters.

Reverse Geocoding

Reverse geocoding is the process of returning an estimated street address number as it relates
to a given coordinate. For example, a user can click on a road centerline theme (thus
providing a coordinate) and have information returned that reflects the estimated house
number. This house number is interpolated from a range assigned to that road segment. If the
user clicks at the midpoint of a segment that starts with address 1 and ends with 100, the
returned value will be somewhere near 50. Note that reverse geocoding does not return actual
addresses, only estimates of what should be there based on the predetermined range.

Data output and cartography

Cartography is the design and production of maps, or visual representations of spatial data.
The vast majority of modern cartography is done with the help of computers, usually using
a GIS but production quality cartography is also achieved by importing layers into a design
program to refine it. Most GIS software gives the user

First, it produces graphics on the screen or on paper that convey the results of analysis to
the people who make decisions about resources. Wall maps and other graphics can be
substantial control over the appearance of the data.

Cartographic work serves two major functions:generated, allowing the viewer to visualize
and thereby understand the results of analyses or simulations of potential events. Web Map
Servers facilitate distribution of generated maps through web browsers using various
implementations of web-based application programming interfaces (AJAX, Java, Flash, etc).

Second, other database information can be generated for further analysis or use. An example
would be a list of all addresses within one mile (1.6 km) of a toxic spill.

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Graphic display techniques

Traditional maps are abstractions of the real world, a sampling of important elements
portrayed on a sheet of paper with symbols to represent physical objects. People who use
maps must interpret these symbols. Topographic maps show the shape of land surface with
contour lines or with shaded relief.

Today, graphic display techniques such as shading based on altitude in a GIS can make
relationships among map elements visible, heightening one's ability to extract and analyze
information. For example, two types of data were combined in a GIS to produce a perspective
view of a portion of San Mateo County, California.

• The digital elevation model, consisting of surface elevations recorded on a 30-meter

horizontal grid, shows high elevations as white and low elevation as black.

• The accompanying Landsat Thematic Mapper image shows a false-color infrared

image looking down at the same area in 30-meter pixels, or picture elements, for the
same coordinate points, pixel by pixel, as the elevation information.

A GIS was used to register and combine the two images to render the three-dimensional
perspective view looking down the San Andreas Fault, using the Thematic Mapper image
pixels, but shaded using the elevation of the landforms. The GIS display depends on the
viewing point of the observer and time of day of the display, to properly render the shadows
created by the sun's rays at that latitude, longitude, and time of day.

An archeochrome is a new way of displaying spatial data. It is a thematic on a 3D map that

is applied to a specific building or a part of a building. It is suited to the visual display of heat
loss data.

Spatial ETL

Spatial ETL tools provide the data processing functionality of traditional Extract, Transform,
Load (ETL) software, but with a primary focus on the ability to manage spatial data. They
provide GIS users with the ability to translate data between different standards and
proprietary formats, whilst geometrically transforming the data en-route.

49
Data creation

GIS processing software is used for the task of preparing data for use within a GIS. This
transforms the raw or legacy geographic data into a format usable by GIS products. For
example an aerial photograph may need to be stretched (orthorectified) using
photogrammetry so that its pixels align with longitude and latitude gradations (or
whatever grid is needed). This can be distinguished from the transformations done within
GIS analysis software by the fact that these changes are permanent, more complex and
time consuming. Thus, a specialized high-end type of software is generally used by a
person skilled in Remote Sensing and / or GIS processing aspects of computer science.
In addition, AutoCAD, normally used for drafts of engineering projects, can be
configured for the editing of vector maps, and has some products that have migrated
towards GIS use. It is especially useful as it has strong support for digitization. Raw
geographic data can be edited in many standard database and spreadsheet applications
and in some cases a text editor Geodatabases.

A geodatabase is a database with extensions for storing, indexing, querying, and manipulating
geographic information and spatial data. While some geodatabases have functions built in to
allow geoprocessing, the primary benefit of a geodatabase is in the "database type"
capabilities that it gives to spatial data. Some of these capabilities include easy access using
standard database drivers such as ODBC, the ability to easily link or join data tables, also
indexing and grouping of spatial datasets independent of software platform.

Management and analysis

GIS analysis software takes GIS data and overlays or otherwise combines it so that the data
can be visually analysed. It can output a detailed map, image or movie used to communicate
an idea or concept with respect to a region of interest. This is usually used by persons who
are trained in cartography, geography or a GIS professional as this type of application is
complex and takes some time to master. The software performs transformation on raster and
vector data sometimes of differing datums, grid system, or reference system, into one
coherent image. It can also analyse changes over time within a region. This software is central
to the professional analysis and presentation of GIS data. Examples include the ArcGIS

50
family of ESRI GIS applications (which replaced ESRI's older Arc/INFO), Smallworld, Civil
Designer, XMap, and GRASS.

Statistical

GIS statistical software uses standard database queries to retrieve and analyse data for
decision making. For example, if one has geographic data that includes detailed demographic
information, one can determine how many individuals of a certain age, income, and ethnicity
live in a given street block. The data is sometimes referenced with postal codes or street
locations rather than with geodetic data. This can be used by computer scientists and
statisticians with computer science skills, with an objective of characterizing an area to aid
in decisions regarding marketing, social services, emergency planning, etc. Standard DBMS
can be used or specialized GIS statistical software. These are often housed on servers so that
they can be queried with web browsers. Examples are MySQL or ArcSDE.

Readers

GIS readers are computer applications that are designed to allow users to easily view digital
maps as well as view and query GIS-managed data. By definition, they usually allow very
little if any editing of the map or underlying map data. Readers can be normal standalone
applications that need to be installed locally, though they are often designed to connect to
data servers over the Internet to access the relevant information. Readers can also be included
as an embedded application within a web page, obviating the need for local installation.
Readers are designed to be relatively simple and easy to use as well as free.

Data base management procedures

The entire process may be summarized in the following procedural steps:

• storage of data
• backup/restore
• data security
• access rights to data
• records management and updating/verifying corrections

51
Bearing and Distance
What is a Bearing?

A bearing is a direction of one point relative to another point, usually given as an angle
measured clockwise from north. In navigation, bearings are often used to determine the
direction to a destination or to plot a course on a map. There are two main types of bearings:
absolute bearing and relative bearing.

example:-
Compass bearing
This term is used to describe the direction of one point relative to another point,
measured in degrees clockwise from north, as indicated by a compass.

Absolute bearing

Absolute bearing refers to the angle between the magnetic north (magnetic bearing) or true
north (true bearing) and an object. For example, an object due east would have an absolute
bearing of 90 degrees.

Relative bearing
Relative bearing refers to the angle between the forward direction of a craft (heading) and
the location of another object. For example, an object with a relative bearing of 0 degrees
would be immediately in front of the craft, while an object with a relative bearing of 180
degrees would be behind it.

For example, if you are standing at point A and you want to go to point B, the bearing from
A to B is the direction that you would need to follow to get to B from A. Bearings are often
used in navigation to determine the direction to a destination or to plot a course on a map.

Bearings can be measured in degrees, with 0 degrees being north, 90 degrees being east,
180 degrees being south, and 270 degrees being west. Bearings can also be expressed as a
three-figure number, with the first digit representing the direction of the tens of degrees,
the second digit representing the direction of the units of degrees, and the third digit
representing the direction of the minutes. For example, a bearing of 045 degrees would be
expressed as 045, and a bearing of 122 degrees would be expressed as 122.

Here are a few other terms that are sometimes used instead of Bearing

 Heading: This term is often used to describe the direction that a vehicle, such as a
boat or an airplane, is currently traveling in.
 Course: This term is similar to heading, but it can also refer to the intended
direction of travel, rather than the current direction.
 Orientation: This term refers to the position or alignment of something in relation
to its surroundings.

52
  Direction: This term refers to the way that something is facing or the path that it is
moving in.
 Angle: This term refers to describing the direction to a destination.

DISTANCE
the distance between any two coordinates is the length of the line section joining the
points. there is just one line going through two coordinates. thus, the distance between two
coordinates can be determined by observing the length of this line portion associating the
two points.

EXAMPLE 1

P. No. North East

X 98068.00 32169.00
Y 97315.00 31396.00

X & Y are two point, locate point Y from the location X .

NOTE: - follow the quadrant where northing & easting falls in order to know where
exactly the location falls.

- +
360 -

- 4th 1st +
- 3rd 2nd +
180 + 180 -
- -

 If the difference falls within first quadrant that is +ve –ve the result remains same.
 If the difference falls within second quadrant that is +ve –ve the answer is 180o- the
result.
 If the difference falls within 3rd quadrant that is –ve –ve the answer is the result
+180o
 If the difference falls within 4th quadrant that is –ve +ve the answer is 360o- the
result.

Difference between the two northings and two Eastings.

(Easting) 31396.00 – 32169.00 = -773.00

53
(Northing) 97315.00 – 98068.00 = -753.00

Dist. X to Y is given as , DistXY = √∆𝐸 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 + ∆𝑁 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒

= √773.00𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 + 753.00𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒

= √597529 + 567009

= √1164538

= 1079.138m

∆𝐸
Bearing X to Y is given as , tanꝊ =
∆𝑁

∆𝐸
Ꝋ = tan-1 ∆𝑁

773
= tan-1 753

= tan-1 1.026560425

= 45o 45I 3.18II

Since the difference falls within 3rd quadrant the answer = 180o + 45o45’3.18”

= 225O 45’ 3.18”

- +

- X +
- +
Y
- -

EXAMPLE 2

Locate point X from location X

Difference between the northings and eastings.

(Easting) 32169.00 - 31396.00 = 773.00

54
(Northing) 98068.00 - 97315.00 = 753.00

Dist. X to Y is given as , DistXY = √∆𝐸 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 + ∆𝑁 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒

= √773.00𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 + 753.00𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒

= √597529 + 567009

= √1164538

= 1079.138m

∆𝐸
Bearing X to Y is given as , tanꝊ =
∆𝑁

∆𝐸
Ꝋ = tan-1 ∆𝑁

773
= tan-1 753

= tan-1 1.026560425

= 45o 45I 3.18II

- + Y

- +
- X +

- -

EXAMPLE 3 (ASSIGNMENT)

P1 (235000mE, 3811000mN)

P2 (235650mE, 3811200mN)

P3 (235950mE, 3811400mN)

1, locate p1 from p3

55
2, locate p1 from p2

3, locate p2 from p1

4, locate p2 from p3

5, locate p3 from p1

6, locate p3 from p2

How to calculate a Bearing between two coordinates in

GIS
In GIS, there are several tools that you can use to calculate the bearing between two points.

One option is to use the bearing function in an expression. This function takes two point
geometries as arguments and returns the bearing in degrees clockwise from north. You can
use the bearing function to create a new field in the attribute table that contains the
bearings, or to display the bearings on the map canvas using labels or data-defined
symbology.

Another option is to use the “Measure Azimuth” tool in the “Measure” toolbar. To use this
tool:

1. Open the “Measure” toolbar by going to View > Toolbars > Measure.
2. Select the “Measure Azimuth” tool.
3. Click on the starting point of the measurement.
4. Click on the ending point of the measurement.

The bearing will be displayed in the Measurements panel, as well as on the map canvas as
a line connecting the two points.

7.0 AREAS OF GEO-INFORMATICS APPLICATION

Geoinformatics has been applied virtually in all disciplines. The current spate of information
and communication technology has made the application easier and more appreciable.
Prominent among these areas are:

56
7.1 Map revision and environmental monitoring and assessment: The entire globe
constantly undergoes geological transformation that results in changes of land
formation and topography. A continuous revision of existing maps and even plants of
portions of earth surface is therefore necessary to capture the new phase of land
surface.
Geoinformatics plays vital role in updating or geographical representations.

7.2 Natural resources management, defense/security and utilities planning: Prudent

management of our natural resources and maintenance of our territorial integrity and
the provision of the basic and necessary infrastructures may not be comprehensively
done without adequate knowledge of the past and the existing phenomena as relate to
the provision of the above. This information can only be acquired, analyzed,
processed and disseminated through the instrument of geoinformatics.

7.3 Engineering, population, forestry and agriculture: Data bank relating to varying
engineering parameters like soil strength characteristics, water table fluctuation, out
crop and engineering properties of rock formations, agricultural soil characterization
are comprehensively compiled, analyzed and constantly reviewed for engineering
purposes. These provide initial data for preliminary engineering works and project
estimation that will help in making a detail plan and schedule of main work execution.
Data relating to population census/movement and forestry management are mostly and
reliably obtained from well organized geoinformatics system.

7.4 Transportation / Aviation, Petroleum resources, health and education: Data relating
to transportation network/distribution, aviation services, petroleum resource
management form part of data bank of a good geoinformatics system. These records
if readily available helps in taking a number of administrative, technical and political
initiatives as relate to the welfare of the public and the supply of these services.
Records of health hazards whether current or past and the possible preventive/curative
measures may be kept in geoinformatics systems. These may be obtained and applied
as necessary to avoid epidemics and cure existing cases.

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 Changes in education curriculum as a result of advancement in technology, new
research and discoveries are possible ways of keeping abreast with the global
advancement in education and related disciplines.

7.5 Sports development, finance and archaeology: New developments in sport and related
activities, finance disbursement, control and management and archaeological
revelations may be usefully kept processed and made available to multiple users in a
geoinformatics system.

8.0 APPCICATION OF GEOINFERMATICS AND NATIONAL

DEVELOPMENT

The clear way of understanding the application of geomforatics in national

development is to relate each area application area to the development of a nation.
8.1 Engineering: there are numerous research and studies in the field of engineering to
evolve better ways of doing thing. Reliability studies for instance has brought an
impressive development in the design and construction of mechanical and civil
facilities. Time reliability provides a leeway for predicting the failure mode and
failure time of facilities at the design stage. Corresponding scheme of maintenance
may be designed to realize the design life span or offset for an intended economy in
the design.
With this new wave of highly advanced design concept facility designs may be done
to satisfy the objectives of the client. These objectives may range from safety to
economy or from aesthetics to sopliststication
8.2 Health: a lot has been achieved in the health sector through the timely provision of health
information in geoinfromatics system . Geoinformatics for instance has been used to
communicate relevant information regarding out break of epidemics. The symptoms
and possible ways of avoiding the diseases can be obtained from geoinmforatics
system. It may be necessary also to educate the public on the affected area and the
speed of the epidemics.
The extents of research and development of cures may be made public especially to
the interested researchers. By this the spread of many contagious diseases has been
minimized and some brought to perfect control.

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8.3 Resource Management And Utilities Distribution And Supply: records of feed back
and responses from the beneficiaries of socio-economic services and active reaction
of the service providers in mutual and close interaction of the two would go along
way to help the decision makers in the management of resources and provision of
services to the public.
Continuous maintenance of this records in a well-articulated geo-informatics system
assist the providers to think of reducing or increasing the quantity of service,
redistribute or spread the service more fairly or other wise

9.0 ROLE OF GEO- INFORMATION EXPERT:

The roles of geoinformatics experts are numerous. The common responsibilities

include the following:

* Educate the public on the need and use of geo informatics system in the available
disciplines
* Source and create a large database that would serve the need of the people in the
society
* Develop and create workable software sophisticated enough to cater for the various
types of date required by a modern geoinformatics system
* Develop, validate and update on continuous basis a workable geoinformatics system
that would service the need of the society
* Incorporate the service of several professionals to widen the scope of the system. *
Train and educate to the status of geo-informatics experts, to avoid monopoly of
service

9.1 Obstacle To Geo-Informatics Application

• Lack of awareness.

• lack of education

• scarcity of geoinformation experts

• lack of funds

• lack of political will

10.0 TUTORIAL
Questions for discussion.
1 relate due various area of geoinformatics application to national development
in your own society

2 what are the hindrances to the achievement of geoinformatics in the above

areas

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3 discuss the advantages of vector format over raster format

4 List the various types of maps, images and observed data and state their
specific uses.

5 State the procedures for the conversion of data from raster format to vector
Format.

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